Running head: CLASS START TIME ON PEFORMANCE 1

Impact of Class Start Times on Academic Performance

Christina Craig

University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

Author Note

Christina N. Craig, Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga.

Correspondence concerning this sample paper should be addressed to Christina N. Craig,

Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Chattanooga, Tennessee

37043. Email: hwh698@mocs.utc.edu

CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 2

Abstract

A push for later start times in American middle schools and high schools has been prompted by

relatively recent releases of data supporting that later class start times lead to academic

improvement. However, a similar correlation between class start times and academic

performance in college students is studied much less often (Pilcher, Ginter, and Sadowsky 1997).

A study will be performed on at least 85 undergraduate students at a mid-sized, public, 4-year

university in the south-east to examine the effect of class start times on sleep and thus, academic

performance as measured by self-reported final exam scores and sleep statistics. The information

will be gathered through a convenience-sample survey. It was hypothesized that later class start

times would correlate with less quality sleep and therefore, lower academic performance. Like

middle and high school-aged students, later class start times correlated with higher academic

performance to a certain extent. However, this correlation only extended to the morning classes;

later classes correlated with somewhat lower academic performance. The results suggest that

although class time does have an effect on academic performance, it is not a predictor.
CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 3

Impact of Class Start Times on Academic Performance

A study examining trends in self-reported sleep duration among U.S. adults from 1985 to

2012 found that since 1985, the percentage of adults sleeping less than six hours increased by

31% (Ford, Cunningham, & Croft, 2015). Sleep is vital to life (Rechtschaffen & Bergmann,

2002), (Shaw, Tononi, Greenspan, & Robinson, 2002), but it also plays large roles in brain

functions like memory (Tononi & Cirelli, 2014), exercise (Burazeri, Gofin, & Kark, 2003),

safety (Dinges, 1995), mood (Minkel, et al., 2012), nociception (Edwards, Almeida, Klick,

Haythornthwaite, & Smith, 2008), and clearance of brain metabolites (Mendelsohn & Larrick,

2013). It is critically involved in physiology like metabolism (Magee & Hale, 2012), immunity

(Spiegel, 2002), and cardiovascular systems (Kim, et al., 2013). Sleep can directly affect

mortality (Grandnerrw3, Hale, Moore, & Patel, 2010) and illness risks such as obesity (Sun, et

al., 2015), diabetes (Shan, et al., 2015), cancer (Kakizaki, et al., 2008), and depression (Nakata,

2011).

Mirroring the overall population sleeping trends, sleeping trends in college students are

similar; from 1969 to 2001, the average hours of sleep per night in college students decreased

from 7.75 hours to 6.65 hours (Hicks, Fernandez, & Pellegrini, 2001a). Meanwhile, between

1978 and 2001, dissatisfaction with sleep in college student rose from 24% to 71% (Hicks,

Fernandez, & Pellegrini, 2001b); In 1992, two-thirds of college students reported sleep problems.

Additional factors like parties, stress, and work coupled with communal living (dormitories,

student-focused housing) present sleep-related challenges in college students (Buboltz, Soper,

Brown, and Jenkins, 2002; Jensen, 2003). In 2001, a study on sleep habits found that 73% of

college students studied reported a sleep disturbance (Buboltz, Brown and Soper, 2001). Sleep

issues in college students may also be associated with student risk-behaviors related to voluntary
CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 4

lifestyle choices including drinking patterns (Wechsler, Kelley, Weitzman, San Giovanni, &

Seibring, 2000), sexual activity (Clemens, Engler, & Chinn, 2004), and other lifestyle choices

such as physical activity and working (Trockel, Barnes, & Egget, 2000).

The United States over the past several years has had a push for later school start times as

a result of circulating research hypothesizing that later school start times increases the amount of

sleep in adolescents, particularly in high school aged individuals (Danner & Barbara, 2008).

However, the effect of class start times on academic performance in late-adolescents and early

adults is not studied or discussed as frequently. A longitudinal study of later high school start

times demonstrated no statistically significant difference between the letter grades of students

with start times of 7:15 a.m. and 8:40 a.m. However, additional data from the School Sleep

Habits Survey was compared and showed that later start times resulted in less daytime

sleepiness, less struggle to stay awake in class, less sleepiness while doing homework, and less

depressive feelings (Wahlstrom, 2002).

Likewise, in college students, the trends are very similar, but much less studied and

discussed. 1,125 students at an urban Midwestern University completed a cross-sectional online

survey finding that the insufficient sleep and irregular sleep-wake patterns that are shown in

younger adolescents are also present at high levels in college students (Lund, Reider, Whiting, and

Prichard, 2009). Another study found that although college students showed similar results as

middle and high school students, academic performance was only slightly related to class start

times; a strong negative correlation was found between class start times and GPA (Onyper,

Thacher, Gilbert, and Grades, 2012). A study by Gomes, Tavares, & Azevedo (2011) found that

the most important predictor of undergraduate academic performance z scores was previous

academic achievement, followed by class attendance, frequency of enough sleep, night outings
CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 5

and sleep quality. Another study focusing on the health-related variables as well as academic

performance in first-year college students found that lower GPAs similarly correlated with later

weekday and weekend wakeup times, later bedtimes, greatest number of hours of sleep on weekend

nights, and number of hours worked per week (Trockel, Barnes & Egget, 2000).

The correlation between class start time and academic performance is measured among

other variables in past studies to eliminate possible confounding variables. However, little research

exists in the form of a survey to represent only the correlation between sleep, as a result of class

start time, and academic performance. The purpose of the proposed research to be conducted is to

determine whether there is a correlation between class start time and academic performance in

general education courses (as indicated by final exam score). It is hypothesized that students in

every subject of general education course will perform better on their final exams as the class start

times increase.

Method

Participants

Based on power analysis recommendations from Cohen (1992), a convenience sample of

at least 85 undergraduate students from a 4 year, mid-sized, south-east public university enrolled

in general education classes (Principles of Biology I, Rhetoric and Composition I, Elementary

Spanish I, and College Algebra) will be recruited to participate in this study. The majority-white

university consists of approximately 56% women/ 44% men (M = 22).

Materials

The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (Appendix 1) consisting of a grid system to measure

sleep (hours, quality, regularity). Academic performance as determined by the final exam grade

will also be used. The index differentiates between “poor” and “good” sleep by measuring
CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 6

subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances,

use of sleeping medications, and daytime dysfunction over the last month.

Procedure

I will recruit students enrolled in general education courses (Principles of Biology I,

Rhetoric and Composition I, Elementary Spanish I, and College Algebra) between the hours of 8

a.m. – 11 a.m. for this survey in Spring 2018 via announcements in both class and on

Blackboard. During the recruitment period, interested students can sign up for the survey on

Blackboard which will send reminders to take the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index weekly and the

academic performance survey after the final exam is posted. Follow-up emails will be sent three

time throughout the semester and once during finals week.

The survey will be developed and managed through Key Survey because of its ease in

transferring to Excel, CSV, and SPSS. Students will be prompted for an online informed consent

form prior to taking the survey containing the researcher contact information if they desire

further communication (see Appendix 2). The survey will take about 15 minutes to complete.

No incentives will be offered or provided for participation. However, some instructors

may choose to offer extra credit for participation.

Proposed Statistical Analysis

The proposed analysis is a factorial ANOVA in order to predict the mean differences in

final exam scores between each class start time group and quality of sleep.
CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 7

Appendix 1: Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Assessment

INSTRUCTIONS:

The following questions relate to your usual sleep habits during the past month only. Your

answers should indicate the most accurate reply for the majority of days and nights in the past

month. Please answer all questions.

During the past month,

1. When have you usually gone to bed?

2. How long (in minutes) has it taken you to fall asleep each night?

3. What time have you usually gotten up in the morning?

4. A. How many hours of actual sleep did you get at night?

B. How many hours were you in bed?

Not during Less than Once or Three or

5. During the past month, how often have you
the past once a twice a more times a
had trouble sleeping because you
month (0) week (1) week (2) week (3)

A. Cannot get to sleep within 30 minutes

B. Wake up in the middle of the night or early

morning

C. Have to get up to use the bathroom

D. Cannot breathe comfortably

CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 8

E. Cough or snore loudly

F. Feel too cold

G. Feel too hot

H. Have bad dreams

I. Have pain

J. Other reason (s), please describe, including

how often you have had trouble sleeping

because of this reason (s):

6. During the past month, how often have you

taken medicine (prescribed or “over the

counter”) to help you sleep?

7. During the past month, how often have you

had trouble staying awake while driving,

eating meals, or engaging in social activity?

8. During the past month, how much of a

problem has it been for you to keep up

enthusiasm to get things done?

9. During the past month, how would you rate Very good Fairly good Fairly bad
Very bad (3)
your sleep quality overall? (0) (1) (2)

Component 1 Component 2

Component 3 Component 4
CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 9

Component 5 Component 6 Component 7

Scoring

#9 Score

#2 Score (<15min (0), 16-30min (1), 31-60 min (2), >60min (3)) + #5a Score (if sum is equal

0=0; 1-2=1; 3-4=2; 5-6=3)

#4 Score (>7(0), 6-7 (1), 5-6 (2), <5 (3)

(total # of hours asleep) / (total # of hours in bed) x 100 >85%=0, 75%-84%=!, 65%-74%=2,

<65%=3

# sum of scores 5b to 5j (0=0; 1-9=1; 10-18=2; 19-27=3)

#6 Score

#7 Score + #8 score (0=0; 1-2=1; 3-4=2; 5-6=3)

C1 ___________

C2 ___________ C3 ___________

C4 ___________ C5 ___________ C6 ___________ C7 ___________

Global PSQI _______________

Add the seven component scores together __________________

A total score of “5” or greater is indicative of poor sleep quality.

If you scored “5” or more it is suggested that you discuss your sleep habits with a

healthcare provider
CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 10

Appendix 2: Informed Consent Form

CLASS START TIME ON EXAM SCORES 11

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