sensors

Article
Structural Designing of a MEMS Capacitive
Accelerometer for Low Temperature Coefficient and
High Linearity
Jiangbo He 1, * ID
, Wu Zhou 2, * ID
, Huijun Yu 2 , Xiaoping He 3 and Peng Peng 2
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu 610039, China
2 School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China,
Chengdu 611731, China; yuhjuestc@126.com (H.Y.); ppuestc@163.com (P.P.)
3 Institute of Electronic Engineering, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang 621900, China;
hexpiee@263.net
* Correspondence: chuihaol@aliyun.com (J.H.); zhouwu916@uestc.edu.cn (W.Z.); Tel.: +86-28-6183-0227 (W.Z.)

Received: 14 December 2017; Accepted: 18 February 2018; Published: 22 February 2018

Abstract: The low temperature coefficient and high linearity of the input-output characteristics
are both required for high-performance microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) capacitive
accelerometers. In this work, a structural designing of a bulk MEMS capacitive accelerometer
is developed for both low temperature coefficient and high linearity. Firstly, the contrary effect of the
wide-narrow gaps ratio (WNGR) on the temperature coefficient of the scale factor (TCSF) and linearity
error is discussed. Secondly, the ability of an improved structure that can avoid the contrary effect is
illustrated. The improved structure is proposed in our previous work for reducing the temperature
coefficient of bias (TCB) and TCSF. Within the improved structure, both the TCSF and linearity
error decrease with increasing WNGR. Then, the precise designing of the improved structure is
developed for achieving lower TCB, TCSF, and linearity error. Finally, the precise structural designing
is experimentally verified.

Keywords: MEMS; capacitive accelerometer; temperature coefficient; linearity error

1. Introduction
High-precision MEMS capacitive accelerometers are increasingly needed in numerous
applications including inertial navigation [1], gravity measurement [2], vibration measurements [3],
and so on. The low temperature coefficient and high linearity of the input-output characteristics
are both required for the high-performance MEMS capacitive accelerometers, especially for those
applied in inertial navigation [4,5]. Temperature coefficient can be induced by the thermal stress and
temperature dependence of material properties [6,7]. The thermal stress is induced by the mismatch of
thermal expansion among device layer, substrate, and package [8]. Linearity error (or nonlinearity)
is the inherent drawback of capacitive accelerometers because the gap variation is used to detect the
acceleration [9]. Even if the closed-loop detection principle is employed, linearity error still exists due
to uncertainties, such as manufacturing errors [10]. Although the temperature coefficient and linearity
error can both be compensated actively [11,12], more complex circuitry is required.
The temperature coefficient and linearity error are both related to the device dimensions. Thus,
the careful designing of device dimensions is necessary for both low temperature coefficient and
linearity error. In our previous work [6], the temperature coefficient of the bias (TCB) and temperature
coefficient of the scale factor (TCSF) are studied in detail. An improved structure is also designed for
both low TCB and TCSF (TCB < 1.03 mg/◦ C and TCSF < 66 ppm/◦ C). However, TCB and TCSF are
still high for high-performance accelerometers. For example, TCB is much higher than the results in

Sensors 2018, 18, 643; doi:10.3390/s18020643 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

 Sensors2018,
Sensors 2018,18,
18,643
x FOR PEER REVIEW 22ofof13
13

TCSF are still high for high-performance accelerometers. For example, TCB is much higher than the
several
results literatures
in several (100 µg/◦ C(100
literatures in [13] andin[14],
μg/°C [13]200
◦ in [4] and [15], 300 µg/◦ C in [16]). As such,
[14],C200
andµg/ μg/°C in [4] and [15], 300 μg/°C in [16]).
more improvement
As such, of design isofrequired
more improvement design istorequired
achieve lower TCB lower
to achieve and TCSF.
TCB In addition,
and theaddition,
TCSF. In linearitythe
is
not considered
linearity is notinconsidered
the previousinwork. In this work,
the previous theIntemperature
work. this work, coefficient and linearity
the temperature error and
coefficient are
designed simultaneously. Firstly, the contrary effect of the wide-narrow gaps ratio (WNGR)
linearity error are designed simultaneously. Firstly, the contrary effect of the wide-narrow gaps ratio on TCSF
and linearity
(WNGR) on error
TCSFisand discussed.
linearityThen,
error aisprecise design
discussed. to improve
Then, a precisethe structure
design is developed
to improve for bothis
the structure
low temperature
developed coefficients
for both and linearity
low temperature error. and linearity error.
coefficients
2. Fabrication and Detection Principle
2. Fabrication and Detection Principle
The structure of the MEMS capacitive accelerometer studied in this work is shown in Figure 1.
The structure of the MEMS capacitive accelerometer studied in this work is shown in Figure 1.
Anchors and sensing elements (proof mass, comb capacitors, and springs) are made of single crystal
Anchors and sensing elements (proof mass, comb capacitors, and springs) are made of single crystal
silicon. The bottom substrate is made of Pyrex 7740 glass. The accelerometer is fabricated based on
silicon. The bottom substrate is made of Pyrex 7740 glass. The accelerometer is fabricated based on a
a bulk silicon process, which was detailed before in [7]. In short, the process begins with a Cr/Au
bulk silicon process, which was detailed before in [7]. In short, the process begins with a Cr/Au
metallization process on a Pyrex 7740 glass wafer. Then, boron doping by diffusion is performed
metallization process on a Pyrex 7740 glass wafer. Then, boron doping by diffusion is performed on
on a (100) silicon wafer, and then DRIE is employed to define sensing elements and anchors. Next,
a (100) silicon wafer, and then DRIE is employed to define sensing elements and anchors. Next, the
the silicon wafer was flipped and bonded to the glass wafer by anodic bonding. Finally, the undoped
silicon wafer was flipped and bonded to the glass wafer by anodic bonding. Finally, the undoped
silicon is completely dissolved to leave the sensing elements and anchors.
silicon is completely dissolved to leave the sensing elements and anchors.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. The structure of the MEMS accelerometer. (a) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM);
Figure 1. The structure of the MEMS accelerometer. (a) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM); (b) Scheme
(b) Scheme diagram of dimensions for a comb capacitor.
diagram of dimensions for a comb capacitor.

The capacitances of the accelerometer are detected by the self-balancing bridge principle, as
depicted capacitances
The in Figure 2. The of the accelerometer
inertial force makes arethedetected by the
proof mass move self-balancing
and is balanced bridge
by theprinciple,
spring
as depicted
force. in Figure
The moving of2.the
The inertial
proof massforce makes
changes thethe proof massofmove
capacitance and is balanced
the accelerometer. by theprovide
Drivers spring
force. The moving
AC signals to theoffixed
the proof mass changes
electrodes. the capacitance
The movable electrodes of the
are accelerometer.
connected to the Drivers provide
output AC
terminal
signals
through the reading circuitry. In response to a sensed acceleration, feedback is provided from the
to the fixed electrodes. The movable electrodes are connected to the output terminal through the
reading
output circuitry.
terminal In to response
both driversto a to
sensed
adjustacceleration,
the amplitude feedback
of theisAC
provided
signalsfrom thefixed
on the output terminal to
electrodes, as
both drivers to adjust the amplitude of the AC signals on the fixed electrodes,
depicted in Figure 2b. The objective of the feedback is to null any AC signal on the movable as depicted in Figure 2b.
The objectiveThe
electrodes. of the feedback
detailed is to null
principle any ACthe
realizing signal on the movable
amplitude adjusting electrodes.
of the ACThe detailed
signals can principle
be found
realizing the amplitude
in the literature [17]. In adjusting
order to nullof the
anyACACsignals
signalcan be found
on the movable in the literature
electrodes, the[17]. In orderequation
following to null
any AC signal
must be satisfied on the movable electrodes, the following equation must be satisfied

 1 1   11 
   
C1 C V  V
VA1 − A Vout out −  C V 
 C22 VAA + V V   0= 0
outout (1)
(1)
 MM   MM 

where VA is the initial amplitude of the AC signal, C1 and C2 are the capacitance, M is a feedback
coefficient depending on circuit parameters. Solving Equation (1) leads to
Sensors 2018, 18, 643 3 of 13

where VA is the initial amplitude of the AC signal, C1 and C2 are the capacitance, M is a feedback
coefficient
Sensors depending
2018, 18, x FOR PEERon circuit
parameters. Solving Equation (1) leads to
REVIEW 3 of 13

C − C2
Vout = M C11  C2 VA (2)
Vout  M 1 + C2VA
C (2)
C1  C2

Figure 2. Scheme diagram of the self-balancing differential capacitive principle. (a) Schematic block
Figure 2. Scheme diagram of the self-balancing differential capacitive principle. (a) Schematic block
diagram; (b) Graphs of waveforms on the fixed plate.
diagram; (b) Graphs of waveforms on the fixed plate.

3. Contrary Effect of the WNGR on TCSF and Linearity Error

3. Contrary Effect of the WNGR on TCSF and Linearity Error
3.1.
3.1. Analytical
AnalyticalModel
Model for
for the
the Linearity
Linearity Error
Error
According
According to
to the
the electrostatic
electrostatic theory, capacitances of
theory, capacitances of the
the accelerometer
accelerometer can
can be
be expressed
expressed as
as

2 N  2  N  1 
CC
1  = 2NεΩ+
2( N −1)εΩ
1 d d−xx DD+xx
2( N −1)εΩ (3)(3)
C2 =2 N2NεΩ
d+x +2  ND−1x 
C2  
dx Dx
where d and D denote the narrow and wide gaps shown in Figure 1, respectively, x denotes the
where d and D
displacement denotemass,
of proof the narrow
N denotes andthewide
numbergapsof shown in Figurein1,
fixed electrodes respectively,
a comb xΩ
capacitor, denotes the
represents
displacement
the overlappingof area
proof
in mass, N movable
a pair of denotes and the number of fixed electrodes in a comb capacitor, Ω
fixed electrodes.
represents the overlapping
Substituting Equation area in a(1)
(3) into pair
andofexpanding
movable and outputfixedVelectrodes.
out using Taylor's theorem leads to
Substituting Equation (3) into (1) and expanding output V out using Taylor's theorem leads to
( η − 1) x ( η − 1) x 3
 
Vout =    1 x +  12 x33  MVA (4)
Vout   ηd  η d  MV (4)
 d  2 d 3 
A

where η denotes WNGR (the ratio of D to d).
whereThe
η denotes WNGRof(the
displacement ratio
proof massof D to d). by the input acceleration can be expressed as
caused
The displacement of proof mass caused by the input acceleration can be expressed as
−ma
x =  ma (5)
x K (5)
K
where m, a, and K denote the proof mass, acceleration, and the stiffness of springs, respectively.
where m, a, and K denote the proof mass, acceleration, and the stiffness of springs, respectively.
Substituting Equation (5) into (4), the output Vout can be expressed as a function of the acceleration
Substituting Equation (5) into (4), the output Vout can be expressed as a function of the acceleration
V = k1 a +3 k3 a3
Vout out
 k1a η −k13 a
k1 = − ηd m MV (6)
 η−11 m K
3 A
k   m
k31 = −ηd2 d3 K K MVMVA
A (6)
3
 1  m 
k3   MVA
 2 d 3  K 

In Equation (6), k1 denotes the scale factor (or sensitivity), and k3 causes linearity error. According
to the definition in [18] the linearity error represents the systematic deviation from the straight line
Sensors 2018, 18, 643 4 of 13

In Equation (6), k1 denotes the scale factor (or sensitivity), and k3 causes linearity error. According
to the definition in [18] the linearity error represents the systematic deviation from the straight line that
defines the nominal input-output relationship. The linearity error over full range can be expressed as

max|Vout − Vout_linear |
∆non = × 100 (7)
Voutmax

where Vout_linear denotes the output obtained from the nominal input-output relationship. From
Equation (6), it is known that “k1 a” represents the nominal input-output relationship. Substituting
Equation (6) into (7) leads to

k3 a3max k3 a3max 1  mamax 2

∆non = ≈ = (8)
k1 amax + k3 a3max k1 amax η Kd

According to Equation (8), it is known that the linearity error decreases with the increasing
of the narrow gap. However, increasing the narrow gap is against the detection due to the lower
capacitance. Equation (8) also shows that higher WNGR results in lower linearity error, and even nulls
the linearity error.
In conclusion, high WNGR is the better way to achieve low linearity error. However, high WNGR
may also influence the temperature coefficient. In next section, it is shown that WNGR has the contrary
effect on TCSF and linearity error.

3.2. Illustration of the Contrary Effect

According to our previous work [6], TCSF of the MEMS accelerometer can be expressed as

η2 + 1 l f η + 1 wf
    


TCSF = −TCS + −αs − 2 + ( N − 1) + αeq − αs (9)
η −η d 2 d

where TCS denotes the temperature coefficient of stiffness, αs denotes the coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE) of silicon, αeq is called as equivalent CTE, N denotes the fixed electrode number in a
comb capacitor, and lf denotes the distance from the first fixed electrode to the midline, wf denotes
the width of an electrode, as shown in Figure 1. TCS equals the sum of the temperature coefficient of
elastic modulus and CTE. However, the temperature coefficient of elastic modulus is much higher than
CTE [19]. Thus, TCS is mainly determined by the temperature coefficient of elastic modulus. Due to the
high boron doped silicon, TCS is about 30 ppm/◦ C [6]. The equivalent CTE αeq represents the thermal
deformation on the substrate top surface. Because the thermal stress enhances the thermal deformation
on the substrate top surface, the equivalent CTE is higher than the CTE of Pyrex 7740 glass.
From Equation (9), it is known that the relationship between TCSF and WNGR is nonlinear.
The nonlinear relationship is shown in Figure 3. For comparison, the relationship between the linearity
error and WNGR is also shown in Figure 3. Except for the equivalent CTE, the employed parameters
(listed in Table 1) are the same as those in the previous work [6]. In this work, the minimum equivalent
CTE is employed and equal to the CTE of the glass substrate (about 3.25 ppm/◦ C). The minimum
equivalent CTE can be achieved by using the very soft adhesive for the die-attach [6]. From Figure 3,
it can be seen that WNGR must be high for low linearity error. For example, a WNGR higher than
5.5 results in a linearity error lower than 0.5%. On the other side, TCSF achieves the minimum with
the WNGR of 4. When WNGR is higher than 4, TCSF increases with increasing WNGR. Therefore,
the effect of WNGR on TCSF and linearity error is contrary.
 Stiffness of springs (K) 16 N/m Equivalent CTE (αeq) 3.25 ppm/°C
maximum acceleration (amax) 20 g Silicon CTE (αs) [6] 2.6 ppm/°C
Narrow gap (d) 5 μm TCS [6] −30 ppm/°C
WNGR
Sensors 2018, 18, 643 (η) 5 5 of 13

-40 2
Nonlinearity
-50 TCSF
1.5

Linearity error (%)

TCSF (ppm/°C)
-60
1
-70

0.5
-80

-90 0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
η

error.
Figure 3. The effect of WNGR (η) on TCSF and linearity error.

3.3. Structural Designing for Avoiding the Contrary

Table 1. Parameters for Effect
the MEMS accelerometer.

In this section, the ability of an improved structure (shown in Figure 4) that can avoid the
Parameter Value Units Parameter Value Units
contrary effect is illustrated. The improved structure is proposed in our previous work for achieving
Electrode width (w )
low TCB andMass
TCSF. (m)
For the improved59.4
structure,µg
TCSF is expressed as [6]. f 6.5 µm
Distance from the first
Fixed electrodes number in a
21TCSF  TCSFSTD  TCSF fixed
TS
electrode to 45 µm (10)
comb structure (N)
midline (lf )
Stiffness of springs (K) 16 TCSF STD  TCS
N/m Equivalent CTE (αeq ) 3.25 ppm/◦(11)
C
maximum acceleration (amax ) 20 g Silicon CTE (αs ) [6] 2.6 ppm/◦ C
Narrow gap (d) 5 
µm 2
 1 l f  lg TCS [6] −30 ppm/◦ C
WNGR (η) TCSF5TS   s  2
  d

 eq   s  (12)

where
3.3. lg is theDesigning
Structural length offor
anchors forthe
Avoiding fixed electrodes,
Contrary Effect TCSFSTD and TCSFTS denote the TCSF induced
by the temperature dependence of the spring stiffness and thermal stress, respectively.
In
Thethis section, the
improved ability of
structure an improved
does not changestructure (shownprinciple
the detecting in Figure 4)
andthat can avoid
electrode the contrary
layout, so the
effect is illustrated. The improved structure is proposed in our previous work for achieving low TCB
linearity error is still expressed by Equation (8). In this work, two coefficients are defined to represent
and TCSF.of
the effect For the improved
WNGR structure,
on linearity TCSF
error and is expressed as [6].
TCSF

TCSF =TCSFSTD 1 + TCSFTS (10)

l _ error 

TCSFSTD = 2−TCS (13)
(11)
1
TCSF  2
2   
η + 1 f + lg
l

TCSFTS = −αs − 2 αeq − αs (12)
η −η d
where lg is the length of anchors for fixed electrodes, TCSFSTD and TCSFTS denote the TCSF induced
by the temperature dependence of the spring stiffness and thermal stress, respectively.
The improved structure does not change the detecting principle and electrode layout, so the
linearity error is still expressed by Equation (8). In this work, two coefficients are defined to represent
the effect of WNGR on linearity error and TCSF

1
β l_error = η
η 2 +1 (13)
β TCSF = η 2 −η

According to Equations (8) and (10), the linearity error decreases with decreasing βl_error , and TCSF
decreases with decreasing βTCSF . The relationship between βl_error and WNGR is shown in Figure 5,
and so is the relationship between βTCSF and WNGR. It can be seen that βl_error and βTCSF both decrease
with increasing WNGR. As such, the improved structure avoids the contrary effect of WNGR on TCSF
and linearity error.
 D

d
lg
Sensors 2018, 18, 643 wf 6 of 13
Sensors 2018, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2lf 6 of 13
2la
lg
KB/2 KB/2

d KA/2 KA/2
lg
wf
(a) 2lf
(b)
2la
Figure 4. The improved structure for MEMS accelerometer.
lg (a) Overall layout; (b) Scheme diagram of
dimensions for the comb capacitor.

According to Equations (8) and (10), the linearity error decreases with decreasing βl_error, and
TCSF decreases with decreasing βTCSF. The relationship between βl_error and WNGR is shown in
Figure 5, and so is the relationship between βTCSF and WNGR. It canKbe/2seen that KAβ
/2l_error and βTCSF both
A
decrease with increasing WNGR. As such, the improved structure avoids the contrary effect of
WNGR on TCSF and (a) linearity error. (b)
Then, as long
Figure 4. Theas precisestructure
improved parameters are employed,
for MEMS the (a)
accelerometer. very low layout;
Overall temperature
(b) Scheme coefficient
diagram and
of
Figure
linearity 4. The
error can improved
both be structure with
obtained for MEMS
the accelerometer.
improved (a) Overall
structure. In layout;
the next (b) Scheme
section, a diagramdesign
precise of
dimensions for the comb capacitor.
dimensions
for the improvedfor the combiscapacitor.
structure developed.
According to Equations (8) and (10), the linearity error decreases with decreasing βl_error, and
3 0.6
TCSF decreases with decreasing βTCSF. The relationship between βl_error and WNGR is shown in
系列2
βl_error
Figure 5, and so is the relationship
2.5 between βTCSF and WNGR.
βTCSF It can be
0.5 seen that βl_error and βTCSF both
系列1
decrease with increasing WNGR. As such, the improved structure avoids the contrary effect of
2 0.4
WNGR on TCSF and linearity error.
βTCSF

Then, as long as precise parameters are employed, the very low temperature coefficient and
βl_error
1.5 0.3
linearity error can both be obtained with the improved structure. In the next section, a precise design
for the improved structure 1 is developed. 0.2

0.5 3 0.1 0.6

系列2
βl_error
0 2.5 βTCSF 0 0.5
2 4 6 系列1 8
2 η 0.4
βTCSF

βl_error

1.5 5.5.The
Figure
Figure Theeffect
effectof
ofWNGR
WNGRon
onββl_error
l_error and
andββTCSF. . 0.3
TCSF

4. Precise 1 Temperature Coefficient and Linearity Error 0.2

Then,Design
as long forasboth Lowparameters
precise are employed, the very low temperature coefficient and
linearity error can both be obtained 0.5 with the improved structure. In the next 0.1section, a precise design
4.1. Design for Low TCSF and Linearity Error
for the improved structure is developed.
0 0
From Equation (10), it is known 2
that TCSF4 consists of TCSF 6
STD and TCSFTS. TCSFSTD and TCSFTS
8
4. Precise Design for both Low Temperature Coefficient and Linearity
cancel each other. TCSFSTD is equal to the opposite ofηTCS. TCS is about −30 ppm/°C, as explained in Error
Section 3.2. Thus, if TCSFTS is −30 ppm/°C, TCSF is null. However, the absolute value of TCSFTS is
4.1. Design for Low TCSF and Linearity Error
much higher than 30 ppm/°C [6]. As such,
Figure 5. TheTCSF must
effectTSof WNGR be reduced. TCSF
on βl_error and TS .is directly proportional to
βTCSF
the CTEFrom Equation(α(10),
difference eq − αits).isAccording
known thattoTCSF consists
the study of TCSF3.2,
in Section STD and
α eq isTCSF
higher TS . than
TCSFαSTD and TCSFTS
s. Thus, TS
4.
cancelPrecise
each Design
other. TCSFfor both is Low
equal Temperature
to the opposite Coefficient
of TCS. TCSandis Linearity
about − 30 Error
ppm/ ◦ C, as explained in
decreases with decreasing STDαeq. The minimum αeq is about 3.25 ppm/°C and is achieved by the soft die-
◦ C, TCSF is null. However, the absolute value of TCSF is
SectionTherefore,
attach. 3.2. Thus,theif TCSF
minimumTS is −α 30 ppm/
eq is employed in this work. TS
4.1. higher
much Design than
for Low30 TCSF
ppm/and ◦ Linearity
C [6]. As such, ErrorTCSFTS must be reduced. TCSFTS is directly proportional
to the CTEFromdifference
Equation (α eq −itαis
(10), s ).known
According to theconsists
that TCSF study in of Section
TCSFSTD3.2, andαeq is higher
TCSF than αs. Thus,
TS. TCSFSTD and TCSFTS
TCSF decreases with decreasing α . The minimum α is about 3.25 ppm/ ◦ C and is achieved by the
eq eq
cancel each other. TCSFSTD is equal to the opposite of TCS. TCS is about −30 ppm/°C, as explained in
TS
soft die-attach.
Section Therefore,
3.2. Thus, if TCSF theTSminimum
is −30 ppm/°C, αeq is employed
TCSF is null. in this work. the absolute value of TCSFTS is
However,
Besides,
much higherTCSF
than also
TS30 varies[6].
ppm/°C with Asthe narrow
such, TCSFgap and WNGR. The effect of the narrow gap and
TS must be reduced. TCSFTS is directly proportional to
WNGR on TCSF
the CTE differenceTS and (αeq − αs). According to the study in6.Section
linearity error is shown in Figure The length3.2, αof anchors for fixed electrodes
eq is higher than αs. Thus, TCSFTS

decreases with decreasing αeq. The minimum αeq is about 3.25 ppm/°C and is achieved by the soft die-
attach. Therefore, the minimum αeq is employed in this work.
 Another important problem is the increased length of the comb capacitor induced by the
dimension variation. From Figure 4, the length of the comb capacitor is expressed as

Lcomb   N  1  d  d  2w f   w f (14)
Sensors 2018, 18, 643 7 of 13
For the narrow gap of 5 μm and WNGR of 5 employed in the previous work, Lcomb is 866.5 μm.
On the other side, for the narrow gap of 4.5 μm and WNGR of 6.5, Lcomb is 941.5 μm. The increasing of
Llgcomb
is is
110very and compared
µm,small other parameters are listed
to the overall sizein
ofTable 1. (3200
the die Theseμm
employed parameters
× 3200 μm). As such,are
thethe same as
increasing
of Lcombindoes
those not resultwork
the previous in a huge
exceptimpact
the αeqon
. the die yield.

1.2
-20
d=5μm
1 d=4.5μm
-25
d=4μm

Linearity error (%)

TCSFTS (ppm/ºC)

0.8
-30
0.6
-35
d=5μm 0.4

-40 d=4.5μm 0.2

d=4μm
-45 0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
η η
(a) (b)
Figure 6. The effect of the narrow gap (d) and WNGR (η) on the TCSFTS and linearity error. (a) TCSFTS;
Figure 6. The effect of the narrow gap (d) and WNGR (η) on the TCSFTS and linearity error. (a) TCSFTS ;
(b) Linearity error.
(b) Linearity error.
4.2. Designing for Low TCB
For the narrow gap of 5 µm employed in the previous work, it can be seen that WNGR should
Besides TCSF, TCB is another important parameter affecting the temperature performance of
be 4.4 to make TCSFTS close to −30 ppm/◦ C. On the other side, with the narrow gap of 4.5 µm and
MEMS accelerometers. According to the previous work [6], TCB is expressed as
WNGR of 6.5, a TCSFTS close to −30 ppm/◦ C can also be achieved. With the two sets of the narrow gap
and WNGR, both low linearity errors can be achieved, K  K B and they are about 0.42% and 0.4%, respectively.
TCB  A
Because lower narrow gap results in higher capacitances, m
 eq   s l a 
the narrow gap of 4.5 µm and WNGR of 6.5
(15)
are selected in this work.
where la is the distance from the anchor for movable electrodes to the midline as depicted in
Another important problem is the increased length of the comb capacitor induced by the
Figure 4, KA and KB denote the stiffness of the springs connecting proof mass.
dimension variation. From Figure 4, the length of the comb capacitor is expressed as
TCB also decreases with decreasing equivalent CTE. The minimum αeq is equal to the CTE of the
substrate. If the silicon substrate is employed, the minimum αeq is equal to the CTE of silicon. As a
 
Lcomb = ( N − 1) d + dη + 2w f + w f (14)
result, TCB disappears. TCSFTS also disappears. However, TCSF can’t be close to zero because
TCSFFor
STD still exists. In this work, the glass substrate is employed to achieve null TCSF by making
the narrow gap of 5 µm and WNGR of 5 employed in the previous work, Lcomb is 866.5 µm.
TCSF
On theTS and TCSFSTD cancel each other. TCB is reduced by other methods, such as shorter la. In this
other side, for the narrow gap of 4.5 µm and WNGR of 6.5, Lcomb is 941.5 µm. The increasing of
work,
Lcomb isthe
veryanchor for movable
small compared to theelectrodes is ofredesigned,
overall size the die (3200asµm depicted in Figure
× 3200 µm). 7. the
As such, Through the
increasing
redesigning
of Lcomb doesofnotthe anchor,
result in a lhuge
a is reduced from 190 μm (employed in the previous work) to 90 μm.
impact on the die yield.
Changing the stiffness or mass may also reduce TCB. However, this results in the variation of linearity
error. As such,for
4.2. Designing theLow
spring
TCBstiffness and mass remain the same as those in the previous work.
Besides TCSF, TCB is another important parameter affecting the temperature performance of
MEMS accelerometers. According to the previous work [6], TCB is expressed as

K A − KB

TCB = αeq − αs la (15)
m
where la is the distance from the anchor for movable electrodes to the midline as depicted in Figure 4,
KA and KB denote the stiffness of the springs connecting proof mass.
TCB also decreases with decreasing equivalent CTE. The minimum αeq is equal to the CTE of the
substrate. If the silicon substrate is employed, the minimum αeq is equal to the CTE of silicon. As a
result, TCB disappears. TCSFTS also disappears. However, TCSF can’t be close to zero because TCSFSTD
still exists. In this work, the glass substrate is employed to achieve null TCSF by making TCSFTS
and TCSFSTD cancel each other. TCB is reduced by other methods, such as shorter la . In this work,
the anchor for movable electrodes is redesigned, as depicted in Figure 7. Through the redesigning
 7740 glass. The result in the literature [20] shows that CTE of the Pyrex 7740 glass is almost constant
from 0 °C to 100 °C. CTE of silicon increases almost linearly from 0 °C to 100 °C, but is still lower than
CTE of the Pyrex 7740 glass [21]. As a result, the CTE difference (αeq − αs) decreases with increasing
temperature linearly. As such, TCB decreases with increasing temperature.
Sensors 2018, 18, 643
The relationship between TCSF and temperature is also approximately linear. However, 8TCSF of 13

increases with increasing temperature. From Equation (10), the temperature dependence of TCSF can
bethe
of induced
anchor, byltemperature dependences of (αeq − αs) and TCS. However, TCS is almost constant from
a is reduced from 190 µm (employed in the previous work) to 90 µm. Changing the
0 °C to 100 °C [19]. As such,
stiffness or mass may also reduce the approximately
TCB. However,linear relationship
this results betweenof
in the variation TCSF and temperature
linearity error. As such,is
alsospring
the caused by the temperature
stiffness dependence
and mass remain the sameofasthe CTEinofthe
those silicon.
previous work.

Figure 7. The
Figure 7. The microscope
microscope image
image of
of the
the accelerometer.
accelerometer.

Because the stiffness difference (KA − KB ) is induced by random fabrication errors [6], it is difficult
to estimate the accurate TCB. However, the improvement of TCB can be estimated based on Equation
(15). The CTE difference (αeq − αs ) is about 0.65 ppm/◦ C in this work, while that in the previous
work is about 1.6 ppm/◦ C [6]. As a result, the estimated TCB in this work is about 20% of that in the
previous work.
Integrating the designing works on the TCSF, TCB, and linearity error, the modifications on the
improved structure are summarized as follows.

(1) In order to achieve the minimum αeq , a soft adhesive is employed for the die-attach.
(2) The narrow gap d is decreased from 5 µm to 4.5 µm.
(3) In order to make WNGR be 6.5, the wide gap D is modified to be 29.3 µm.
(4) The distance
Figure from
8. Testing the anchor
equipment for moving electrodes
for accelerometers. DC supplyto
and digital lvoltmeter
midline a is decreased from
provide 190 µm to
the power
90 µm.
input and display for output voltage, respectively.
The other designing parameters are the same as those employed in the previous work.
The parameter and performance differences made by these modifications between this work and
the previous work are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. The parameter and performance differences between this work and the previous work.

Parameter In This Work In Previous Work Units

Narrow gap (d) 4.5 5 µm
Wide gap (D) 29.3 25 µm
Distance from anchors for moving
90 190 µm
electrodes to midline (la )
Equivalent CTE (αeq ) 3.25 4.2 ppm/◦ C
Linearity error 0.4% 0.42%
TCSF almost zero 37 ppm/◦ C
TCB The estimated TCB in this work is about 20% of that in the previous work
Sensors 2018, 18, 643 9 of 13

5. Experiments

5.1. Temperature Coefficients

In this work, accelerometers with the modified dimensions were fabricated. The microscope
image of the accelerometer is shown in Figure 7. In order to reduce TCSF and TCB, the accelerometer
die is attached to the ceramic package by a soft adhesive with Young's modulus lower than 10 MPa.
The input, output, and ground pads are wire-bonded to the copper trace on the ceramic package.
The testing principle of the self-balancing bridge is implemented in the printed circuit board (PCB)
using the discrete components. The packaged accelerometer is mounted on the PCB for testing,
as shown in Figure 8. Figure 7. The microscope image of the accelerometer.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Testing
Testing equipment
equipment for
for accelerometers.
accelerometers. DC
DC supply
supply and
and digital
digital voltmeter
voltmeter provide
provide the
the power
power
input and
input and display
display for
for output
output voltage,
voltage, respectively.
respectively.

In order to measure TCSF and TCB, the scale factor and bias under different temperatures must
be measured. The measuring method is detailed before in [6]. With the measuring results of the scale
factor and bias under different temperatures, TCSF and TCB are calculated by the following equations:

k1 ( T + ∆T ) − k1 ( T − ∆T )
TCSF = (16)
2∆Tk1 ( T )

p0 ( T + ∆T ) − p0 ( T − ∆T )
TCB = (17)
2∆T
where p0 and k1 denote the bias and scale factor, respectively. In this work, the scale factor and bias
under 5 ◦ C, 15 ◦ C, 25 ◦ C, 35 ◦ C, 45 ◦ C, 55 ◦ C, 65 ◦ C, 75 ◦ C, and 85 ◦ C was measured, so TCSF and TCB
under 15 ◦ C, 25 ◦ C, 35 ◦ C, 45 ◦ C, 55 ◦ C, 65 ◦ C, and 75 ◦ C are obtained.
The temperature dependences of TCSF and TCB are shown in Figure 9. TCB decreases with
the temperature and the relationship is approximately linear. This temperature dependence may be
induced by the temperature dependence of the CTE of silicon. According to Equation (15), it is known
that TCB has a linear relationship with the CTE difference (αeq − αs ). αeq is equal to CTE of the Pyrex
7740 glass. The result in the literature [20] shows that CTE of the Pyrex 7740 glass is almost constant
from 0 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C. CTE of silicon increases almost linearly from 0 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C, but is still lower than
CTE of the Pyrex 7740 glass [21]. As a result, the CTE difference (αeq − αs ) decreases with increasing
temperature linearly. As such, TCB decreases with increasing temperature.
The relationship between TCSF and temperature is also approximately linear. However, TCSF
increases with increasing temperature. From Equation (10), the temperature dependence of TCSF can
be induced by temperature dependences of (αeq − αs ) and TCS. However, TCS is almost constant from
0 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C [19]. As such, the approximately linear relationship between TCSF and temperature is
also caused by the temperature dependence of the CTE of silicon.
 15 250

10
200
5

TCB (μg/ºC)
TCSF (ppm/ºC)
Sensors 2018,18,
Sensors 2018, 18,643
x FOR PEER REVIEW
150 10
10 of
of 13
13
0
100
-5
15 250
-10 50
10
200
-15 0
5 5

TCB (μg/ºC)
TCSF (ppm/ºC)

20 35 50 65 80 150 5 20 35 50 65 80
0 Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

(a) 100 (b)

-5

-10 Figure 9. Temperature dependences of TCSF50and TCB. (a) TCSF; (b) TCB.

-15 0 (25 °C) are shown in Figure 10. The five

More results of TCSF and TCB under room temperature
5 20 35 50 65 80 5 20and the
35 average
50 TCSF65 is about
80
results of TCSF are all very low. The max TCSF is −16.1 ppm/°C,
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
−9.8 ppm/°C. The significant improvement on TCSF is also verified by the comparison in Table 3. The
max TCB is 294 μg/°C,(a) and the average TCB is 179 μg/°C. TCB is in the same (b) order of those found in
the literature [4,13–16].
Figure The comparison
9. Temperature in Table 3 of
dependences also verifies
TCSF the significant
and TCB. (a) TCSF; (b)improvement
TCB. on TCB.
Though TCSF Figure 9. Temperature
and TCB dependences
are both reduced, thereofexists
TCSF deviation
and TCB. (a) TCSF; (b)
between theTCB.experimental results
and theMore theoretical
results ofresults
TCSF and estimated in section
TCB under 4. For example,
room temperature theare
(25 °C) average
shownTCSF of −9.8
in Figure 10. ppm/°C
The five
More results of TCSF andlow.
TCBThe
under ◦
deviates
results offrom
TCSF theare
theoretical
all very result isroom
thatmax close
TCSF temperature
to is
zero. The
−16.1 (25 C) are
average
ppm/°C, ofshown
and the in Figure
themeasured
average 10. is
TCB
TCSF The five
is about
about
results of TCSF are all very low. The max TCSF is − 16.1 ppm/ ◦ C, and the average TCSF is about
34.4% of that in the previous work. However, the estimation shows that the theoretical
−9.8 ppm/°C. The significant improvement on TCSF is also verified by the comparison in Table 3. The TCB estimated
− 9.8 ppm/ ◦ C. The significant improvement on TCSF is also verified by the comparison in Table 3.
in thisTCB
max work is about
is 294 20%
μg/°C, andof the
thataverage
estimated
TCB in is
the179previous
μg/°C. TCBwork.isThese
in the deviations
same orderindicate
of thosethat
foundtherein
The
existmax
some TCB is
other 294
factors
µg/ ◦affecting
C, and the average
TCSF and TCB
TCB, is 179
such as
µg/ ◦ C.temperature
the TCB is in the same order
dependence of
ofthose
the found
circuit.
the literature [4,13–16]. The comparison in Table 3 also verifies the significant improvement on TCB.
in theThough
literature
Therefore, more [4,13–16].
TCSFfactors Theare
must
and TCB comparison
be considered
both inin
reduced, Table 3 exists
also verifies
the future
there study. the between
deviation significanttheimprovement
experimentalon TCB.
results
and the theoretical results estimated in section 4. For example, the average TCSF of −9.8 ppm/°C
0 300The average of the measured TCB is about
deviates from the theoretical result that is close to zero.
250 shows that the theoretical TCB estimated
34.4% of that in the previous work. However, the estimation
-5
TCSF (ppm/°C）

in this work is about 20% of that estimated in the previous

200 work. These deviations indicate that there
TCB (μg/°C)

exist-10
some other factors affecting TCSF and TCB, such as the temperature dependence of the circuit.
150
Therefore, more factors must be considered in the future study.
-15 100
0 300
50
-20 250
0
-5 1 2 3 4 5
TCSF (ppm/°C）

1 2 3 4 5
TCB (μg/°C)

200
-10 150
(a) (b)
-15 100
Figure 10. Measured results of TCSF and TCB for five accelerometers under room temperature
Figure 10. Measured results of TCSF and TCB for five accelerometers
50 under room temperature (25 ◦ C).
(25 °C). (a) TCSF; (b) TCB.
-20
(a) TCSF; (b) TCB.
0
1 2 3 4 5
Table 3. Comparison of measured TCSF and TCB between this 1 work and
2 the previous
3 4work. 5
Table 3. Comparison of measured TCSF and TCB between this work and the previous work.
Parameter
(a) In This Work In Previous Work Units
(b)Units
Parameter In This Work In Previous Work
average: −9.8 average: −50.8
Figure 10. MeasuredTCSF results ofaverage:
TCSF and−9.8TCB for five accelerometers
average: under room
−50.8 ppm/°C temperature
TCSF max:−−16.1 max: −62.6 ppm/◦ C
(25 °C). (a) TCSF; (b) TCB. max: 16.1 max: −62.6
average: 179
average: 179 average: 520
average: 520
TCBTCBof measured TCSF and TCB between this work and µg/◦ C
μg/°C
Table 3. Comparison max:
max:294
294 max:
max: 1033
1033 the previous work.

Parameter In This Work In Previous Work Units

Though TCSF and TCB are both reduced, there exists deviation between the experimental results
average: −9.8 average: −50.8
and the theoretical results estimated in Section 4. For example, the average
TCSF ppm/°CTCSF of −9.8 ppm/◦ C
max: −16.1 max: −62.6
deviates from the theoretical result that is close to zero. The average of the measured TCB is about
34.4% of that in the previous work. average:
However,179 average:
the estimation 520 that the theoretical TCB estimated
shows
TCB μg/°C
in this work is about 20% of that estimated in the previous
max: 294 work.
max: 1033 These deviations indicate that there
 The linearity error is measured by precision centrifuge testing for linear accelerometers. In short,
an accelerometer is mounted on the centrifuge, and the sensitive direction is along with the radius.
Then, the accelerometer is tested under different centrifugal accelerations. The distribution of
centrifugal accelerations is [0 g, 5 g, 10 g, 15 g, 20 g, 15 g, 10 g, 5 g, 0 g]. Then, the accelerometer is
remounted
Sensors 2018, 18,to643invert the sensitive direction, so the output under the negative accelerations 11 ofare
13
tested. When the output under different accelerations is obtained, a least-squares linear fit of the
input-output data is made. Finally, the linearity error is calculated by Equation (7).
exist some other factors affecting TCSF and TCB, such as the temperature dependence of the circuit.
The measuring results of linearity error are shown in Figure 11. The average linearity error for
Therefore, more factors must be considered in the future study.
the five accelerometers designed in this work is about 0.84%. On the other side, the average linearity
error
5.2. for fiveError
Linearity accelerometers designed in the previous work is about 1.16%. The measured linearity
error in this work is 72% of that in the previous work. As such, the lower linearity error is achieved
throughThe the
linearity error is
increasing of measured
WNGR. by precision centrifuge testing for linear accelerometers. In short,
an accelerometer is mounted
However, there exist deviations on the centrifuge,
between theand the sensitive
measured resultsdirection is along with
and the theoretical the Firstly,
results. radius.
Then, the accelerometer
the measured linearity error is tested
of 0.84%under different
is higher thancentrifugal accelerations.
the theoretical linearity errorTheofdistribution
0.4% listed of in
centrifugal accelerations is [0 g, 5 g, 10 g, 15 g, 20 g, 15 g, 10 g, 5 g, 0 g]. Then,
Table 2. Secondly, the result in Table 2 shows that the estimated linearity error for the accelerometers the accelerometer is
remounted
in this worktoisinvert thelower
slightly sensitive
thandirection,
that in the so previous
the output under
work. the negative
These deviationsaccelerations
may be made are tested.
by the
When the output under different accelerations is obtained, a least-squares linear
fringe capacitance. The results in the literature [22] show that the fringe capacitance also influences fit of the input-output
data is made.error.
the linearity Finally, the linearity
Because error iserror
the linearity calculated
modelby Equation (7).
established in this work does not consider the
fringe The measuring results
capacitance, of linearity
the estimated error are
linearity shown
error mayinunderestimate
Figure 11. The the average linearity
actual error
linearity for the
error. In
five accelerometers designed in this work is about 0.84%. On the other
addition, the decreased narrow gap decreases the proportion of fringe capacitance in the totalside, the average linearity error
for five accelerometers
capacitance. As a result,designed in theofprevious
the influence work is about
fringe capacitance 1.16%.
on the The measured
linearity linearity In
error is decreased. error
otherin
this
words,work theislinearity
72% of thaterrorinisthe previousbywork.
decreased As such, the
the decreasing lower
of the narrowlinearity
gap. error is achieved
As a result, through
the theoretical
the increasing of WNGR.
estimated result underestimates the actual improvement in the linearity error.

1.5 1.5
Linearity eroor (%)
Linearity eroor (%)

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

(a) (b)
Figure 11. Comparison of the experimental results of linearity error. (a) Experimental results of
Figure 11. Comparison of the experimental results of linearity error. (a) Experimental results of linearity
linearity error of the accelerometers designed in this work; (b) Experimental results of linearity error
error of the accelerometers designed in this work; (b) Experimental results of linearity error of the
of the accelerometers designed in the previous work.
accelerometers designed in the previous work.

6. Conclusions
However, there exist deviations between the measured results and the theoretical results. Firstly,
In this work,
the measured a structural
linearity error ofdesign
0.84%for is ahigher
bulk MEMS capacitive
than the accelerometer
theoretical linearity erroris proposed for both
of 0.4% listed in
low temperature
Table 2. Secondly, coefficient
the result inand linearity
Table 2 shows error.
thatFirstly, the contrary
the estimated linearityeffect
erroroffor
WNGR on TCSF and
the accelerometers
linearity
in error
this work is is illustrated
slightly lower and is avoided
than that in theby previous
an improved
work. structure. Within themay
These deviations improved structure,
be made by the
both TCSF and the linearity error decrease with increasing WNGR. Then, the precise
fringe capacitance. The results in the literature [22] show that the fringe capacitance also influences design of the
the
improved
linearity structure
error. Becauseis developed
the linearityforerror
achieving
modelmuch lower in
established TCBthisand
work TCSF
doeswith
not the precondition
consider of
the fringe
high linearity. Finally, the structural design for low TCB, TCSF and linearity error
capacitance, the estimated linearity error may underestimate the actual linearity error. In addition, is experimentally
verified.
the Experimental
decreased narrow gap results show that
decreases thethe new structural
proportion design
of fringe results inin
capacitance a linearity
the totalerror close to
capacitance.
0.84%,
As a TCBthe
a result, close to 179 μg/°C,
influence andcapacitance
of fringe a TCSF close ontothe
−9.8 ppm/°C.
linearity error is decreased. In other words,
the linearity error is decreased by the decreasing of the narrow gap. As a result, the theoretical
estimated result underestimates the actual improvement in the linearity error.

6. Conclusions
In this work, a structural design for a bulk MEMS capacitive accelerometer is proposed for both
low temperature coefficient and linearity error. Firstly, the contrary effect of WNGR on TCSF and
linearity error is illustrated and is avoided by an improved structure. Within the improved structure,
Sensors 2018, 18, 643 12 of 13

both TCSF and the linearity error decrease with increasing WNGR. Then, the precise design of the
improved structure is developed for achieving much lower TCB and TCSF with the precondition of
high linearity. Finally, the structural design for low TCB, TCSF and linearity error is experimentally
verified. Experimental results show that the new structural design results in a linearity error close to
0.84%, a TCB close to 179 µg/◦ C, and a TCSF close to −9.8 ppm/◦ C.
In future, more imperfect factors, such as the fringe capacitance and the temperature dependence
of the circuit, need to be coupled into the models for temperature coefficients and linearity error to
enable a more precise design. In addition, more parameters could be integrated into research, such as
mechanical noise, bias, and so on.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by NSAF (grant number U1530132); the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (grant number 51505068); the key scientific research fund of Xihua University (grant number
Z1620212).
Author Contributions: J.H. and W.Z. conceived and designed the idea and experiments; H.Y. and X.H. performed
the experiments; J.H. and P.P. analyzed the data; J.H. wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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