Notes On CNC PDF

Notes
Historical Perspective
The development of numerical control owes much to

the United States air force, which recognized the need
for developing more efficient manufacturing methods
for modern aircraft. Following World War II, the
components used to fabricate jet aircraft became more
complex and required more machining. The concept of
NC was proposed in the late 1940s by John Parson’s of
Traverse City. Michigan. Parson recommended a
method of automatic machine control that would guide
a milling cutter to produce a “thru axis curve” in order
to generate smooth profiles on the work-pieces. In
1949, the U.S Air Force awarded Parsons a contract to
develop new type of machine tool that would be able to
speed up production methods. Parsons sub-contracted
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to
develop a practical implementation of his concept.
Scientists and engineers at M.I.T built a control system
for a two axis milling machine that used a perforated
paper tape as the input media. This prototype was
produced by retrofitting a conventional tracer mill with
numerical control servomechanisms for the three axes
of the machine. By 1955, these machines were
available to industries with some small modifications.
The machine tool builders gradually began developing

their own projects to introduce commercial NC units.
Also, certain industry users, especially airframe
builders, worked to devise numerical control machines
to satisfy their own particular production needs. The
Air force continued its encouragement of NC
development by sponsoring additional research at MIT
to design a part programming language that could be
used in controlling N.C. machines.
In a short period of time, all the major machine tool

manufacturers were producing some machines with
NC, but it was not until late 1970s that computer-based
NC became widely used. NC matured as an automation
technology when electronics industry developed new
products. At first, miniature electronic tubes were
developed, but the controls were big, bulky, and not
very reliable. Then solid-state circuitry and eventually
modular or integrated circuits were developed. The
control unit became smaller, more reliable, and less
expensive.
Introduction to CNC
Computer Numerical Control
Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical

control system in which a dedicated computer is built
http://183.83.200.113:3333/NITWARANGAL/CNC_machines/overview/notes.htm[13-05-2011 00:19:32]
Notes
into the control to perform basic and advanced NC

functions. CNC controls are also referred to as soft-
wired NC systems because most of their control
functions are implemented by the control software
programs. CNC is a computer assisted process to
control general purpose machines from instructions
generated by a processor and stored in a memory
system. It is a specific form of control system where
position is the principal controlled variable. All
numerical control machines manufactured since the
seventies are of CNC type. The computer allows for the
following: storage of additional programs, program
editing, running of program from memory, machine
and control diagnostics, special routines, inch/metric,
incremental/absolute switchability.
CNC machines can be used as stand alone units or in a

network of machines such as flexible machine centres.
The controller uses a permanent resident program
called an executive program to process the codes into
the electrical pulses that control the machine. In any
CNC machine, executive program resides in ROM and
all the NC codes in RAM. The information in ROM is
written into the electronic chips and cannot be erased
and they become active whenever the machine is on.
The contents in RAM are lost when the controller is
turned off. Some use special type of RAM called
CMOS memory, which retains its contents even when
the power is turned off.
CNC milling machine
1.2. Direct Numerical Control
In a Direct Numerical Control system (DNC) system, a

mainframe computer is used to coordinate the
simultaneous operations of a number NC machines as
shown in the figures 2 & 3. The main tasks performed
Notes
by the computer are to program and edit part programs

as well as download part programs to NC machines.
Machine tool controllers have limited memory and a
part program may contain few thousands of blocks.So
the program is stored in a separate computer and sent
directly to the machine, one block at a time.
First DNC system developed was Molins System 24 in

1967 by Cincinnati Milacron and General Electric.
They are now referred to as flexible manufacturing
systems (FMS). The computers that were used at those
times were quite expensive.
DNC system
DNC system
Advantages & Disadvantages of CNC machine tools
Manually operated
Computer controlled machine
milling milling
milling machine
machine
Notes
Some of the dominant advantages of the CNC

machines are:
CNC machines can be used continuously and

only need to be switched off for occasional
maintenance.
These machines require less skilled people to
operate unlike manual lathes / milling machines
etc.
CNC machines can be updated by improving the
software used to drive the machines
Training for the use of CNC machines can be
done through the use of ‘virtual software’.
The manufacturing process can be simulated
virtually and no need to make a prototype or a
model. This saves time and money.
Once programmed, these machines can be left
and do not require any human intervention,
except for work loading and unloading.
These machines can manufacture several
components to the required accuracy without any
fatigue as in the case of manually operated
machines.
Savings in time that could be achieved with the
CNC machines are quite significant.
Some of the disadvantages of the CNC machines are:
CNC machines are generally more expensive

than manually operated machines.
The CNC machine operator only needs basic
training and skills, enough to supervise several
machines.
Increase in electrical maintenance, high initial
investment and high per hour operating costs
than the traditional systems.
Fewer workers are required to operate CNC
machines compared to manually operated
machines. Investment in CNC machines can lead
to unemployment.
Applications of NC/CNC machine tools
CNC was initially applied to metal working machinery:

Mills, Drills, boring machines, punch presses etc and
now expanded to robotics, grinders, welding
machinery, EDM's, flame cutters and also for
inspection equipment etc. The machines controlled by
CNC can be classified into the following categories:
CNC mills and machining centres.
CNC lathes and turning centers

CNC EDM
CNC grinding machines
Notes
CNC cutting machines (laser, plasma, electron,

or flame)
CNC fabrication machines (sheet metal punch
press, bending machine, or press brake)
CNC welding machines
CNC coordinate measuring machines
CNC Coordinate Measuring Machines:
A coordinate measuring machine is a dimensional

measuring device, designed to move the measuring
probe to determine the coordinates along the surface of
the work piece. Apart from dimensional measurement,
these machines are also used for profile measurement,
angularity, digitizing or imaging. A CMM consists of
four main components: the machine, measuring probe,
control system and the measuring software. The control
system in a CMM performs the function of a live
interaction between various machine drives,
displacement transducers, probing systems and the
peripheral devices. Control systems can be classified
according to the following groups of CMMs.
1. Manually driven CMMs

2. Motorized CMMs with automatic probing
systems
3. Direct computer controlled (DCC) CMMs
4. CMMs linked with CAD, CAM and FMS etc.
The first two methods are very common and self

explanatory. In the case of DCC CMMs, the computer
control is responsible for the movement of the slides,
readout from displacement transducers and data
communication. CMM are of different configurations
—fixed bridge, moving bridge, cantilever arm figure
21.5(a), horizontal arm and gantry type CMM as shown
in figure
Cantilever type CMM Gantry type CMM
CNC welding machines:
Notes
4 axis CNC Tig welding machine
The salient features of CNC welding machines are:
Superior quality and weld precision.

These machines are also equipped with rotary
tables.
Weld moves, welding feed rate, wire feed, torch
heights & welding current can be programmed.
CNC welding machines are used for laser
welding, welding of plastics, submerged arc
welding, wire welding machines, butt welding,
flash butt welding etc.
These machines are generally used in automobile
work shops
Cost of these machines will be twice than the
conventional welding machines.
CNC EDM & WEDM machines:
EDM is a nontraditional machining method primarily

used to machine hard metals that could not be
machined by traditional machining methods. Material
removal will be taking place by a series of electric arcs
discharging across the gap between the electrode and
the work piece. There are two main types- ram EDM &
wire cut EDM. In wire-cut EDM, a thin wire is fed
through the work piece and is constantly fed from a
spool and is held between upper and lower guides.
These guides move in the x-y plane and are precisely
controlled by the CNC. Wire feed rate is also controlled
by the CNC.
Notes
Ram EDM Wire cut EDM
Classification Of CNC Machine Tools
2.1.Based on the motion type à Point-to-point &

Contouring systems
There are two main types of machine tools and the
control systems required for use with them differ
because of the basic differences in the functions of the
machines to be controlled. They are known as point-to-
point and contouring controls.
Point-to-point systems
Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and

tapping machines etc, require that the cutter and the
work piece be placed at a certain fixed relative
positions at which they must remain while the cutter
does its work. These machines are known as point-to-
point machines as shown in figure 1 (a) and the control
equipment for use with them are known as point-to-
point control equipment. Feed rates need not be
programmed. In theses machines tools, each axis is
driven separately. In a point-to-point control system,
the dimensional information that must be given to the
machine tool will be a series of required position of the
two slides. Servo systems can be used to move the
slides and no attempt is made to move the slide until
the cutter has been retracted back.
Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)
Other type of machine tools involve motion of work

piece with respective to the cutter while cutting
operation is taking place. These machine tools include
milling, routing machines etc and are known as
contouring machines as in figure 1 (b) and the controls
required for their control are known as contouring
control.
Contouring machines can also be used as point-to-
point machines, but it will be uneconomical to use
them unless the work piece also requires having a
Notes
contouring operation to be performed on it. These

machines require simultaneous control of axes. In
contouring machines, relative positions of the work
piece and the tool should be continuously controlled.
The control system must be able to accept information
regarding velocities and positions of the machines
slides. Feed rates should be programmed.
Point-to-point system Contouring systems
Contouring systems
Based on the control loops à Open loop & Closed

loop systems
Open loop systems:
Programmed instructions are fed into the controller

through an input device. These instructions are then
converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller
and sent to the servo amplifier to energize the servo
motors. The primary drawback of the open-loop
system is that there is no feedback system to check
whether the program position and velocity has been
achieved. If the system performance is affected by load,
temperature, humidity, or lubrication then the actual
output could deviate from the desired output. For these
reasons the open -loop system is generally used in
point-to-point systems where the accuracy
requirements are not critical. Very few continuous-path
systems utilize open-loop control.
Notes
Open loop control

Closed loop control system
system
Open loop system
Closed loop systems:
The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to

monitor the actual output and correct any discrepancy
from the programmed input. These systems use
position and velocity feed back. The feedback system
could be either analog or digital. The analog systems
measure the variation of physical variables such as
position and velocity in terms of voltage levels. Digital
systems monitor output variations by means of
electrical pulses. To control the dynamic behavior and
the final position of the machine slides, a variety of
position transducers are employed. Majority of CNC
systems operate on servo mechanism, a closed loop
principle. If a discrepancy is revealed between where
the machine element should be and where it actually is,
the sensing device signals the driving unit to make an
adjustment, bringing the movable component to the
required location.
Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate

because they are capable of monitoring operating
conditions through feedback subsystems and
automatically compensating for any variations in real-
time.
Notes
Closed loop system
Based on the number of axes à 2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC

machines.
2& 3 axes CNC machines:
CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines.

There will be two axes along which motion takes place.
The saddle will be moving longitudinally on the bed
(Z-axis) and the cross slide moves transversely on the
saddle (along X-axis). In 3-axes machines, there will
be one more axis, perpendicular to the above two axes.
By the simultaneous control of all the 3 axes, complex
surfaces can be machined.
4 & 5 axes CNC machines:
4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis

machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-axis CNC
tool path movements. A 5-axis milling centre includes
the three X, Y, Z axes, the A axis which is rotary
tilting of the spindle and the B-axis, which can be a
rotary index table.
Notes
Importance of higher axes machining :
Reduced cycle time by machining complex

components using a single setup. In addition to
time savings, improved accuracy can also be
achieved as positioning errors between setups are
eliminated.
Improved surface finish and tool life by tilting
the tool to maintain optimum tool to part contact
all the times.
Improved access to under cuts and deep pockets.
By tilting the tool, the tool can be made normal
to the work surface and the errors may be
reduced as the major component of cutting force
will be along the tool axis.
Higher axes machining has been widely used for
machining sculptures surfaces in aerospace and
automobile industry.
Turning centre:
Traditional centre lathes have horizontal beds. The

saddle moves longitudinally and the cross slide moves
transversely. Although the tools can be clearly seen,
the operator must lean over the tool post to position
them accurately. Concentration of chips may be
creating a heat source and there may be temperature
gradients in the machine tool. Keeping the above
points in view, developments in the structure of the
turning centres lead to the positioning the saddle and
the cross slide behind the spindle on a slant bed as
shown in the figure.4. Chips fall freely because of slant
bed configuration and is more ergonomically
acceptable also from operators point of view.
Slant bed turning centre
Based on the power supply à Electric, Hydraulic &

Pneumatic systems
Mechanical power unit refers to a device which

transforms some form of energy to mechanical power
which may be used for driving slides, saddles or
gantries forming a part of machine tool. The input
power may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.
Notes
Electric systems:
Electric motors may be used for controlling both

positioning and contouring machines. They may be
either a.c. or d.c. motors and the torque and direction
of rotation needs to be controlled. The speed control of
a d.c. motor can be done by varying either the field or
the armature supply. The clutch-controlled motor can
either be an a.c. or d.c. motor. They are generally used
for small machine tools because of heat losses in the
clutches. Split field motors are the simplest form of
motors and can be controlled in a manner according to
the machine tool. These are small and generally run at
high maximum speeds and so require reduction gears
of high ratio. Separately excited motors are used with
control systems for driving the slides of large machine
tools.
Hydraulic systems:
These hydraulic systems may be used with positioning

and contouring machine tools of all sizes. These
systems may be either in the form of rams or motors.
Hydraulic motors are smaller than electric motors of
equivalent power. There are several types of hydraulic
motors. The advantage of using hydraulic motors is that
they can be very small and have considerable torque.
This means that they may be incorporated in
servosystems which require having a rapid response.
Major Components Of A CNC System
Construction of CNC machine tools
Any CNC machine tool will essentially consists of the

following parts:
Part program:
A part program is a series of coded instructions
required to produce a part. It controls the movement of
the machine tool and on/off control of auxiliary
Notes
functions such as spindle rotation and coolant. The

coded instructions are composed of letters, numbers
and symbols.
Program input device:

The program input device is the means for part
program to be entered into the CNC control. Three
commonly used program input devices are punch tape
reader, magnetic tape reader, and computer via RS-
232-C communication.
Machine Control Unit:

The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC
system. It is used to perform the following functions:
Reads the coded instructions.

Decodes the coded instructions.
Implement interpolations (linear, circular, and
helical) to generate axis motion commands.
Feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier
circuits for driving the axis mechanisms.
Receives the feedback signals of position and
speed for each drive axis.
Implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant

or spindle on/off and tool change.
Drive System:
A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive
motors, and ball lead-screws. The MCU feeds the
control signals (position and speed) of each axis to the
amplifier circuits. The control signals are augmented to
actuate drive motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-
screws to position the machine table.
Machine Tool:
CNC controls are used to control various types of
machine tools. Regardless of which type of machine
tool is controlled, it always has a slide table and a
spindle to control of position and speed. The machine
table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the
spindle runs along the Z axis.
Feed Back System:

The feedback system is also referred to as the
measuring system. It uses position and speed
transducers to continuously monitor the position at
which the cutting tool is located at any particular
instant. The MCU uses the difference between
reference signals and feedback signals to generate the
control signals for correcting position and speed errors.
Machine axes designation

Machine axes are designated according to the "right-
hand rule", When the thumb of right hand points in the
Notes
direction of the positive X axis, the index finger points

toward the positive Y axis, and the middle finger
toward the positive Z axis. Figure 10 shows the right-
hand rule applied to vertical machines, while Figure 3.1
applies to horizontal machines.
Right hand rule for vertical and horizontal machine
CNC Systems – Mechanical Components
The drive units of the carriages for tool or work found

on numerically controlled machine tool s are generally
the screw & the nut mechanism. The following are the
types of screws and nuts used on NC machine tools
which provide low wear, higher efficiency, reduced
friction and better reliability.
Recirculating ball screw

The recirculating ball screw assembly shown in figure
4.1 has the flanged nut attached to the moving chamber
and to the screw to the fixed casting. Thus any
rotational movement of the screw will displace the
moving member and the screw to the fixed casting.
These recirculating ball screw designs can have ball
gages of internal or external return, but all of them are
based upon the Ogival or “Gothic arc”
In these types of screws, balls rotate in between the

screw and nut and convert the sliding friction (as in
conventional nut & screw) to the rolling friction and
hence reduce wear and increase the reliability of the
system. The traditional ACME thread used on
conventional machine tool has efficiencies ranging
from 20% to 30% whereas the efficiencies of ball
screws may reach up to 90%.
Notes
Recirculating ball screw assembly
Preloaded recirculating ball screw
There are two types of ball screws. In the first type,

balls are returned through an external tube after few
threads. In another type, the balls are returned to the
start through a channel inside the nut after only one
thread. To make the carriage movement bidirectional,
backlash between the screw and nut should be
minimum. One of the methods to achieve zero
backlashes is by fitting two nuts. The nuts are
preloaded by an amount which exceeds the maximum
operating load. These nuts are either forced apart or
squeezed together, so that the balls in one of the nuts
contact the opposite side of the threads.
These ball screws have the problem that minimum

diameter of the ball (60 to 70% of the lead screw) must
be used, limiting the rate of movement of the screw.
4.2 Roller screw
Notes
These types of screws provide backlash-free movement

and their efficiency is same as that of ball screws.
These are capable of providing more accurate position
control. Roller screws costs more when compared to
ball screws. The thread form is triangular with an
included angle of 90 degrees. There are two types of
roller screws: planetary and recirculating screws.
Planetary roller screws: Planetary roller screws are

shown in figure 4.3. The rollers are threaded with a
single start thread. Teeth are cut at the ends of the
roller, which meshes with the internal tooth cut inside
the nut. The rollers are equally spaced around and are
retained in their positions by spigots or spacer rings.
There is no axial movement of the rollers relative to the
nut and are capable of transmitting high loads at fast
speeds.
Recirculating roller screws: The rollers in this case

are not threaded and are provided with a circular
groove and are positioned circumferentially by a cage.
There is some axial movement of the rollers relative to
the nut. Each roller moves by a distance equal to the
pitch of the screw for each rotation of the screw or nut
and moves into an axial recess cut inside the nut and
disengage from the threads on the screw and the nut
and the other roller provides the driving power. Rollers
in the recess are moved back by an edge cam in the
nut.
CNC Controllers
Different types of controllers:
There are two types of CNC controllers, namely closed

loop and open loop controllers.
Controller Architecture:
Most of the CNC machine tools were built around

proprietary architecture and could not be changed or
updated without an expensive company upgrade. This
method of protecting their market share worked well
for many years when the control technology enjoyed a
Notes
four-to-five year life cycle. Now a day the controller

life cycle is only eight-to-twelve months. So CNC
manufacturers are forced to find better and less
expensive ways of upgrading their controllers. Open
architecture is the less costly than the alternatives. GE
Fanuc and other manufacturers introduced control
architecture with PC connectivity to allow users to take
advantage of the new information technologies that
were slowly gaining acceptance on the shop floor.
They created an open platform that could easily
communicate with other devices over commercially
available MS Windows operating system, while
maintaining the performance and reliability of the CNC
machine tool.
CNC Tooling
Tool changing arrangements
There are two types of tool changing arrangements:

manual and automatic tool changing arrangements.
Machining centres incorporate automatic tool change
(ATC). It is the automatic tool changing capability that
distinguishes CNC machining centres from CNC
milling machines.
Manual tool changing:
Tool changing is the non-productive time. So, it should

be kept as minimum as possible. Also the tool must be
rigidly located in the spindle. The tool must be
accurately located in the spindle so as to assure proper
machining and should maintain the same relation with
the work piece each time it is inserted in the spindle.
This is known as the repeatability of the tool. CNC
milling machines have some type of quick tool
changing systems, which generally comprises of a
quick release chuck. The chuck is a different tool
holding mechanism that will be inside the spindle and
is operated either hydraulically or pneumatically. The
tool holder which fits into the chuck can be released by
pressing a button which releases the hydraulically
operated chuck. The advantage of manual tool
changing is that each tool can be checked manually
before loading the tools and there will be no limitation
on the number of tools from which selection can be
made.
Automatic tool changing:
Tooling used with an automatic tool changer should be

easy to center in the spindle, each for the tool changer
to grab the tool holder and the tool changer should
safely disengage the tool holder after it is secured
Notes
properly. Figure 6.1 shows a tool holder used with

ATC. The tool changer grips the tool at point A and
places it in a position aligned with the spindle. The tool
changer will then insert the tool holder into the spindle.
A split bushing in the spindle will enclose the portion
B. Tool changer releases the tool holder. Tool holder is
drawn inside the spindle and is tightened.
Tool holder
Tool turrets
An advantage of using tool turrets is that the time taken

for tool changing will be only the time taken for
indexing the turret. Only limited number of tools can
be held in the turret. Tool turrets are generally used in
lathes. The entire turret can be removed from the
machine for setting up of tools. Figure 6.2 a, b & c
show.
Six station tool turret Eight station tool turret
Notes
Twelve station tool turret
Tool magazines
Tool magazines are generally found on drilling and

milling machines. When compared to tool turrets, tool
magazines can hold more number of tools and also
more problems regarding the tool management.
Duplication of the tools is possible and a new tool of
same type may be selected when ever a particular tool
has been worn off. Though a larger tool magazine can
accommodate more number of tools, but the power
required to move the tool magazine will be more.
Hence, a magazine with optimum number of tool
holders must be used. The following types of tool
magazines exist: circular, chain and box type.
Chain magazine:
These magazines can hold large number of tools and

may hold even up to 100 tools. Figures 6.3 a & b show
chain magazines holding 80 and 120 tools respectively.
In these chain magazines, tools will be identified either
by their location in the tool holder or by means of some
coding on the tool holder. In the former is followed for
identifying the tool, then the tool must be exactly
placed in its location. The positioning of the magazine
for the next tool transfer will take place during the
machining operation.
80-tool chain magazine 120-tool chain magazine
Circular magazine:
Circular magazines as shown in figure 6.4 will be
similar to tool turrets, but in the former the tools will
be transferred from the magazine to the spindle nose.
Generally these will be holding about 30 tools. The
identification of the tool will be made either by its
location in the tool magazine or by means of some
code on the tool holder. The most common type of
circular magazine is known as carousel, which is
similar to a flat disc holding one row of tools around
the periphery. Geneva mechanism is used for changing
the tools.
Notes
Circular magazine
Box magazine:
In these magazines, the tools are stored in open ended
compartments. The tool holder must be removed from
the spindle before loading the new tool holder. Also the
spindle should move to the tool storage location rather
than the tool to the spindle. Hence, more time will be
consumed in tool changing. Box magazines are of
limited use as compared to circular and chain type of
tool magazines.
Automatic tool changers
When ever controller encounters a tool change code, a

signal will be sent to the control unit so that the
appropriate tool holder in the magazine comes to the
transfer position. The tool holder will then be
transferred from the tool magazine to the spindle nose.
This can be done by various mechanisms. One such
mechanism is a rotating arm mechanism.
Rotating arm mechanism:
Movement of the tool magazine to place the

appropriate tool in the transfer position will take place
during the machining operation. The rotating arms with
grippers at both the ends rotate to grip the tool holders
in the magazine and the spindle simultaneously. Then
the tool holder clamping mechanism will be released
and the arm moves axially to remove the tool holder
from the spindle. Then the arm will be rotated through
180 degrees and the arm will then move axially
inwards to place the new tool holder into the spindle
and will clamped. Now the new tool holder is placed in
the spindle and the other in the magazine. Figures 6.5
and 6.6 shows various stages during tool change with a
rotating arm mechanism.
Notes
Rotating arm mechanism
Rotating arm mechanism
Tool wear monitoring
Most of the modern CNC machines now incorporate

the facility of on-line tool wear monitoring systems,
whose purpose is to keep a continuous track of the
amount of tool wear in real time. These systems may
reduce the tool replacement costs and the production
delays. It is based on the principle that the power
required for machining increases as the cutting edge
gets worn off. Extreme limits for the spindle can be set
up and when ever it is reached, a sub-program can be
called to change the tool. Following figures show tool
wear monitoring systems.
ON-line tool wear Graphical display of tool

monitoring system wear Monitoring system
CNC Work Holding Devices
With the advent of CNC technology, machining cycle

times were drastically reduced and the desire to
combine greater accuracy with higher productivity has
led to the reappraisal of work holding technology.
Loading or unloading of the work will be the non-
productive time and hence needs to be minimized. So
the work is usually loaded on a special work holder
away from the machine and then transferred it to the
machine table. The work should be located precisely
and secured quickly and should be well supported.
Notes
Turning center work holding methods:
Machining operations on turning centers or CNC lathes

are carried out mostly for axi-symmetrical components.
Surfaces are generated by the simultaneous motions of
X and Z axes. For any work holding device used on a
turning centre there is a direct “trade off” between part
accuracy and the flexibility of work holding device
used.
Work holding Advantages Disadvantages

methods
Automatic Jaw & Adaptable for a High cost of
chuck changing range of work- jaw/chuck
piece shapes changing
and sizes automation.
Resulting in a
more complex
& higher cost
machine tool
Indexing chucks Very quick Expensive
Figure7.1 loading and optional
unloading of equipment.
the workpiece Bar-feeders
can be cannot be
achieved. incorporated.
Notes
Reasonable Short/medium
range of work length parts
piece sizes can only can be
be loaded incorporated.
automatically Heavy chucks
Pneumatic/Magnetic Simple in Limited to a
chucks design and range of flat
Figure 7.3 relatively parts with little
inexpensive. overhang. Bar-
Part feeders cannot
automation is be
possible. No incorporated.
part distortion Parts on
is caused due magnetic
to clamping chucks must
force. be ferrous.
Heavy cuts
must be
avoided.
Automatic Chucks Adaptable to Jaws must be
with soft jaws automation. changed
Heavy cuts can manually &
be taken. bared, so slow
Individual part change-
parts can be overs. A range
small or large of jaw blanks
in diameter. required.
Expanding mandrels Long & short Limitation on
& collets parts of part shape.
Figure 7.2 reasonably Heavy cuts
large size should be
accommodated. avoided.
Automation
can be
incorporated.
Clamping
forces do not
distort part.
Simple in
design
Dedicated Chucks Excellent Expensive &
restraint & can only be
location of a financially
wide range of justified with
individual & either large
irregular – runs or when
shaped parts extremely
can be complex &
obtained. accurate parts
are required.
Tool making
facilities
Notes
required.
Large storage
space.
Work holding for Machining Centres:
Workholding Advantages Disadvantages

methods
Modular Fixtures Highly Costly for a
adaptable. Can complete
be purchased system.
in stages to Difficult to
increase its automate.
sophistication. Skills required
Reasonable in kit
accuracy. assembly.
Speedily
assembled.
Small stores
area is
required. Can
be set-up to a
machine more
than one part.
Proven
Notes
technology
Automatic Vices Relatively Work holding
inexpensive. limitations.
Can be Clamping
operated by force
mechanical, limitations.
pneumatic, or Jaws can
by hydraulic become
control. Quick strained. Work
to operate with location
ease of set-up. problems.
Reasonable Limitations on
accuracy. part size.
Easily
automated.
Simplicity of
design. Using
multi-vices
allows many
parts to be
machined.
Proven
Technology.
Pneumatic/Magnetic Relatively Large surface
Work holding inexpensive. area is
devices Reasonable required.
accuracy. Can Swarf can be a
machine large problem.
areas of the Nonferrous
work piece. material
Quick setups. limitation on
Easily magnetic
automated. devices.
Simplicity of
design. Many
parts can be
machined at
one set up.
4/5 axis CNC work Allows Costly &
holding devices complex limited part
geometric geometry
shapes to be clamping. Part
machined. size
High accuracy. limitations.
Opportunity Usually only
for “one hit” one part can
machining. be machined.
Easily Cannot be
automated. fitted to all
machines.
Dedicated Fixturing Large & small Large storage
parts are easily space required.
Notes
accommodated. No part
High accuracy flexibility.
of part Heavy fixtures.
location. Easily Tool making
automated. facilities
Simplicity of required.
design. Proven
technology.
Many parts can
be machine at
one setup good
vibration
damping
capacity.
Indexing chucks Mandrels
Magnetic chucks Vise
Pallets
Notes

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The development of numerical control owes much to

The machine tool builders gradually began developing

In a short period of time, all the major machine tool

Computer Numerical Control

Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical

into the control to perform basic and advanced NC

CNC machines can be used as stand alone units or in a

CNC milling machine

1.2. Direct Numerical Control

In a Direct Numerical Control system (DNC) system, a

by the computer are to program and edit part programs

First DNC system developed was Molins System 24 in

Advantages & Disadvantages of CNC machine tools

Some of the dominant advantages of the CNC

CNC machines can be used continuously and

Some of the disadvantages of the CNC machines are:

CNC machines are generally more expensive

Applications of NC/CNC machine tools

CNC was initially applied to metal working machinery:

CNC lathes and turning centers

CNC cutting machines (laser, plasma, electron,

CNC Coordinate Measuring Machines:

A coordinate measuring machine is a dimensional

1. Manually driven CMMs

The first two methods are very common and self

Cantilever type CMM Gantry type CMM

CNC welding machines:

4 axis CNC Tig welding machine

The salient features of CNC welding machines are:

Superior quality and weld precision.

CNC EDM & WEDM machines:

EDM is a nontraditional machining method primarily

Ram EDM Wire cut EDM

Classification Of CNC Machine Tools

2.1.Based on the motion type à Point-to-point &

Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and

Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)

Other type of machine tools involve motion of work

contouring operation to be performed on it. These

Point-to-point system Contouring systems

Based on the control loops à Open loop & Closed

Open loop systems:

Programmed instructions are fed into the controller

Open loop control

Open loop system

Closed loop systems:

The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to

Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate

Closed loop system

Based on the number of axes à 2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC

2& 3 axes CNC machines:

CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines.

4 & 5 axes CNC machines:

4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis

Importance of higher axes machining :

Reduced cycle time by machining complex

Traditional centre lathes have horizontal beds. The

Slant bed turning centre

Based on the power supply à Electric, Hydraulic &

Mechanical power unit refers to a device which

Electric motors may be used for controlling both

These hydraulic systems may be used with positioning