RESEARCH
Reflections on Native Language Use in Adult ESL Classrooms
Ana Huerta-Macias and Kerrie Kephart
University of Texas, El Paso, TX
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the issue of native language (LI) use in adult
English-as-a-second-language (ESL) classes, re-examining the
belief that use of the students' LI is detrimental to target language
learning. We discuss research that (a) documents language use in
several adult ESL classes in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands, and
(b) presents survey results regarding LI use in adult ESL classes.
The findings indicate that although LI use was uncommon in
the classes observed, the first language can serve as an important
pedagogical tool.
INTRODUCTION
Consider the following excerpt from a transcript of an
adult English-as-a-second-language (ESL) civics class
during which the bilingual instructor switched to the
students' native language (LI) several times as he described
the federal election system in the United States.
There's two types of elections; dos tipos de
elecciones; una es la pre-eleccion para seleccionar
los candidatos para los partidos públicos. So, as
we said, the democrats selected John Kerry in
2004 para representar su partido político; y los
republicanos seleccionaron George W. Bush para
representar su partido político.
Our system to elect a president, es muy
extraño nuestro sistema.
Ana Huerta-Macias is a professor and director of the PhD program in the Department of Teacher Education at the University of Texas in EI Paso. Kerrie Kephart is
an assistant professor in the same department.
Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volume 3, Number 2, Summer 2009
The scenario above is perhaps atypical because switches
to Spanish happened more frequently than in many other
ESL classes where the native language is used. This may
have been because of the strong emphasis on content as
opposed to grammar in this particular class. The guest
instructor wanted to ensure that the students understood
the basic civic notions he was attempting to teach. Spanish,
moreover, was the only native language represented in
the class—thus the instructor felt comfortable using it to
get his points across. Regardless, the example serves to
illustrate the idea of using the native language in adult ESL
classes as a scaffold for student learning.
This paper explores the notion of using the native
language in adult ESL classes.
Some instructors argue that the target language (TL)
should be used as close to 100% of the time as possible
in adult ESL classes. They comment on their feelings of
guilt or even failure when they reflect on classes where the
students' native language was used. This is often followed by
a firm resolve not to allow students to "revert" to the native
language anymore. The resolve is sometimes accompanied
by a system of demerits for students who lapse into LI
and rewards for those who use only English or the target
language in class.
Yet, a review of the research literature in this area
indicates that a rationale for or evidence in support of
87
Huerta-Macias and Kepíiart
using the TL to the exclusion of Ll in ESL classes is rarely
articulated. Why? The belief that the native language
should be avoided appears to he rooted in an idea that—
at least on the surface—seems like common sense: the
amount of exposure to the TL is directly proportional to
the proficiency students develop in the given language. That
is, the more they are exposed to the TL, the faster they will
acquire it. This belief was perhaps fueled by early work of
audiolinguists who claimed that the native language was a
source of interference in ESL classes (Cook, 2001; Lado
and Fries, 1972; Rivers, 1968).
A review of the research literature, however, reveals
that there is no evidence to support such a belief. In fact,
there is a considerable body of literature that supports
the opposite—that the use of a student's native language
in the classroom can facilitate acquisition of the TL.
Our aim in the first part of this paper is to explore the
research literature in order to respond to the following
four questions:
1. Is TL-only use in adult ESL classes
supported by research?
2. What is the theoretical rationale for Ll use
in ESL instruction?
3. How has the Ll been used effectively in ESL
classrooms?
4. In what types of ESL contexts might the Ll
be used most effectively?
The second part of our paper presents some
observational and survey data that we gathered in
preliminary investigations of Ll use in adult ESL classes.
The paper ends with a call for further research on how we
as language educators might best harness and use the Ll to
better meet the language and cognitive development needs
of our students.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Several issues related to use of a student's native language
have been discussed in the literature, the most significant
of which are discussed below. These issues are both
theoretical and pedagogical; they deal with the affective
aspects of learning, with what we know about bilingualism,
with academic development, and with effective classroom
practice. The following sections discuss these issues with a
focus on adult ESL classes.
88 Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volume 3, Number 2, Summer 2009
Tbe Affect in Learning
The role of the emotions in the teaching and learning
process is affirmed in the research literature. Nelson and
Low (2003) base their work on the theoretical principle
that "an individual organizes and learns information by
using both thinking (cognitive) and feeling (emotional)
systems" (p. xiv). In her discussion of adult learning
theory, Merriam (2004) devotes a section to the role
of emotions, body, and spirit in learning. She reaffirms
what Dirkx states, that the emotions are "gateways to
the unconscious and our emotional, feeling selves" and
that emotions and feelings connect to the "shared ideas
within the world" (cited in Merriam, 2004, pp. 213-4).
Of relevance here is the idea that the affect, or emotional
self, is a strong factor in learning, thus the connection to
emotions in ESL learning. Hudelson and Faltis (1994)
further strengthen this connection by stating that
the use of the native language enables learners to join
English language discussions with more confidence and
understanding. As a rationale for native language use in
ESL classrooms, they include not only the learning of
content hut also the affective-psychological benefits. They
indicate that "learners may react more positively to the
new language if they experience acceptance and valuing of
the native language" (p. 464).
While this is a complex area of research where
definitive outcomes are difficult due to the many
uncontrollable factors in a given classroom, this line of
research tends to support the use of the native language in
ESL classrooms as a way of creating an environment that
is more conducive to learning.
The Nature of Bilingualism
Adults entering ESL classrooms come with varying levels
of proficiency in English and are often, in essence, bilingual
to some degree. It is important to consider research findings
about bilingualism and the second-language learning
process in adults when making policy decisions about the
use of native languages in ESL classrooms.
Cook (1992), for example, reminds us that a bilingual
is not the equivalent of two monolinguals, and that the
two languages of the bilingual are always "on tap." Learners
cannot simply shut down their knowledge of one language
when using the other; instead, expression is more a
matter of activating the language that one wishes to use
at the moment. This idea is congruent with the work of

Cummins (1980) who has long argued that bilinguals
have a common underlying proficiency, a common core of
linguistic knowledge in both languages.
Paradis (2004) elaborates on the neurolinguistic
aspects of bilingualism in his discussion of word meanings.
He indicates that the meanings of words are language-
specific, even though their mental representations are not;
that is, "The conceptual store is language-independent."
(p. 201). He provides an example: the word hair in
English encompasses the features of two French words,
cheveux (hair that grows on the scalp) and poil (hair that
grows on the face or elsewhere on the body). Thus, while
the French words cannot be used interchangeably because
of their specific defining features, the English word can.
One might extend this same argument to Spanish, where
cabello (human hair) and vello (the fine hair on one's face
or arms) cannot be used interchangeably although they
both translate to English hair. These notions regarding
bilingualism support the use of native languages to help
learners organize semantic categories of words they are
acquiring in a second or foreign language. Using the Ll
provides an efficient and accurate means for analyzing
semantic features of words and their appropriate use
in diverse contexts in the second or foreign language.
Additionally, the idea that both languages of a bilingual
are always present makes it particularly challenging to
disallow use of the native language, especially when
discussing complex subject matter. Adults whose
cognitive development exceeds their linguistic ability in
the TL may find an English-only class frustrating when
they are trying to participate in discussions that require
critical thinking. In their discussion of bilingualism and
a sociocultural approach to language learning. Chin and
Wigglesworth (2007) affirm the idea of using the native
language as a tool in learning a second language:
Even if thefirstlanguage is being used, it is being
used as a tool for learning, and such activity
contributes towards mental activity, and may
allow students to work at a higher level than
that which can be achieved in a second or third
language, (p. 227)
These notions about bilingualism lead to another issue
central to the argument over Ll versus target language use
in the classroom—academic development.
Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volume 3, Number 2, Summer 2009
Native Language Use in ESL Classrooms
Academic Development
Unlike students in K-12 settings, adults in school are
usually not taught English language arts, social studies,
science, mathematics, and other subject matter on a day-
to-day basis. Adults seeking to develop or enhance their
English language skills are placed into ESL classes where
the curriculum varies, depending on the goals ofthe class.
Some classes, for instance, focus on workplace literacy,
while others focus on family literacy, English for special
purposes, citizenship, or English for the GED. Regardless
of the nature of the ESL class, best practice in second
and foreign language instruction states that language is
best taught through content. That is, language should
not be taught for its own sake, but rather as a tool for
communication and learning (Stoller, 2002; Wrigley and
Guth, 1992). Students in a workforce literacy class, for
example, may learn how to read an instruction manual
for a piece of equipment, how to conduct an inventory, or
about the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) standards. Students preparing for the GED
communicate and learn about statistics, literature, science,
and other academic areas. In all cases, these students are
acquiring language and vocabulary relevant to the specific
content they are learning; thus, in effect, they are engaged
in cognitive and academic development.
The research in bilingual instruction with younger
students has repeatedly indicated that students must keep
up in the content areas while they are acquiring language
if they are to succeed in school (Collier, 1995). The same
principles that inform bilingual instruction for younger
students also inform adult ESL: students learn best in
their stronger language, and content learned in the native
language transfers to English. This idea is also supported
by Ovando, Collier, and Combs (2006) who argue for the
use ofthe Ll as a platform for instruction in social studies
or other subject matter when Ll resources are available.
In other words, cognitive and academic development are
facilitated when the language that students know best is
used. The implication, therefore, is that use of the native
language can facilitate learning for adults in classes where
both English language development and learning of content
are objectives.
Other researchers in the area of teaching ESL address
appropriate uses of the native language. Auerbach (1993)
advocates for the use of Ll in adult ESL classrooms for
multiple purposes, such as establishing classroom routines.
89
Huerta-Macias and Kephart
explaining vocabulary, generating themes for lessons, and
enhancing comprehension. In her discussion of dialogue
journals, Larrotta (2008) recommends that students be
allowed to use the native language as a tool for learning the
second language.
In their study of what works in adult ESL classrooms,
Condelli and Wrigley (2006) found positive gains in
reading and oral English communication skills for students
whose teachers used the native language for purposes such
as clarifying concepts, introducing new ideas, or providing
explanations.
Anton and DiCamilla (1998), in their discussion ofthe
sociocognitive functions ofthe LI in language classrooms,
argue that:
The use of the LI in collaborative interaction
emerges not merely as a device to generate
content and to reflect on the material produced
but, more importantly, as a means to create a
social and cognitive space in which learners are
able to provide each other and themselves with
help throughout the task To prohibit the use
of LI in the classroom...removes, in effect, two
powerful tools for learning: the LI and effective
collaboration, (p. 18)
Native languages have been used successfully in adult
classrooms to create the cognitive, emotional, and social
spaces that are addressed in the research. Examples of
how this has played out for English language learners in
diverse literacy development contexts can be found in the
Discussion section of this paper.
Classroom Practice
The research literature on language use in foreign and
second language classrooms includes a number of studies
that look at the notion of LI use in target language (L2)
classrooms. We review some of this work below and
describe the findings regarding how the LI has been used
and beliefs surrounding the efficacy of that use. Macaro
(2001) used afive-secondsampling technique to measure
time spent in LI versus L2 in secondary French-as-a-
foreign-language classrooms taught by student teachers
where English was the students' LI. His findings revealed
"comparatively low levels of LI use by the student
teachers and little effect ofthe quantity of student teacher
90 Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volume 3, Number 2, Summer 2009
LI use on the quantity of LI or L2 use by the learners"
(p. 531). The recorded classroom speech using the
sampling technique revealed that "Only 4.8% (mean)
use of the LI across the lessons was recorded as a
proportion of total lesson time and only 6.9% (mean)
as a proportion of total talk" (p. 537). The author states,
furthermore, that "no study... has been able to demonstrate
a causal relationship between exclusion of the LI and
improved learning" (p. 544).
Cook (2001) argues for the merits of LI use in the
classroom. His re-examination of LI use in classrooms
leads him to conclude that "having a large amount of
meaningful L2 use, including samples of language relating
to external goals, does not preclude using the LI" (p. 410).
He elaborates that the arguments against LI use "rely
partly on a comparison of concepts that are ultimately
incommensurate—L2 learning is not LI acquisition,
and L2 users are not the same as LI users" (p. 410). In
cases where the teachers can speak the students' LI, he
believes that the LI can be looked at on its merits of
efficiency, learning, naturalness, and external relevance.
Cook describes some ofthe ways in which LI can be used
effectively: to explain grammar, to maintain discipline,
to test, to convey the meaning of words, to gain contact
with individuals, and as part of a main learning activity or
within learning activities.
Notwithstanding the research literature, it appears
that a common practice in adult ESL classrooms is to
limit, if not outright ban, the use of native languages in
the classroom. The next section describes the findings
of a preliminary study that looked at language use in
ESL classrooms in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands. First,
we describe the classrooms, the methodology, and the
outcomes. Then we discuss our survey data.
LANGUAGE USE IN ADULT ESL
CLASSROOMS
Research Design
We wanted to determine to what extent and for what
purposes the students' LI was used in these classes. Data
collection and analysis for the study took place in two parts.
First, we observed and made audio recordings of adult
ESL classes in the Borderland region and transcribed the
recordings.
In the second part of the study, we posted an online
survey on two listservs, one state-based ESL listserv

and one more broadly focused national listserv for
adult educators including those in community-based
organizations. Both have members across the country and
include adult ESL instructors. The primary goals of the
survey were (a) to further explore the extent and purposes
of the use of LI in adult ESL classes, (b) to broaden the
geographic range of our study, and (c) to determine what
programmatic policies are in place regarding language
of instruction in these classes. The following research
questions guided the design of our survey and analysis of
the results:
1. For what purposes do adult ESL instructors
use LI in the classroom?
2. Do ESL programs have policies regarding
native language use in ESL classrooms?
3. If instructors do not use the LI, why don't
they?
We describe our data collection and analysis methods
and our findings for each part of the study below.
Use of LI in Adult ESL Classes in the Borderland
Region
The classrooms in which the study took place are located in
the United States, within a metropolitan area that straddles
the U.S.-Mexico border and that encompasses two cities,
one on each side of the border. This metropolitan area
has a combined population of approximately 2 million
inhabitants. The economies of the two border cities are
closely entwined, and many people cross the border daily,
in both directions, to work or attend school. There is a high
rate of Spanish-English bilingualism within the population
Table 1
Adult ESL Classes Observed and Audio-Recorded
Number of classes
Course Provider
Workplace ESL Community college
Community college w/housing
Noncredit ESL
authority
Credit-bearing ESL Community college
Intensive ESL/conversation Four-year university
Intensive ESL/grammar Four-year university
Family literacy/civics Community- based organization
Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volume 3, Number 2, Summer 2009
Native Language Use in ESL Classrooms
in this region. This makes it useful to know both languages
but also relatively easy to navigate most activities of daily
life as a monolingual in either language.
We observed and made audio recordings of a total
of 1,150 minutes from 11 adult ESL class sessions in the
Borderland region. The classes we selected for observation
and recording included (a) a course in workplace ESL,
provided on the work site by instructors of a community
college; (b) a noncredit ESL course designed to help
students transition from adult basic education courses
into credit-bearing community college courses, provided
by community college instructors in collaboration with
the city housing authority; (c) a credit-bearing ESL course
at a community college; (d) two credit-bearing courses
in an intensive university ESL program, one focusing on
English grammar and the other on conversation; and (e)
two family literacy classes that emphasized civics, provided
by a community-based organization. The first language of
the vast majority of the students attending these classes
was Spanish. Summary information about these classes is
provided in Table 1.
We adopted a method from Macaro (2001) for
systematically sampling classroom interaction to measure
the extent to which the students' first language was used
in the course of instruction in a target language. Macaro
sampled talk in foreign language classrooms at five-second
intervals and noted which language, first or target, was
being spoken. In order to develop and test our method, we
observed and coded language use in two university Intensive
ESL classes. Following Macaros sampling technique, each
of us marked on a coding sheet which language was being
spoken at each interval and by whom, the instructor and/
or a student or students. Testing the method in this way
Time spent Number of Students
observed observing (minutes) per class
3 360 9
1 120 11
2 160 13&17
1 75 20
1 75 30
3 360 10-13
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Huerta-Macias and Kephart
allowed us to determine that synchronizing notations in
real time was extremely difficult and that such a method
was therefore unreliable and needed to be refined.
As a result of this difficulty with synchronous coding,
we decided to apply the five-second interval coding method
to recorded and digitized soundtracks from the family
literacy classes. Using the freeware program Audacity*,
we dubbed a track with a barely audible tone set at five-
second intervals over the digitized recordings of classroom
conversation. By using digitized recordings with preset
tones, we were able to review the recordings independently
while synchronizing the times at which notations would be
made. Under the revised method, we again coded at five-
second intervals which language was being spoken and
by whom. The recordings allowed us to check and revise
our initial coding before we compared the results. Under
this method, we achieved 84% inter-coder reliability. We
deemed the method reliable enough to apply it to the
recorded data from the six community college classes, our
primary data set.
We found that instructors rarely used Spanish (the
students' first language) in the observed classes. Spanish
was used most frequently by students and instructors in
the family literacy classes, not a surprising result given that
the aim of these classes was basic, nonacademic literacy
development along with instruction in civics. In the university
classes, Spanish was spoken occasionally and briefly by the
students in off-the-record conversations, but was not used
by the instructors at all during class time. In the student
conversations, we surmise that the primary communicative
purpose for using Spanish was to clarify meanings in the
on-record conversation that was occurring simultaneously
in English. However, since we did not audio-record these
conversations, this observation is purely speculative. Our
purpose for recording the family literacy classes was to
develop and refine our coding scheme, and we did not analyze
and code all of the recorded data fi-om them. Therefore, we
cannot report how often the Ll was used in these classes.
In a focus interview with ESL coordinators at one
community college campus, we were told that there was a
strict departmental policy against the use of the students'
first languages in ESL classes on that campus. In the
community college classrooms we observed and recorded,
English predominated as the language of instruction. Use
of Spanish was relatively uncommon. It was so infrequent,
in fact, that we were able to count each instance of a switch
92 Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volume 3, Nunnber 2, Summer 2009
into Spanish. Most of these instances were for translation
of a word or phrase. The switches were so brief that many
would probably not have been coded using the five-second
sampling method. Therefore, we ultimately abandoned the
sampling method for this data set. Instead, we counted the
instances of use of Spanish and attempted to infer some of
the purposes for switching languages.
We recorded 620 minutes (approximately 10.5
hours) of community college classroom interaction over
six class sessions with three different instructors. In all
that time, there were only 56 instances' where instructors
switched briefly from English into Spanish. While it was
not possible to discern the reason for every one of these
switches, and we did not conduct interviews with the
instructors to inquire into their reasoning, we can infer
purposes of switching in some instances. For example,
one common reason for switching was to translate a word
or a phrase from one language to the other. Other reasons
included comparing grammar across the languages and
using Spanish in ways that seemed to create an atmosphere
of affirmation of the students' native language. Here are
some examples.
Translation of a word or phrase.
Instructors commonly switched into Spanish to provide
a quick translation of a word or phrase. Sometimes an
instructor provided an English translation when a student
uttered a word in Spanish and asked for a translation, as
in an instance where a student making a presentation in
English asked how to say archivos. The instructor quickly
provided the word files; the student repeated the word
and continued with the presentation. In another case, an
instructor demonstrated a drawback of attempting to use
the students' Ll when he provided an incorrect Spanish
translation for an English word he wanted to make certain
the students knew. At first the instructor provided a
definition in English for the word silo, then he attempted to
translate the word into Spanish:
Instructor: Silo, where they store grain. They
are the towers where they store the
grain.
Student: Granja.
Instructor: Ah, that's a barn. Silo. What's a
 Native Language Use in ESL Ciassrooms

silo in Spanish? Molino, no? Is that Student: El trabajará en la universidad.

the word in Spanish?
Instructor: This is different. Now say this: He is
That the students did not correct the instructor going to work. In Spanish.
and offer the word silo (the correct Spanish translation,
pronounced see-lo) might indicate that they are unfamiliar Student: El trabajará.
with this type of farm building and therefore do not know
this word in either language. Student: El va a trabajar en la universidad.

Comparative grammar. Instructor: Yeah! So you can't say"£/ va a trabajaré."

One instructor twice used Spanish during a class session
to conduct a mini-lesson in comparative grammar. Student: No.
For example, to help her students understand the
formation of the future tense in English, the instructor Instructor: So you can't mix the two.
I asked the students to translate "He will have work" into
I Spanish: Promoting a positive affective environment for
learning.
Instructor: Yes, the future. He will have work. Next Conversation among students before and after class is
year he will have work. Yes he will. How generally in Spanish. Sometimes an instructor will join
do you say he will have work in in this pre- or post-lesson chatting in Spanish, suggesting
Spanish? that he or she wants to create a welcoming environment
and acknowledges the linguistic identity the students bring
(Students joke about not being allowed to use Spanish into the classroom. Some instructors use switching into
in ESL class.) English at the beginning of class to indicate to students
that it is time for the lesson to begin. One instructor
Student: It have... whose class we recorded bantered with students in both
English and Spanish before class started. As she called
Instructor: And we'll look again at the grammar. We roll, students answered, "Here," but continued to chat
are going to look at it. OK? How do you among themselves in Spanish. To refer to a student
say this in Spanish? who shared the same first name as another student in
the class, the instructor called out, "Alfredo-el-otro?"
Student: Trabajo. (the other Alfredo) several times, waiting for a response
from a student who apparently was not present that
Instructor: No. Will work. day. After completing the roll call, the instructor spoke
in English and the lesson began. By switching between
Student: Trabajaré. languages this way, the instructor and the students made
what seemed to be a relatively natural transition between
Student: Trabajaré. the informal language of pre-class conversation and the
formal language of instruction.
Instructor: No. He.
Survey of Adult ESL Instructors
Student: El trabajará. To further investigate the use of students' L l in adult ESL
classes, we designed a brief survey which we distributed to
Student: El trabajará. ESL instructors over two Internet listservs with national
memberships. The national listserv produced the greatest
Instructor: Is that the same form? number of responses. We created the questionnaire with

Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journai • Voiume 3, Number 2, Summer 2009 93
Huerta-Macias and Kephart
Survey Monkey software. It included questions about
(a) when and why instructors might use the students'
native language(s); (b) whether the programs they were
affiliated with had explicit policies regarding use of
students' native languages, and if so, the nature of those
policies; (c) reasons why an instructor might not use his
or her students' native language(s); and (d) instructors'
policies regarding students' use of native language(s) in
class. (See Appendix, page 95.)
Eighty-four adult ESL instructors took the survey,
and 64 answered all of the questions. Of the 64, the vast
majority (54, or 84%) indicated that they use their students'
native languages for purposes such as (a) translating a few
words here and there (47, or 73%), (b) chatting before or
after class (29, or 45%), or (c) giving task or assignment
instructions (10, or 16%). Seven respondents (11%)
indicated that they use their students' native languages
for teaching course content. Respondents mentioned
several other purposes, including comparative grammar
instruction, an oral history project, help for students who
wanted to translate assignments and difficult vocabulary for
each other, advisement, and creating a welcoming affective
environment in the classroom.
With regard to program policies, only four
respondents (6%) indicated that the programs with which
they were affiliated prohibited instructors from using
students' native languages. The majority of respondents
(52%) indicated that their programs had no formal policy
on instructors' use of students' Ll. Seventeen (27%)
indicated that their programs' policies allowed instructors
to use students' native languages for specific or special
purposes. Only 11% of respondents'programs encouraged
the use of students' native languages.
The most common reason given for not using students'
Ll was the multilingual make-up of classes (43% of
respondents). Other significant reasons included the belief
that using native languages slows students' progress in
English (27%), and the instructors' lack of proficiency in
their students'firstlanguages (25%).
Respondents indicated a relatively accepting
attitude toward students' use of their native languages
in class. Twenty-six respondents (41%) indicated that
they allow or encourage students to use the Ll in class.
Twenty-three (36%) have no policy. Just fifteen (23%)
indicated that they prohibit all use of native language(s)
by students.
94 Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volume 3, Number 2, Summer 2009
DISCUSSION
As we discussed in the first part of this paper, the belief
that use ofthe students' first language in second language
classes is detrimental to their second language development
is not supported by the research literature. In adult ESL
classes in the Borderlands between the United States and
Mexico, where English-dominant speakers and Spanish-
dominant speakers come into contact with each other
regularly and, indeed, both languages are spoken by the
majority of the population, the insistence that students
and instructors in ESL classes speak English seems as
arbitrary as it is unnatural. Thus, we question the validity
of English-only policies in second language classrooms in
the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands.
The difficulty of using Ll in classes where students
come from many linguistic backgrounds was pointed
out in our survey data. The U.S.-Mexico Borderlands
area provides a context where adult ESL classes are very
homogeneous—Spanish is the native language in the great
majority of them. Thus, the use of Ll in this context may
be more practical than in a multilingual context. However,
the use of the Ll does not imply that the instructor
must be multilingual. The students themselves can use
their Ll in ways described earlier to facilitate acquisition
of the TL. The insttuctor's role in this case would be to
create a learning design for the class that would promote
and plan for this type of native language scaffolding;
collaborative learning designs, for example, would
be crucial.
Of interest in this study were the contradictory
findings from classroom observations in the Borderland
region (minimal use of Spanish in ESL classes) and from
national survey data (indicating that the majority of
instructors use some Ll in ESL classes). While there was
an explicit policy prohibiting the use ofthe students' Ll in
some ofthe community college classes we observed, and all
four instructors in a focus group interview there espoused
a belief that use of the students' Ll was detrimental to
their L2 development, the majority of survey respondents
said they did use the students' Ll in the classroom. We
can perhaps explain this apparent difference by looking
at contextual factors for each of the data sources. Further
investigation into the sources of these beliefs might reveal,
for instance, hypersensitivity to the use of Spanish in the
observed ESL classes because instructors felt that the
class was one of few opportunities for students to practice

communicating only in English, since the bilingual
environment outside the classroom allowed students to
get by with Spanish or a combination of Spanish and
English. Thus, the use of English-only or near-English-
only in these classrooms, with the exception of the family
literacy class, might be due to the bilingual context of the
U.S.-Mexico Borderlands.
On the other hand, our survey data seemed to
indicate that survey respondents were more likely to use
the first language in their ESL classrooms. Only four
indicated that they were prohibited from using the LI in
class. We can speculate on why survey respondents were
more open to using the students' first language in class.
First, they were members of professional listservs; thus,
they represented a segment of the instructor population
that had perhaps received more exposure to current
research findings, policies, and practices in the field of
adult ESL literacy. One might expect them to be more
open to nontraditional classroom practice. Additionally,
the respondents probably represented diverse geographic
regions in the United States. (The survey did not provide
e-mail addresses or other data that would have allowed
us to confirm this.) Other regions may demand the
use of English for effective communication outside the
classroom in a way that the Borderlands do not. Thus, it is
possible that these instructors may not consider using the
LI in class to be something that robs students of valuable
English language practice time.
The differences between what we observed in the
Borderlands classes and the results of the survey raise
the question of which contexts and purposes are most
appropriate for LI use in ESL instruction. The family
literacy/civics classes used Spanish much more often than
the others did. As discussed above, switching in the other
classes was rare. How might one explain thesefindings?An
examination of the data and research literature suggests
that the context and goals for a given ESL class may be the
most important factor in determining to what extent the
LI should be used in instruction. In the family literacy/
civics class, for instance, an upcoming election made it vital
for students to understand the U.S. voting process.
The instructor in the noncredit community college
class occasionally used Spanish when, for instance, she
translated a word or phrase or explained a grammatical
feature of English by comparing it to Spanish. Spanish
was perhaps used by the instructor in this instance
Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volume 3, Number 2, Summer 2009
Native Language Use in ESL Classrooms
because the class was running late and she felt that
switching to Spanish would allow her to move the class
forward more quickly.
We suggest that the use of LI in a given class is driven by
the immediate context and goals of a class session as well as
by the overall goals ofthe course. When the primary goal is
to ensure comprehension of content, and when students are
struggling with complex and/or abstract concepts, then LI
use may be appropriate. Likewise, an instructor might use
the LI to convey a point, particularly when other strategies
APPENDIX
Survey Form
1. I'm an adult ESL instructor. (Yes/No)
2. As an adult ESL instructor, I use my students' native
language(s) for (check all that apply):
a) teaching course content
b) giving tests or assignment instructions
c) translating a few words here and there
d) chatting before or after class
e) other (please specify)
3. The ESL program I'm affiliated with has the following
policy regarding instructors' use of students' native
language(s) (check the one that best describes your
program's policy):
a) encourages/permits the use of students' native
language
b) prohibits the use of students' native language
c) allows use of students' native language for specific/
special purposes
d) allows use of students' native language only in
beginning classes
e) my program does not have a formal policy regarding
instructors' use of students' native language
4. Irrespective of program policy, I do not use my students'
native language(s) because (check all that apply):
a) I have no proficiency in their native language.
b) I have a multilingual class.
c) I believe it slows their progress in English.
d) Does not apply to me.
5. Regarding student use of their native language in my
class(es) (check the one that best describes your policy):
a) I allow/encourage my students to use their native
language(s) during selected activities.
b) I prohibit all use of native language(s) by students.
c) I have no policy regarding students' use of their
native language(s).
95
Huerta-Macias and Kephart
(body language, rephrasing using simpler English) have not
been effective. In other instances, such as when an instructor
is chatting with students at the beginning of a class while
waiting for latecomers, the social context might indicate
that LI use is appropriate. Thus, there is no single or simple
answer to the question of when LI use is appropriate or
for what purposes. The contexts and purposes vary greatly,
and effective use of LI can be made by considering all
relevant factors.
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ENDNOTES
' For the purposes of this analysis, an instance is counted as any use of Spanish hy the instructor that is bounded with English before and after. Note that the vast
majority of the instructors' communications in these classes were in English. Thus, if an instructor inserted one Spanish word, phrase, or sentence into a stream of
English, that would be counted as a single instance. Translation of a Spanish word into English by an instructor at the request of a student was also counted as an
instance, even if the instructor did not say the Spanish word.
96 Adult Basic Education and Literacy Journal • Volunne 3, Number 2, Summer 2009
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