ABANG, SITTIE SAHIRAH E.

BE701P

APPLICATION LAYER

 EMAIL SMTP (pronounced as separate letters) Short

for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages
between servers. Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to
send messages from one server to another; the messages can then be retrieved with
an e-mail client using either POP or IMAP. In addition, SMTP is generally used to send
messages from a mail client to a mail server. This is why you need to specify both the
POP or IMAP server and the SMTP server when you configure your e-mail application.

An SMTP server is the machine that takes care of the whole email delivery process:
that's why to send your messages with an email client or software you need first of all
to configure the correct SMTP settings – in particular, the right SMTP addressyou're
using. (For instance, Gmail's is smtp.gmail.com).

 Remote login (Telnet)

Telnet permits a user to connect to an account on a remote machine. A client
program running on the user's machine communicates using the Telnet protocol
with a server program running on the remote machine.

A remote login facility permits a user who is using one computer to interact with a
program on another computer. The service extends the login concept used by
conventional timesharing computer systems to permit access to a remote timesharing
system.

The Internet's remote login service is called TELNET. To use the service, one must invoke
a local application program and specify a remote machine. The local program becomes
a client, which forms a connection to a server on the remote computer. The client
passes keystrokes and mouse movements to the remote machine, and displays output
from the remote machine on the user's display screen.

Remote login is significant because it shows how the Internet can provide interactive
services. Unlike other available services, remote login does not merely transfer static
data. Instead, remote login permits a user to interact with a program that runs on a
remote computer. The remote program can respond to input from the usre, and the
user can respond to output the display program displays.

 File transfer is the process of copying or moving a file from one computer to another
over a network or Internet connection. It enables sharing, transferring or transmitting a
file or a logical data object between different users and/or computers both locally and
remotely.
A file transfer can be an upload or download. File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP), BitTorrent and Simple File Transfer Protocol are the most
common file transfer protocols used in computer networks and online.
There are two main types of file transfer:
  Pull-Based: The file transfer request is initiated by the receiver.
 Push Based: The file transfer request is initiated by the sender.

Moreover, other than network or Internet, file transfer can be performed manually by
copying a file to a new folder/drive in the same computer or by copying it on a USB pen
drive, CD or other portable storage device to be transferred to another computer.

 Network management is a broad range of functions including activities, methods,

procedures and the use of tools to administrate, operate, and reliably maintain
computer network systems.
Strictly speaking, network Management does not include terminal equipment
(PCs, workstations, printers, etc.). Rather, it concerns the reliability, efficiency and
capacity/capabilities of data transfer channels.

While there is no precise definition of the term due to it being such a broad concept,
some of the main areas are summarized below:

 Network Administration: This involves tracking and inventorying the many

network resources such as monitoring transmission lines, hubs, switches,
routers, and servers; it also involves monitoring their performance and updating
their associated software – especially network management software, network
operating systems, and distributed software applications used by network users.
 Network Operation: This involves smooth network functioning as designed and
intended, including close monitoring of activities to quickly and efficiently
address and fix problems as they occur and preferably even before users are
aware of the problem.
 Network Maintenance: This involves timely repair and necessary upgrades to all
network resources as well as preventive and corrective measures through
close communication and collaboration with network administrators. Example
work includes replacing or upgrading network equipment such as switches,
routers and damaged transmission lines.
 Network Provisioning: This involves configuring network resources to support
the requirements of a particular service; example services may be voice
capabilities or increasing broadband requirements to facilitate more users.

TRANSPORT LAYER

 Stands for "Transmission Control Protocol." TCP is a fundamental protocol within the
Internet protocol suite — a collection of standards that allow systems to communicate
over the Internet. It is categorized as a "transport layer" protocol since it creates and
maintains connections between hosts.
TCP compliments the Internet protocol (IP), which defines IP addresses used to identify
systems on the Internet. The Internet protocol provides instructions for transferring data
while the transmission control protocol creates the connection and manages the delivery
 of packets from one system to another. The two protocols are commonly grouped together
and referred to as TCP/IP.
When data is sent over a TCP connection, the protocol divides it into individually numbered
packets or "segments." Each packet includes a header that defines the source and
destination and a data section. Since packets can travel over the Internet using multiple
routes, they may arrive at the destination in a different order than they were sent. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct sequence on the receiving
end.
TCP also includes error checking, which ensures each packet is delivered as requested. This
is different than UDP, which does not check if each packet was successfully transmitted.
While the built-in error checking means TCP has more overhead and is therefore slower
than UDP, it ensures accurate delivery of data between systems. Therefore TCP is used for
transferring most types of data such as webpages and filesover the Internet. UDP is ideal for
media streaming which does not require all packets to be delivered.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) mean?

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is part of the Internet Protocol suite used by programs
running on different computers on a network. UDP is used to send short messages called
datagrams but overall, it is an unreliable, connectionless protocol. UDP is officially defined
in RFC 768 and was formulated by David P. Reed.

Techopedia explains User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User datagram protocol is an open systems interconnection (OSI) transport layer protocol
for client- server network applications. UDP uses a simple transmission model but does not
employ handshaking dialogs for reliability, ordering and data integrity. The protocol
assumes that error-checking and correction is not required, thus avoiding processing at the
network interface level.
UDP is widely used in video conferencing and real-time computer games. The protocol
permits individual packets to be dropped and UDP packets to be received in a different
order than that in which they were sent, allowing for better performance.
UDP network traffic is organized in the form of datagrams, which comprise one message units.
The first eight bytes of a datagram contain header information, while the remaining bytes
contain message data. A UDP datagram header contains four fields of two bytes each:

 Source port number

 Destination port number
 Datagram size
 Checksum

INTERNET NETWORK LAYER

 Internet Protocol (IP) mean?

Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal set (or communications protocol) of digital message
formats and rules for exchanging messages between computers across a single network or a
series of interconnected networks, using the Internet Protocol Suite (often referred to as
TCP/IP). Messages are exchanged as datagrams, also known as data packets or just packets.

IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite, which is a set of
communications protocols consisting of four abstraction layers: link layer (lowest), Internet
layer, transport layer and application layer (highest).

The main purpose and task of IP is the delivery of datagrams from the source host (source
computer) to the destination host (receiving computer) based on their addresses. To achieve
this, IP includes methods and structures for putting tags (address information, which is part of
metadata) within datagrams. The process of putting these tags on datagrams is called
encapsulation.

Techopedia explains Internet Protocol (IP)

Think of an anology with the postal system. IP is similar to the U.S. Postal System in that it
allows a package (a datagram) to be addressed (encapsulation) and put into the system (the
Internet) by the sender (source host). However, there is no direct link between sender and
receiver.

The package (datagram) is almost always divided into pieces, but each piece contains the
address of the receiver (destination host). Eventually, each piece arrives at the receiver, often
by different routes and at different times. These routes and times are also determined by the
Postal System, which is the IP. However, the Postal System (in the transport and application
layers) puts all the pieces back together before delivery to the receiver (destination host).

Note: IP is actually a connectionless protocol, meaning that the circuit to the receiver
(destination host) does not need be set up before transmission (by the source host). Continuing
the analogy, there does not need to be a direct connection between the physical return address
on the letter/package and the recipient address before the letter/package is sent.

Originally, IP was a connectionless datagram service in a transmission control program created

by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974. When format and rules were applied to allow connections,
the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol was created. The two together form the
Internet Protocol Suite, often referred to as TCP/IP.

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) was the first major version of IP. This is the dominant protocol
of the Internet. However, iPv6 is active and in use, and its deployment is increasing all over the
world.

Addressing and routing are the most complex aspects of IP. However, intelligence in the
network is located at nodes (network interconnection points) in the form of routers which
forward datagrams to the next known gateway on the route to the final destination. The
routers use interior gateway protocols (IGPs) or external gateway protocols (EGPs) to help with
making forwarding route decisions. Routes are determined by the routing prefix within the
datagrams. The routing process can therefore become complex. But at the speed of light (or
nearly so) the routing intelligence determines the best route, and the datagram pieces and
datagram all eventually arrive at their destination.
  What does Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) mean?
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a TCP/IP network layer protocol that provides
troubleshooting, control and error message services. ICMP is most frequently used in operating
systems for networked computers, where it transmits error messages.
ICMP for Internet Protocol version 4 is called ICMPv4 and for Internet Protocol version 6 is
called ICMPv6.
Internet Control Message Protocol is also known as RFC 792.

Techopedia explains Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

An ICMP message is created as a result of errors in an IP datagram or for diagnostic routing
purposes. These errors are reported to the originating datagram's source IP address. An ICMP
message is encapsulated directly within a single IP datagram and reports errors in the
processing of datagrams.
An ICMP header begins after the IPv4 header. An ICMP packet has an eight-byte header,
followed by a variable-sized data section. The first four bytes of the header are fixed:

 ICMP type
 ICMP code
 Checksum of the entire ICMP message
 Checksum of the entire ICMP message

The remaining four bytes of the header vary based on the ICMP type and code.
The error message associated with ICMP includes a data section that holds the entire IP header
along with the first eight bytes of the packet that generated the error message. An ICMP
datagram is then encapsulated in a new datagram.

 What does Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)mean?

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a low-level network protocol for translating network layer
addresses into link layer addresses.
ARP lies between layers 2 and 3 of the OSI model, although ARP was not included in the OSI
framework and allows computers to introduce each other across a network prior to
communication.
Because protocols are basic network communication units, address resolution is dependent on
protocols such as ARP, which is the only reliable method of handling required tasks.

Techopedia explains Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

When configuring a new network computer, each system is assigned an Internet Protocol (IP)
address for primary identification and communication. A computer also has a unique media
access control (MAC) address identity. Manufacturers embed the MAC address in the local area
network (LAN) card. The MAC address is also known as the computer’s physical address.
Before two computers communicate, each must know the other’s relative IP or MAC addresses.
If computer A only has computer B’s MAC address, computer A can reveal its IP address by
sending an ARP request to computer B. Computer B may then reply by attaching its IP address
with ARP to computer A. This simple address translation and exchange process is the primary
role of ARP.
ARP tables can be stored to increase transmission rates by keeping track of addresses known to
the network and transmitting any MAC or IP address changes via ARP.
There is no authentication required at this level, so spoofing of IP and MAC addresses is
possible. Additional software may be required to police the ARP tables and prevent malicious
user attacks.

 RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) is a protocol by which a physical machine in

a local area network can request to learn its IP address from a gateway server's Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) table or cache. A network administrator creates a table in a
local area network's gateway router that maps the physical machine (or Media Access
Control - MAC address) addresses to corresponding Internet Protocol addresses. When a
new machine is set up, its RARP client program requests from the RARP server on the
router to be sent its IP address. Assuming that an entry has been set up in the router
table, the RARP server will return the IP address to the machine which can store it for
future use.

NETWORK INTERFACE LAYER

 Ethernet is the technology that is most commonly used in wired local area networks
(LANs). A LAN is a network of computers and other electronic devices that covers a small
area such as a room, office, or building. It is used in contrast to a wide area network
(WAN), which spans much larger geographical areas. Ethernet is a network protocol that
controls how data is transmitted over a LAN. Technically it is referred to as the IEEE
802.3 protocol. The protocol has evolved and improved over time to transfer data at the
speed of a gigabit per second.

Many people have used Ethernet technology their whole lives without knowing it. It is
most likely that any wired network in your office, at the bank, and at home is an
Ethernet LAN. Most desktop and laptop computers come with an integrated Ethernet
card inside so they are ready to connect to an Ethernet LAN.

 SLIP vs PPP
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) are two protocols
that are used in interconnecting two points in order to facilitate the transmission
of data to and fro. Although they can be used with different types of media, the most
typical use is with telephone lines for an Internet connection; used to establish
digital communication between the user and the ISP. The main difference between SLIP
and PPP is in their current use. SLIP is the older of the two and had a very minimal
 feature set. This eventually led to the creation of PPP and its more advanced features,
thus rendering SLIP obsolete.

One of the key features in PPP is its ability to auto-configure its connection settings
during initialization. The client and host communicate during initialization and negotiate
on the best settings to be used. This is unlike SLIP which needs the settings coded
beforehand in order to establish a successful connection. Auto-configuration
significantly simplifies setup since most settings do not need to be entered manually.

Another essential feature added into PPP is error detection and recovery. In the process
of transmitting data, it is very possible that a packet or two gets lost along the way. PPP
is able to detect errors and automatically initiate the recovery of the lost packets. SLIP
does not have any provisions for error detection so it needs to be implemented on a
higher level. Not only does this add complexity, it also increases the processing needed.

Although SLIP is obsolete and is no longer used in most computer systems, it still enjoys
some use in certain systems like microcontrollers. This is because of the relatively small
amount of overhead that it adds. In order to transmit a packet, PPP adds a header as
well as padding information in the end. In comparison, SLIP simply adds an end
character at the end of each packet. In applications where the features of PPP are not
really needed, using it is just a waste of bandwidth as the header and
padding would always be there. In this case, using SLIP is actually more advantageous
than PPP.

The Concept of a Point-to-Point Link

Via a standard telephone line, a maximum of two computers can communicate using a modem,
in the same way that it is impossible to call two people simultaneously using the same
telephone line. This is, thus, called a point to point link, i.e. a link between two machines
reduced to its most simple expression. In this exchange, there is no need to share the line
between several machines as each one speaks and responds in turn:

As such, many modem protocols have been developed. The first of them allowed for a single
transmission of data between two machines, then some of them were equipped with error
control. With the growth of the Internet, many were equipped with the ability to address
machines. As a result, there are now two main modem protocols: SLIP, an old protocol that is
low in controls; and PPP, the most widely used protocol for accessing the Internet via a modem,
which authorizes addressing machines.

The SLIP Protocol

SLIP means Serial Line Internet Protocol. SLIP is the result of the integration of modem
protocols prior to the suite of TCP/IP protocols. It is a simple Internet link protocol conducting
neither address nor error control, which is the reason that it is quickly becoming obsolete in
comparison to PPP.

Data transmission with SLIP is very simple: this protocol sends a frame composed only of data
to be sent followed by an end of transmission character (i.e. the END character, the ASCII
code 192). A SLIP frame looks like this:

Data to be transmitted END

The PPP Protocol

PPP means Point to Point Protocol. It is a much more developed protocol than SLIP (which is
why it is replacing it), insofar as it can transfer additional data and is better suited to data
transmission over the Internet. (The addition of data in a frame is mainly due to the increase in
bandwidth).

In reality, PPP is a collection of three protocols: a datagram encapsulation protocol; an LCP,

or Link Control Protocol, enabling testing and communication configuration; a collection
of NCPs, or Network Control Protocols, allowing integration control of PPP within the protocols
of the upper layers.

Data encapsulated in a PPP frame is called a packet. These packets are generally datagrams, but
they can also be different (hence the specific designation of packet instead of datagram). As
such, one field of the frame is reserved for the type of protocol to which the packet belongs. A
PPP frame looks like this:

Protocol (1-2 bytes) Data to be transmitted Padding data

The padding data is used to adapt the length of the frame for certain protocols.

A PPP session (from opening to closure) takes place as follows. Upon connection, an LCP packet
is sent. In the event of an authentication request from the server, a packet relating to an
authentication protocol may be sent i.e. </bold>PAP (Password Authentication
Protocol), CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol), or Kerberos. Once
communication is established, PPP sends configuration information using the NCP protocol.
Datagrams to be sent are transmitted as packets. Upon disconnection, an LCP packet is sent to
end the session.

 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)mean?

Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI), which is an optical data communication standard used
for long distance networks provides communication with fiber optic lines up to 200 kilometers
at a speed of 100 megabit per second (Mbps). FDDI has dual primary and secondary
communication rings. The primary ring works alongside the network, and the secondary ring
remains idle and available for backup.

FDDI was later extended to FDDI-2 for long distance voice and multimedia communication.
Organizations use this medium for voice and video conferences, online lectures, news and
other multimedia.

Techopedia explains Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

FDDI networks, which are designed for geographically large-scaled organizations
that support thousands of end users, operates in the OSI model's physical and media access
control (MAC layers).
The American National Standards Committee (ANSC) formally standardized FDDI as the best
linking medium for local area networks (LAN), which use FDDI for long-distance communication.

FDDI also is used by single and multi-mode fiber optic, which have different communication
mechanisms. Multi-mode fiber optic uses a lead generation device, whereas single-mode fiber
optic uses laser for data transmission only.

 ATM is an acronym for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It's a high-speed networking

standard designed to support voice, video and data communications, and to improve
utilization and quality of service (QoS) on high-traffic networks.

ATM is normally utilized by internet service providers on their private long-distance networks.
ATM operates at the data link layer (Layer 2 in the OSI model) over either fiber or twisted-pair
cable.

Although it's fading in favor of the NGN (next generation network), this protocol is critical to the
SONET/SDH backbone, the PSTN (public switched telephone network) and ISDN (Integrated
Services Digital Network).

Note: ATM also stands for automated teller machine. If you're looking for that type of ATM
network (to see where ATMs are located), you might find VISA's ATM Locator or Mastercard's
ATM Locator to be helpful.
How ATM Networks Work

ATM differs from more common data link technologies like Ethernet in several ways.

For one, ATM uses zero routing. Instead of using software, dedicated hardware devices known
as ATM switches establish point-to-point connections between endpoints and data flows
directly from source to destination.

Additionally, instead of using variable-length packets like Ethernet and Internet Protocol does,
ATM utilizes fixed-sized cells to encode data. These ATM cells are 53 bytes in length, that
include 48 bytes of data and five bytes of header information.

Each cell is processed at their own time. When one is finished, the procedure then calls for the
next cell to process. This is why it's called asynchronous; none of them go off at the same time
relative to the other cells.

The connection can be preconfigured by the service provider to make a dedicated/permanent

circuit or be switched/set up on demand and then terminated at the end of its use.

Four data bit rates are usually available for ATM services: Available Bit Rate, Constant Bit Rate,
Unspecified Bit Rate and Variable Bit Rate (VBR).

The performance of ATM is often expressed in the form of OC (Optical Carrier) levels, written as
"OC-xxx." Performance levels as high as 10 Gbps (OC-192) are technically feasible with ATM.
However, more common for ATM are 155 Mbps (OC-3) and 622 Mbps (OC-12).

Without routing and with fixed-size cells, networks can much more easily
manage bandwidth under ATM than other technologies like Ethernet. The high cost of ATM
relative to Ethernet is one factor that has limited its adoption to the backbone and other high-
performance, specialized networks.

 Definition - What does X.25 mean?

X.25 is the name given to a suite of protocols used for packet-switched wide area network
communication. Defined by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee
in 1976, X.25 had the original purpose of carrying voice signals over analog telephone lines.

X.25 is the oldest packet-switching technique available and was commonly used before the
Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model became standard. Originally developed for
use in the 1970s and used widely in the 1980s, X.25 has since fallen out of favor, having been
replaced by less complex protocols such as Internet Protocol. Today, it is mostly relegated to
ATMs and credit card verification networks.

Techopedia explains X.25

X.25 protocols work at the physical, data link and network layers of the network. Each X.25
packet contains 128 bytes of data. The protocols themselves cover such tasks as packet
assembly at the source, delivery, disassembly at destination, error-checking and retransmission
in case of errors.
X.25 devices fall into three common categories:

 Packet-switching exchange
 Data circuit-terminating equipment
 Data terminal equipment