Sonata form

Sonata form (also sonata-allegro form or first

movement form) is a musical structure consisting
of three main sections: an exposition, a
development, and a recapitulation. It has been
used widely since the middle of the 18th century
(the early Classical period). [1]:57
Simplest sonata form pattern and its relation to binary form.
While it is typically used in the first movement of
multi-movement pieces, it is sometimes used in
subsequent movements as well—particularly the
final movement. The teaching of sonata form in
music theory rests on a standard definition and a
series of hypotheses about the underlying reasons
Classical sonata form in aminor key.[2]
for the durability and variety of the form—a
definition that arose in the second quarter of the
19th century.[5] There is little disagreement that
on the largest level, the form consists of three
main sections: an exposition, a development, and
a recapitulation;[6]:359 however, beneath this
general structure, sonata form is difficult to pin
Early examples of sonata form resemble two-reprise continuous
down to a single model.
ternary form.[3]

The standard definition focuses on the thematic

and harmonic organization of tonal materials that
are presented in an exposition, elaborated and
contrasted in a development and then resolved
harmonically and thematically in a recapitulation.
[4]
Sonata form, optional features in parentheses.
In addition, the standard definition recognizes that
an introduction and a coda may be present. Each
of the sections is often further divided or characterized by the particular means by which it accomplishes its function in the form.

After its establishment, the sonata form became the most common form in the first movement of works entitled "sonata", as well as
other long works of classical music, including the symphony, concerto, string quartet, and so on.[6]:359 Accordingly, there is a large
body of theory on what unifies and distinguishes practice in the sonata form, both within eras and between eras. Even works that do
not adhere to the standard description of a sonata form often present analogous structures or can be analyzed as elaborations or
expansions of the standard description of sonata form.

Contents
Defining 'sonata form'
Definition as a formal model
Outline of sonata form
Introduction
Exposition
Development
 Recapitulation
Coda
Variations on the standard schema
Monothematic expositions
Expositions that modulate to other keys
Expositions with more than two key areas
Modulations within the first subject group
Recapitulations in the "wrong key"
Partial recapitulations
Truncated sonata form
Sonata form in concerti
The history of sonata form
Sonata form and other musical forms
Theory of sonata form
Musical criticism and sonata form
See also
References
Further reading

Defining 'sonata form'

According to the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, sonata
form is "the most important principle of musical form, or formal
type, from the Classical period well into the 20th century".[7] As a
formal model it is usually best exemplified in the first movements of
multi-movement works from this period, whether orchestral or
chamber, and has, thus, been referred to frequently as "first-
movement form" or "sonata-allegro form" (since the typical first
movement in a three- or four-movement cycle will be in allegro
tempo). However, as what Grove, following Charles Rosen, calls a Baroque binary forms roots in sonata form[1]:57
"principle"—a typical approach to shaping a large piece of
instrumental music—it can be seen to be active in a much greater
variety of pieces and genres, from minuet to concerto to sonata-rondo. It also carries with it expressive and stylistic connotations:
"sonata style", for Donald Tovey as for other theorists of his time, was characterized by drama, dynamism, and a "psychological"
approach to theme and expression.[7]

Although the Italian term sonata often refers to a piece in sonata form, it is essential to separate the two. As the title for a single-
movement piece of instrumental music—the past participle of suonare, "to sound", as opposed to cantata, the past participle of
cantare, "to sing"—"sonata" covers many pieces from theBaroque and mid-18th century that are not "in sonata form". Conversely, in
the late 18th century or "Classical" period, the title "sonata" is typically given to a work composed of three or four movements.
Nonetheless, this multi-movement sequence is not what is meant by sonata form, which refers to the structure of an individual
movement.

The definition of sonata form in terms of musical elements sits uneasily between two historical eras. Although the late 18th century
witnessed the most exemplary achievements in the form, above all from Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
compositional theory of the time did not use the term "sonata form". Perhaps the most extensive contemporary description of the
sonata-form type of movement may have been given by the theorist H. C. Koch in 1793: like earlier German theorists and unlike
many of the descriptions of the form we are used to today, he defined it in terms of the movement's plan of modulation and principal
cadences, without saying a great deal about the treatment of themes. Seen in this way, sonata form was closest to binary form, out of
which it probably developed.[7]

The model of the form that is often taught currently tends to be more thematically differentiated. It was originally promulgated by
Anton Reicha in Traité de haute composition musicale in 1826, by Adolf Bernhard Marx in Die Lehre von der musikalischen
Komposition in 1845, and by Carl Czerny in 1848. Marx may be the originator of the term "sonata form". This model was derived
from study and criticism ofBeethoven's piano sonatas.

Definition as a formal model

A sonata-allegro movement is divided into sections. Each section is felt to perform specific functions in the
musical argument.

It may begin with an introduction, which is, in general, slower than the main movement. In terms of structure,
introductions are an upbeat before the main musical argument.
The first required section is theexposition. The exposition presents the primary thematic material for the movement:
one or two themes or theme groups, often in contrasting styles and in opposingkeys, connected by a modulating
transition. The exposition typically concludes with aclosing theme, a codetta, or both.
The exposition is followed by thedevelopment where the harmonic and textural possibilities of the thematic material
are explored.
The development then re-transitions back to therecapitulation where the thematic material returns in thetonic key,
and for the recapitulation to complete the musical argument, material that has not been stated in the tonic key is
"resolved" by being played, in whole or in part, in the tonic.
The movement may conclude with acoda, beyond the final cadence of the recapitulation.
The term 'sonata form' is controversial and has been called misleading by scholars and composers almost from its inception. Its
originators implied that there was a set template to which Classical and Romantic composers aspired, or should aspire. However,
sonata form is currently viewed as a model for musical analysis, rather than compositional practice. Although the descriptions on this
page could be considered an adequate analysis of many first-movement structures, there are enough variations that theorists such as
[5]
Charles Rosen have felt them to warrant the plural in 'sonata forms'.

These variations include, but are not limited to:

a monothematic exposition, where the same material is presented in dif ferent keys, often used byHaydn;
a 'third subject group' in a different key than the other two, used by Schubert (e.g. in the String Quintet, D. 956),
Brahms, and Bruckner;
the first subject recapitulated in the 'wrong' key, often the subdominant, as in Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 16 in C, K.
545 and Schubert's Symphony No. 5;
the second subject group recapitulated in a key other than the tonic, as in Richard Strauss's Symphony No. 2.
and an extended coda section that pursues developmental, rather than concluding, processes, often found in
Beethoven's middle-period works, such as hisSymphony No. 3.
Through the Romantic period, formal distortions and variations become so widespread (Mahler, Elgar and Sibelius among others are
cited and studied by James Hepokoski) that 'sonata form' as it is outlined here is not adequate to describe the complex musical
structures that it is often applied to.

In the context of the many late-Baroque extended binary forms that bear similarities to sonata form, sonata form can be distinguished
by the following three characteristics:[7]

a separate development section including aretransition

the simultaneous return of the first subject group and thetonic
a full (or close to full) recapitulation of the second subject group

Outline of sonata form

The standard description of the sonata form is:
Introduction
The Introduction section is optional, or may be reduced to a minimum. If it is extended, it is, in general, slower than the main section
and frequently focuses on the dominant key. It may or may not contain material that is later stated in the exposition. The introduction
increases the weight of the movement (such as the famous dissonant introduction to Mozart's "Dissonance" Quartet, KV 465), and
also permits the composer to begin the exposition with a theme that would be too light to start on its own, as in Haydn's Symphony
No. 103 ("The Drumroll") and Beethoven's Quintet for Piano and Winds Op. 16. The introduction usually is not included in the
exposition repeat: the Pathétique is a possible counterexample. Much later, Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 2 (Op. 35) is a clear example
where the introduction is so included.

On occasion, the material of introduction reappears in its original tempo later in the movement. Often, this occurs as late as the coda,
as in Mozart's String Quintet in D major KV 593, Haydn's "Drumroll" Symphony, Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 8 ("Pathétique"), or
Schubert's Symphony No. 9 ("Great"). Sometimes it can appear earlier: it occurs at the beginning of the development in the
Pathétique Sonata, and at the beginning of the recapitulation of Schubert'sSymphony No. 1.

Exposition
The primary thematic material for the movement is presented in the Exposition. This section can be further divided into several
sections. The same section in most sonata form movements has prominent harmonic and thematic parallelisms (although in some
works from the 19th century and onward, some of these parallelisms are subject to considerable exceptions), which include:

First subject group, P (Prime) – this consists of one or morethemes, all

of them in the tonic key. Although some pieces are written differently,
most follow this form.

Transition, T – in this section the composer modulates from the key of

the first subject to the key of the second. If the first group is in a major
key, the second group will usually be in thedominant key. However, if
the first group is in minor key, the second group will usually be the First theme (G major) and transition
relative major. from counterstatement (to D major)
from Haydn's Keyboard Sonata, Hob.
Second subject group, S – one or more themes in a different key from
XVI: G1, I, mm. 1–12 Play .[6]:136
the first group. The material of the second group is often different in
rhythm or mood from that of the first group (frequently
, it is more lyrical).
Codetta, K – the purpose of this is to bring the exposition section to a
close with a perfect cadence in the same key as the second group. It is
not always used, and some works end the exposition on the second
subject group. Start of second subject (D major) of
The exposition is commonly repeated, particularly in classical works, and more Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob.
likely in solo or chamber works than for concerti. Often, though not always, the last XVI: G1, I, mm. 13–16 Play .
measure or measures of the exposition are slightly different between the repeats, one
to point back to the tonic, where the exposition began, and the second to point
towards the development.

Development
End of second subject and Codetta
In general, the Development starts in the same key as the exposition ended, and may (D major) of Haydn's Sonata in G
move through many different keys during its course. It will usually consist of one or Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 17–28
more themes from the exposition altered and on occasion juxtaposed and may Play
include new material or themes—though exactly what is acceptable practice is a
point of contention. Alterations include taking material through distant keys,
breaking down of themes and sequencing of motifs, and so forth.
The development varies greatly in length from piece to
piece and from time period to time period, sometimes being
relatively short compared to the exposition (e.g., the first
movement of Eine kleine Nachtmusik) and in other cases
quite long and detailed (e.g., the first movement of the
"Eroica" Symphony). Developments in the Classical era are
typically shorter due to how much composers of that era
valued symmetry, unlike the more expressive Romantic era
in which development sections gain a much greater
importance. However, it almost always shows a greater
degree of tonal, harmonic, and rhythmic instability than the
other sections. In a few cases, usually in late Classical and
Development Haydn's Sonata in G Major
, Hob. XVI: G1, I,
early Romantic concertos, the development section consists
mm. 29–53 Play .[6]:138–139
of or ends with another exposition, often in the relative
minor of the tonic key.

At the end, the music will usually return to the tonic key in preparation of the recapitulation. (On occasion, it will actually return to
the sub-dominant key and then proceed with the same transition as in the exposition). The transition from the development to the
recapitulation is a crucial moment in the work.

The last part of the development section is called the

Retransition: It prepares for the return of the first subject
group in the tonic, most often through a grand prolongation
of the dominant seventh. In addition, the character of the Retransition Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I,
music would signal such a return. mm. 54–57 Play .[6]:140

Exceptions include the first movement of Brahms's Piano

Sonata No. 1. The general key of the movement is C major, and it would then follow that the retransition should stress the dominant
seventh chord on G. Instead, it builds in strength over the dominant seventh chord on C, as if the music were proceeding to F major,
only to take up immediately the first theme in C major. Another exception is the fourth movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 9.
The home key of the movement is C major. The retransition prolongates over the dominant chord on G, but suddenly takes up the
first theme in the flattened mediantE♭ major.

A particularly common exception is for the dominant to be substituted with the dominant of the relative minor key: one example is
the first movement of Haydn's String Quartet in E major
, Op. 54 No. 3.

Occasionally, the retransition can begin with a false recapitulation, in which the opening material of the first theme group is presented
before the development has completed. The surprise that ensues when the music continues to modulate toward the tonic can be used
for either comic or dramatic effect. An example occurs in the first movement of Haydn's String Quartet in G major
, Op. 76 No. 1.

Recapitulation
The Recapitulation is an altered repeat of the exposition, and consists of:

First subject group – normally given prominence as the highlight of a recapitulation, it is usually in exactly the same
key and form as in the exposition.
Transition – often the transition is carried out by introducing a novel material: a kind of an additional brief
development. It is called a "secondary development".
Second subject group – usually in roughly the same form as in the exposition, but now in the home key , which
sometimes involves change of mode from major to minor , or vice versa, as occurs in the first movement of Mozart's
Symphony No. 40 (K. 550). More often, however, it may be recast in the parallel major of the home key (for example,
C major when the movement is in C minor like Beethoven'sSymphony No. 5 in C Minor, op. 67/I). Key here is more
important than mode (major or minor); the recapitulation provides the needed balance even if the material's mode is
changed, so long as there is no longer any key conflict.
Exceptions to the recapitulation form include Mozart and
Haydn works that often begin with the second subject
group when the first subject group has been elaborated at
length in the development. If a theme from the second
subject group has been elaborated at length in the
development in a resolving key such as the tonic major or
minor or the subdominant, it may also be omitted from the
recapitulation. Examples include the opening movements of
Mozart's piano sonata in C minor, KV 457 and Haydn's
String Quartet in G major, Op. 77 No. 1. Recapitulation Haydn's Sonata in G Major
, Hob. XVI: G1, I,
mm. 58–80 Play . [6]:140–141

After the closing cadence, the musical argument proper is

said to be completed harmonically. If the movement
continues, it is said to have a coda.

Coda
The Coda is optional. After the final cadence of the
recapitulation, the movement may continue with a coda
which will contain material from the movement proper.
Codas, when present, vary considerably in length, but like
introductions are not part of the "argument" of the work.
The coda will end, however, with a perfect authentic
cadence in the original key. Codas may be quite brief Coda to Mozart's Sonata in C Major, K. 309, I, mm. 152–
tailpieces, or they may be very long and elaborate. An 155; last bars of recapitulation also presented for context
example of the more extended type is the coda to the first Play .[6]:151
movement of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony, and an
exceptionally long coda appears at the end of the finale of
Beethoven's Symphony No. 8.

Explanations for why an extended coda is present vary. One reason may be to omit the repeat of the development and recapitulation
sections found in earlier sonata forms of the 18th century. Indeed, Beethoven's extended codas often serve the purpose of further
development of thematic material. Another role that these codas sometimes serve is to return to the minor mode in minor-key
movements where the recapitulation proper concludes in the parallel major, as in the first movements of Beethoven's Symphony No.
5 or Schumann's Piano Concerto, or rarely, to restore the home key after an off-tonic recapitulation, such as in the first movements of
Brahms's Clarinet Quintet and Dvořák's Symphony No. 9.

Variations on the standard schema

Monothematic expositions
It is not necessarily the case that the move to the dominant key in the exposition is marked by a new theme. Haydn in particular was
fond of using the opening theme, often in a truncated or otherwise altered form, to announce the move to the dominant, as in the first
movement of his Sonata Hob. XVI No. 49 in E♭ major. Mozart also occasionally wrote such expositions: for instance in the Piano
Sonata K. 570 or the String Quintet K. 593. Such expositions are often called monothematic, meaning that one theme serves to
establish the opposition between tonic and dominant keys. This term is misleading, since most "monothematic" works have multiple
themes: most works so labeled have additional themes in the second subject group. Rarely, as in the fourth movement of Haydn's
String Quartet in B♭ major, Op. 50, No. 1, did composers perform the tour de force of writing a complete sonata exposition with just
one theme. A more recent example isEdmund Rubbra's Symphony No. 2.
The fact that so-called monothematic expositions usually have additional themes is used by Charles Rosen to illustrate his theory that
the Classical sonata form's crucial element is some sort of dramatization of the arrival of the dominant. Using a new theme was a
very common way to achieve this, but other resources such as changes in texture, salient cadences and so on were also accepted
practice.

Expositions that modulate to other keys

The key of the second subject may be something other than the dominant (for a major-mode sonata movement) or relative major (for
a minor-key movement). A second option for minor-mode sonata form movements was to modulate to the minor dominant; this
option, however, robs the sonata structure of the space of relief and comfort that a major-mode second theme would bring, and was
therefore used primarily for a bleak, grim effect, as Beethoven did with some frequency.

About halfway through his career, Beethoven also began to experiment with other tonal relationships between the tonic and the
second subject group. The most common practice, for Beethoven and many other composers from the Romantic era, was to use the
mediant or submediant, rather than the dominant, for the second group. For instance, the first movement of the "Waldstein" sonata, in
C major, modulates to the mediant E major, while the opening movement of the "Hammerklavier" sonata, in B♭ major, modulates to
the submediant G major, and String Quartet No. 13 in the same key modulating to the flattened submediant key of G ♭ major.
Tchaikovsky also implemented this practice in the last movement of his Symphony No. 2; the movement is in C major and modulates
to the flattened submediant A♭ major. The young Chopin even experimented with expositions that do not modulate at all, in the
opening movements of his Piano Sonata No. 1 (remaining in C minor throughout) and his Piano Concerto No. 1 (moving from E
minor to E major).

Beethoven began also to use the submediant major with more frequency in minor-key sonata-form movements, as in the first
movements of Symphony No. 9, Piano Sonata No. 32, and String Quartets No. 11 and No. 15. The latter case transposes the second
repeat of its exposition by a fifth, starting on the minor dominant (instead of the tonic) and finishing on the major mediant (instead of
the submediant). The first movement ofRichard Strauss's Symphony No. 2, in F minor, modulates to the submediant D♭ minor, as do
the F minor first movements of Brahms' first clarinet sonata and piano quintet; all three works balance this downward third by
( ♭ major) for the key of the second movement.
moving up to the major mediant A

Rarely, a major-mode sonata form movement will modulate to a minor key for the second subject area, such as the mediant minor
(Beethoven Sonata Op. 31/1, i), the relative minor (first movements of Beethoven Triple Concerto and Brahms Piano Trio No. 1) or
even the minor dominant (Brahms Piano Concerto No. 2, i). In such cases, the second theme will often return initially in the tonic
minor in the recapitulation, with the major mode restored later on.

During the late Romantic period, it was also possible to modulate to remote tonal areas to represent divisions of the octave. In the
first movement of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4, the first subject group is in the tonic F minor but modulates to G♯ minor and then
to B major for the second subject group. The recapitulation begins inD minor and modulates to F major, and goes back to the parallel
F minor for the coda.

Also in the late Romantic period, it was possible for a minor-key sonata form movement to modulate to the major dominant, as in the
first movements of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 1 and Brahms' Symphony No. 4. Another possibility for minor-key sonata form
movements was to modulate to the mediant minor, as in the first movement of Brahms' Symphony No. 1; the second subject group
starts in the relative E♭ major and then goes to the parallel mediantE♭ minor.

Expositions with more than two key areas

The exposition needs not only to have two key areas. Some composers, most notably Schubert, composed sonata forms with three or
more key areas. The first movement of Schubert's Quartet in D minor, D. 810 ("Death and the Maiden"), for example, has three
separate key and thematic areas, in D minor, F major, and A minor.[8] Similarly, Chopin's Piano Concerto in F minor uses F minor,
A♭ major, and C minor in its first movement's exposition. In both cases, the transition is i–♭III–v, an elaboration of the minor schema
of either using i–♭III or i–v. This is by no means the only scheme, however: the opening movement of Schubert's Violin Sonata in G
minor, D. 408, uses the scheme i–♭III–♭VI, and the opening movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 2 in B♭ major, D. 125, uses the
scheme I–IV–V. An extreme example is the finale to Schubert's Symphony No. 6, D. 589, which has a six-key exposition (C major,
A♭ major, F major, A major, E♭, and G major), with a new theme for each key
.

Modulations within the first subject group

The first subject group need not be entirely in the tonic key. In the more complex sonata expositions there can be brief modulations to
fairly remote keys, followed by reassertion of the tonic. For example, Mozart's String Quintet in C, K. 515, visits C minor and D♭
major as chromaticism within the C-major first subject group, before finally moving to D major, the dominant of the dominant major
(G major), preparing the second subject group in the dominant. Many works by Schubert and later composers utilized even further
harmonic convolutions. In the first subject group of Schubert's Piano Sonata in B♭, D. 960, for example, the theme is presented three
times, in B♭ major, in G♭ major, and then again in B♭ major. The second subject group is even more wide-ranging. It begins in F♯
minor, moves into A major, then through B♭ major to F major.[9]

Recapitulations in the "wrong key"

In the recapitulation section, the key of the first subject group may be in a key other than tonic, most often in the subdominant,
known as a "subdominant recapitulation". In some pieces by Haydn and Mozart, such as Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 16 in C, K. 545,
or the finale of his String Quartet No. 14 in G, K. 387, the first subject group will be in the subdominant and then modulate back to
tonic for the second subject group and coda. Schubert was a prominent user of the subdominant recapitulation; it appears for example
in the opening movements of his Symphonies No. 2 and No. 5, as well as those of his piano sonatas D 279, D 459, D 537, D 575, as
well as the finale of D 664. Sometimes this effect is also used for false reprises in the "wrong key" that are soon followed by the
actual recapitulation in the tonic, such as in the first movement of Haydn's quartet Op. 76 No. 1 in G (false reprise in the
subdominant), or the finale of Schubert's piano sonata in A, D 959 (false reprise in the major submediant). A special case is the
recapitulation that begins in the tonic minor,for example in the slow movement of Haydn's quartetOp. 76 No. 4 in E♭, or the opening
movement of Haydn's Symphony No. 47 in G major. In the Classical period, the subdominant is the only possible substitute for the
tonic at this position (because any other key would need resolution and would have to be introduced as a false reprise in the
development), but with the erosion of the distinction between the sharp and flat directions and the blurring of tonal areas true
recapitulations beginning in other keys became possible after around 1825.

It is also possible for the first subject group to begin in tonic (or a key other than tonic), modulate to another key and then back to
tonic for the second subject group. In the finale of the original 1872 version ofchaikovsky's
T Symphony No. 2, the first subject group
begins in the tonic C major, modulates to E♭ major, then through E major, and then modulates back to tonic for the second subject
group and coda. And in the last movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 9 in C major, the first subject group is in the flattened
mediant E♭ major, modulates to the subdominant F major and then back to tonic for the second subject group and coda. It is also
possible to have the second subject group in a key other than tonic while the first subject group is in the home key. For instance in the
first movement of Richard Strauss's Symphony No. 2 in F minor, the recapitulation begins with the first subject group in tonic but
modulates to the mediant A♭ major for the second subject group before modulating back to F minor for the coda. Some Romantic
works even exhibit progressive tonality in sonata form: for example, the second movement 'Quasi-Faust' from Charles-Valentin
Alkan's Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges' is in D♯ minor, and while the exposition travels from D♯ to the major subdominant G ♯
major, the recapitulation begins again in D♯ minor and ends in the relative major F ♯ major, and stays there till the end of the
movement. Such a scheme may have been constructed to conform with the programmatic nature of the movement, but also fits well
with the Romantic penchant for beginning a work at maximum tension and decreasing the tension afterwards, so that the point of
ultimate stability is not reached until the last possible moment. (Furthermore, the identification of a minor key with its relative major
is common in the Romantic period, supplanting the earlier Classical identification of a minor key with its parallel major
.)

Partial recapitulations
In some pieces in sonata form, in the recapitulation, the first subject group is omitted, leaving only the second subject group, like the
second movement of Haydn's Sonata Hob. XVI/35, as well as the opening movements of Chopin'sPiano Sonata No. 2 and No. 3. It is
also possible for the first subject group to be slightly different in comparison of the exposition, like the fourth movement of Dvorak's
Symphony No. 9. Another example occurs in the finale of Mozart's string quartet KV 387, where the opening of the first subject
group is cut, and in thequintet KV 515, where a later portion of the first subject group is cut. On the other hand, it is also possible for
the subject groups to be reversed in order, like the fourth movement of Bruckner's Symphony No. 7, or the first movement of
Mozart's piano sonata in D major, KV 311. It is also possible for the second subject group to be omitted, like the fourth movement of
Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5, as well as the second movement of Beethoven's String Quartet No. 9. The second subject group's
melody can be different compared to the exposition, like Haydn's Symphony No. 44. Such melodic adjustment is common in minor-
key sonata forms, when the mode of the second subject needs to be changed, for example in the opening movement of Mozart's wind
serenade KV 388.

The partial recapitulations sometimes briefly recapitulate the second theme in the tonic key at the end of the first theme as a "false
start", before the transition arrives, which then the transition leads to the actual second theme in the tonic before the closing section.
An example occurs in the first movement of Haydn's Piano Sonata Hob. XVI-23.

Truncated sonata form

Occasionally, especially in some Romantic works, the sonata form extends only as far as the end of the exposition, at which point the
piece transitions directly into the next movement instead of a development section. One example is Henryk Wieniawski's Violin
Concerto No. 2 in D minor. Another example is Fritz Seitz's Violin Concertos for students, where such a truncated sonata form is
used ostensibly to cut down on the first movements' length. Sometimes, the third movement of such works is the recapitulation of the
first movement (one example being Franz Strauss' Horn Concerto in C Minor), making the entire work effectively a single-movement
sonata.

Some Classical slow movements involve a different sort of truncation, in which the development section is replaced altogether by a
short retransition. This occurs in the slow movements of Mozart's quartets KV 387, KV 458, KV 465, KV 575, and KV 589. It is also
common in overtures, occurring for example in Mozart's overture to Le nozze di Figaro, or Rossini's overture to Il barbiere di
Siviglia. This is distinct from a short development, such as in the opening movement of Mozart'siolin
V Sonata in G major, KV 379.

Sonata form in concerti

An important variant on traditional sonata-allegro form is found in the first movement of the Classical concerto. Here, the sonata-
allegro's customary 'repeated exposition' is replaced by two different but related sections: the 'tutti exposition' and the 'solo
exposition'. Prototypically the 'tutti exposition' does not feature the soloist (except, in early classical works, in a 'continuo' role), and
does not contain the decisive sonata-exposition modulation to the secondary key. Only when the 'solo exposition' is under way does
the solo instrument assert itself and participate in the move to (classically) the dominant or relative major. The situation is only
seemingly different in the case of such late classical works as Beethoven's piano concertos No. 4 and No. 5, where the soloist is heard
at the outset: as the later unfolding of those movements makes clear, the opening piano solo or early piano flourishes actually precede
the start of the exposition proper. This device is also found in an early Mozart concerto, No. 9, as well as in many Romantic
concertos, such as Grieg's A minor concertoor Brahms' B♭ major concerto.

A structural feature that the special textural situation of the concerto makes possible is the 'ownership' of certain themes or materials
by the solo instrument; such materials will thus not be exposed until the 'solo' exposition. Mozart was fond of deploying his themes in
this way.

Towards the end of the recapitulation of a concerto movement in sonata form, there is usuallycadenza
a for the soloist alone. This has
an improvisatory character (it may or may not actually be improvised), and, in general, serves to prolong the harmonic tension on a
dominant-quality chord before the orchestra ends the piece in the tonic.

The history of sonata form

The term sonata is first found in the 17th century, when instrumental music had just begun to become increasingly separated from
vocal music. The original meaning of the term (derived from the Italian word suonare, to sound on instrument) referred to a piece for
playing, distinguished from cantata, a piece for singing. At this time, the term implies a binary form, usually AABB with some
aspects of three part forms. Early examples of simple pre-Classical sonata forms include Pergolesi's Trio Sonata No. 3 in G
Major.[1]:57

The Classical era established the norms of structuring first movements and the standard layouts of multi-movement works. There was
a period of a wide variety of layouts and formal structures within first movements that gradually became expected norms of
composition. The practice of Haydn and Mozart, as well as other notable composers, became increasingly influential on a generation
that sought to exploit the possibilities offered by the forms that Haydn and Mozart had established in their works. In time, theory on
the layout of the first movement became more and more focused on understanding the practice of Haydn, Mozart, and, later,
Beethoven. Their works were studied, patterns and exceptions to those patterns identified, and the boundaries of acceptable or usual
practice set by the understanding of their works. The sonata form as it is described is strongly identified with the norms of the
Classical period in music. Even before it had been described the form had become central to music making, absorbing or altering
other formal schemas for works. Examples include Beethoven'sAppassionata sonata.[1]:59

The Romantic era in music was to accept the centrality of this practice, codify the form explicitly and make instrumental music in
this form central to concert and chamber composition and practice, in particular for works that were meant to be regarded as "serious"
works of music. Various controversies in the 19thcentury would center on exactly what the implications of "development" and sonata
practice actually meant, and what the role of the Classical masters was in music. It is ironic that, at the same time that the form was
being codified (by the likes of Czerny and so forth), composers of the day were writing works that flagrantly violated some of the
principles of the codified form.

It has continued to be influential through the subsequent history of classical music through to the modern period. The 20th century
brought a wealth of scholarship that sought to found the theory of the sonata form on basic tonal laws. The 20th century would see a
continued expansion of acceptable practice, leading to the formulation of ideas by which there existed a "sonata principle" or "sonata
idea" that unified works of the type, even if they did not explicitly meet the demands of the normative description.

Sonata form and other musical forms

Sonata form shares characteristics with both binary form and ternary form. In terms of key relationships, it is very like binary form,
with a first half moving from the home key to the dominant and the second half moving back again (this is why sonata form is
sometimes known as compound binary form); in other ways it is very like ternary form, being divided into three sections, the first
(exposition) of a particular character, the second (development) in contrast to it, the third section (recapitulation) the same as the first.

The early binary sonatas by Domenico Scarlatti provide excellent examples of the transition from binary to sonata-allegro form.
Among the many sonatas are numerous examples of the true sonata form being crafted into place.

Theory of sonata form

The sonata form is a guide to composers as to the schematic for their works, for interpreters to understand the grammar and meaning
of a work, and for listeners to understand the significance of musical events. A host of musical details are determined by the
harmonic meaning of a particular note, chord or phrase. The sonata form, because it describes the shape and hierarchy of a
movement, tells performers what to emphasize, and how to shape phrases of music. Its theory begins with the description, in the 18th
century, of schematics for works, and was codified in the early 19th century. This codified form is still used in the pedagogy of the
sonata form.

In the 20th century, emphasis moved from the study of themes and keys to how harmony changed through the course of a work and
the importance of cadences and transitions in establishing a sense of "closeness" and "distance" in a sonata. The work of Heinrich
Schenker and his ideas about "foreground", "middleground", and "background" became enormously influential in the teaching of
composition and interpretation. Schenker believed that inevitability was the key hallmark of a successful composer, and that,
therefore, works in sonata form should demonstrate an inevitable logic.

In the simplest example, playing of a cadence should be in relationship to the importance of that cadence in the overall form of the
work. More important cadences are emphasized by pauses, dynamics, sustaining and so on. False or deceptive cadences are given
some of the characteristics of a real cadence, and then this impression is undercut by going forward more quickly. For this reason,
changes in performance practice bring changes to the understanding of the relative importance of various aspects of the sonata form.
In the Classical era, the importance of sections and cadences and underlying harmonic progressions gives way to an emphasis on
themes. The clarity of strongly differentiated major and minor sections gives way to a more equivocal sense of key and mode. These
changes produce changes in performance practice: when sections are clear, then there is less need to emphasize the points of
articulation. When they are less clear, greater importance is placed on varying the tempo during the course of the music to give
"shape" to the music.

Over the last half-century, a critical tradition of examining scores, autographs, annotations, and the historical record has changed,
sometimes subtly, on occasion dramatically, the way the sonata form is viewed. It has led to changes in how works are edited; for
example, the phrasing of Beethoven's piano works has undergone a shift to longer and longer phrases that are not always in step with
the cadences and other formal markers of the sections of the underlying form. Comparing the recordings of Schnabel, from the
beginning of modern recording, with those of Barenboim and then Pratt shows a distinct shift in how the structure of the sonata form
is presented to the listener over time.

For composers, the sonata form is like the plot of a play or movie script, describing when the crucial plot points are, and the kinds of
material that should be used to connect them into a coherent and orderly whole. At different times the sonata form has been taken to
be quite rigid, and at other times a freer interpretation has been considered permissible.

In the theory of sonata form it is often asserted that other movements stand in relation to the sonata-allegro form, either, per Charles
Rosen that they are really "sonata forms", plural—or as Edward T. Cone asserts, that the sonata-allegro is the ideal to which other
movement structures "aspire". This is particularly seen to be the case with other movement forms that commonly occur in works
thought of as sonatas. As a sign of this the word "sonata" is sometimes prepended to the name of the form, in particular in the case of
the "sonata-rondo" form. Slow movements, in particular
, are seen as being similar to sonata-allegroform, with differences in phrasing
and less emphasis on the development.

However, Schoenberg and other theorists who used his ideas as a point of departure see the theme and variations as having an
underlying role in the construction of formal music, calling the process continuing variation, and argue from this idea that the sonata-
allegro form is a means of structuring the continuing variation process. Theorists of this school include Erwin Ratz and William E.
Caplin.

Subsections of works are sometimes analyzed as being in sonata form, in particular single movement works, such as the Konzertstück
in F minor of Carl Maria von Weber.

From the 1950s onward, Hans Keller developed a 'two-dimensional' method of analysis that explicitly considered form and structure
from the point of view of listener expectations. In his work, the sonata-allegro was a well-implied 'background form' against whose
various detailed features composers could compose their individual 'foregrounds'; the 'meaningful contradiction' of expected
background by unexpected foreground was seen as generating the expressive content. In Keller's writings, this model is applied in
detail to Schoenberg's 12-note works as well as the classical tonal repertoire. In recent times, two other musicologists, James
Hepokoski and Warren Darcy, have presented, without reference to Keller, their analysis, which they term Sonata Theory, of the
sonata-allegro form and the sonata cycle in terms of genre expectations, and categorized both the sonata-allegro movement and the
sonata cycle by the compositional choices made to respect or depart from conventions. Their study focuses on the normative period
of sonata practice, notable ones being the works of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and their close contemporaries, projecting
this practice forward to development of the sonata-allegro form into the 19th and 20th centuries.

Musical criticism and sonata form

Because of its centrality to classical music, the sonata form has been a topic of interest to music critics since its origin. Contentious
opinions include those of prominent critics such asEduard Hanslick, who praised the form for its intelligibility.

See also
Closely related key
Slow movement (music)
Sonata rondo form

References
1. White, John D. (1976).The Analysis of Music. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
2. White, John D. (1994).Comprehensive Musical Analysis. Scarecrow Press. p. 101.ISBN 9781461657668.
3. Kostka, Stefan; Payne, Dorothy (1995).Tonal Harmony (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 346.ISBN 0-07-300056-6.
4. Benjamin, Thomas; Horvit, Michael; Nelson, Robert (2003).Techniques and Materials of Music(7th ed.). Thomson
Schirmer. p. 289. ISBN 0495500542.
5. Rosen, Charles (1988) [1980].Sonata Forms (revised ed.). New York: Norton. p. 1.
6. Benward; Saker (2009).Music in Theory and Practice: Volume II (8th ed.). ISBN 978-0-07-310188-0.
7. Webster, James. "Sonata form".In Macy, L. Grove Music Online (http://www.grovemusic.com). Retrieved
2008-03-27.
8. Wolff, Christoph (1982). "song". In Badura-Skoda; Branscombe.Schubert Studies: Problems of Style and
Chronology. pp. 143–171.
9. Marston, Nicholas (2000). "Schubert's Homecoming".Journal of the Royal Musical Association. 125: 248–270.

Further reading
Caplin, William E. (2000).Classical Form: A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn,
Mozart, and Beethoven. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-514399-X.
Hepokoski, James; Darcy, Warren (2006). Elements of Sonata Theory: Norms, Types, and Deformations in the Late-
Eighteenth-Century Sonata. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-514640-9.
Newman, William S. (1972). The Sonata in the Baroque Era. ISBN 0-393-00622-0.
Newman, William S. (1980). Sonata in the Classic Era (A History of the Sonata Idea)
. ISBN 0-393-00623-9.
Newman, William S. (1983). The Sonata in the Classic Era. ISBN 0-393-95286-X.
Newman, William S. (1983). The Sonata Since Beethoven. ISBN 0-393-95290-8.
Newman, William S. (1995). Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His W
ay. ISBN 0-393-30719-0.
Rosen, Charles (1997). The Classical Style (2nd ed.). New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-31712-9.
Rosen, Charles (1998). The Romantic Generation. ISBN 0-674-77934-7.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1988). The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music. ISBN 0-333-43236-3.
Salzer, Felix (1962). Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music. ISBN 0-486-22275-6.
Schoenberg, Arnold (1967). Fundamentals of Musical Composition. ISBN 0-571-09276-4.
Schoenberg, Arnold (2010). Harmonielehre (in German). ISBN 1-147-25802-3.
Schenker, Heinrich (2001). Der freie Satz [Free Composition]. Translated by Oster, Ernst. vol. 1. ISBN 1-57647-074-
1.
Smith, Michael Paul (2014)."A Guide to Sonata Form". Tchaikovsky Life and Works.

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