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23rdInternational Conference on Electricity Distribution Lyon, 15-18 June 2015

Paper 0780

GENERATORS AND LOADS MODELS TO INVESTIGATE UNCONTROLLED


ISLANDING ON ACTIVE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
Gianluca SAPIENZA,
Paolo MATTAVELLI, Giovanni VALVO,
Riccardo SGARBOSSA Cristiano PEZZATO,
Roberto TURRI Alberto CERRETTI Ettore DE BERARDINIS
University of Padova – Italy Enel Distribuzione – Italy CESI – Italy
paolo.mattavelli@unipd.it gianluca.sapienza@enel.com deberardinis@cesi.it
riccardo.sgarbossa@studenti.unipd.it giovanni.valvo@enel.com
roberto.turri@unipd.it cristiano.pezzato@enel.com
alberto.cerretti@enel.com
order to be used in dynamic simulation, together with
ABSTRACT other network components (load, generator, etc).
The number of distributed energy resources (DERs) • CESI and ENEL Distribuzione implemented in a Real
connected to low voltage (LV) distribution networks has Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) digital models of PV
increased the concern on the unintentional/uncontrolled inverters, synchronous generators, loads and
islanding operations. To evaluate the effect of the protection systems.
Distributed Generation (DG) on the uncontrolled The correct dynamic representation of the LV load
islanding events in LV network portions independent depending on the voltage and the frequency [3-4] is
studies have been performed, considering different LV important for the assessment of unintentional islanding
load dynamic characterization and inverter based models operation. Considering the data in [3-4] outdated, ENEL
for a correct evaluation of the islanding issue. P/f and decided to set up two field measurement campaigns in
Q/V capabilities and regulation laws required by the order to assess the current typical LV equivalent load
DERs stated by the most relevant standards have also behavior and to define updated sets of load model
been considered. Field measurements, simulations in parameters. In any case, in order to cover different
different simulating environments as Real Time Digital scenarios for uncontrolled islanding operation, analysis of
Simulator (RTDS), Simulink/Power System Blockset and islanded operation has taken into account both load
DIgSILENT Power Factory are reported. representations, i.e. the old ones with the coefficient
reported in 1993 [3-4] and the new ones as resulting from
INTRODUCTION the two field measurement campaigns.

To evaluate the effect of the most relevant capabilities STANDARDS AND CONNECTION RULES
and regulation laws required to distributed energy
resources (DERs) [1-2] on uncontrolled islanding in Recently, reference technical rules have been revised by
distribution networks, two completely independent standards, introducing for DERs protection interface
studies have been performed, based on: systems and local control strategies, in order to integrate
1) field measurements to assess LV load dynamic the growing number of DGs [1-2]. Permissive thresholds
behavior; for voltage and frequency have also been introduced in
2) digital simulations performed in different simulation compliance with the Fault Ride Through (FRT)
environments (RTDS, Simulink/DigSILENT). philosophy [3- 4], as shown in Fig. 1.
Suitable models for the inverter based generators and for
the loads are essential for a correct evaluation of the
phenomena. This need has recently led to the Joint
Working Group C4/C6.35/CIRED: “Modelling and
dynamic performance of inverter based generation in
power system transmission and distribution studies”.
Considering that inverter based models in standard
libraries do not include the several new DER capabilities
and may be not adequate for dynamic simulations (EMT-
time domain), additional models have been developed. a) b)
More precisely: Figure 1-a) Frequency permissive and restrictive thresholds.
• University of Padova realized models in the time b) voltage FRT thresholds.
domain (Power System Blockset), based on switching
inverter operation. Subsequently, porting of the model Moreover, local controls set by standards are required:
in an equivalent RMS model to be adopted in active and reactive power exchanged by DGs are function
DigSILENT was performed by simplification firstly of the frequency and voltage levels, as shown in Fig. 2,
to average models and then to RMS-phasor models, in introducing the droop characteristic Q=f (V) and P=f (f).

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23rdInternational Conference on Electricity Distribution Lyon, 15-18 June 2015

Paper 0780

𝑃 𝑄
These control strategies are aimed at facilitating the log
𝑃0
log
𝑄0
electrical system stability but they can potentially 𝑘𝑝𝑢 = 𝑢𝑝 𝑘𝑞𝑢 = 𝑢𝑝
log log
𝑢0 𝑢0
increase the risk of uncontrolled islanded network
1 𝑃 𝑓0 𝑃
operation. 𝑘𝑝𝑓 = ∙(
− 1) = ∙ ( − 1) (2)
𝑓 𝑃0 𝑓 − 𝑓0 𝑃0
1 𝑄 𝑓0 𝑄
𝑘𝑞𝑓 = ∙ ( − 1) = ∙ ( − 1)
𝑓 𝑄0 𝑓 − 𝑓0 𝑄0
where P0, Q0, U0, f0, are the initial active power reactive
power, supply voltage, frequency, for each test.
The initial and final values for the active/reactive power
at the corresponding values for the voltage or frequency
have been determined by interpolating several
a) b) measurements, for the kpu, kqu characterization, as shown
Figure 2 - a) Inverters could be required to participate to for the sake of example in Fig. 4.
the voltage regulation using Q injections from a minimum of
-0.4843 to the maximum of 0.4843 with respect to the rated
power; b) gradual limitation of the generated P according to
an over-frequency statism so=2.4% [1-2].

LV LOAD CHARACTERIZATION
For the load static and dynamic characteristics, the
approach proposed in [3-4] has been adopted, where the
active Pout and the reactive Qout load powers depend both
on frequency and amplitude of the voltage waveform,
i.e.:
𝑘𝑝𝑓 𝑢𝑝 𝑘𝑝𝑢
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃0 {[∆𝑓 ( ) + 1] ( ) }
1+𝑠𝑇1 𝑢𝑜
{ 𝑘𝑞𝑢 (1)
𝑘𝑞𝑓 𝑢𝑝
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄0 {[∆𝑓 ( ) + 1] ( ) }
1+𝑠𝑇1 𝑢𝑜

1
where 𝑢𝑝 = [∆𝑢 ( ) + 𝑢𝑜 ] and Po and Qo are the
1+𝑠𝑇1
active and reactive power respectively absorbed at
nominal frequency f0 and nominal amplitude u0.
Moreover, kpf , kpu, kqf and kqu are parameters that describe
different type of loads (residential, industrial, agriculture)
and the voltage and frequency deviation from their
nominal parameters are denoted as ∆u = u − uo and ∆f =
(f − fo ) /fo , respectively.
The above-mentioned parameters describe the variation
of the load as a function of voltage and frequency,
therefore the campaign has been realized by using a
suitable synchronous generator able to supply the LV
network independently from the MV/LV transformer, as Figure 4 – Example of P and Q variation as a function of up
shown in Fig. 3.
20/0.4 kV V Table 1 shows the mean values measured during these
tests. The values are quite different from the IEEE
Other lines
campaign and they refer to a limited number of tests. This
MV Network
Residential loads difference may be justified by the different type of
electrical equipment currently used.
G
~ Residential loads Other loads
Other load
Synchronous generator k 0.7 ÷ 1.0 -0.8 2.6 -0.7
pf
k -2.1 ÷ -1.5 -6.7 1.6 -4.0
Figure 3 – Test field realization qf

Tests have been carried out at fixed voltage to determine k 0.9 ÷ 1.7 1.2 0.1 1.7
pu
kpf , kqf, at fixed frequency to find kpf ,kqf, according to the k 2.4 ÷ 2.6 6.1 0.6 5.3
qu
following equations: Table 1 – Field tests results (average values).

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23rdInternational Conference on Electricity Distribution Lyon, 15-18 June 2015

Paper 0780

The T1 parameter has been determined by applying step


voltage variations using the tap changer of the Primary
Substation HV/MV transformer. T1 value has been
confirmed to be about 0.1 s.

INVERTER AND LV NETWORK


DISTRIBUTION MODEL
DIgSILENT inverter model RMS vs
Simulink/Time domain model (Case A)
In this study a detailed inverter model, with embedded
voltage and current regulations typical for photovoltaic
applications, has initially been developed. In order to
study the uncontrolled islanding operations the average
values and the phasors representations are superior to the
detailed model in terms of computational requirements
and numerical convergence issues. Although different
conversion module configurations can been considered
Figure 6- Switching and average inverter model
[5], the analysis has focused on the single-stage system
and on the two level Voltage Source Inverter (VSI). A The representation has been developed in
three-phase inverter with EMI filter in addition to the Maltab/Simulink environment and compared with
inductive output filter, as shown in Fig. 5, has been DIgSILENT software using RMS simulations. The
considered. results show a good match between the two
environments.
ia
v AB L f 1 L1
ib
vCA
Lf2 L2
v BC
ic
Lf3 L3
Cf1 Cf 2 Cf 3

RCf 1 RCf 2 RCf 3

Figure 5 Three phase inverter with L1,2,3 inductive filter and


EMI filter composed by Lf1,2,3 ,Cf1,2,3 and RCf1,2,3 as dumping
element of the filter (if present).

The switching function approach has been initially used


to fully represent the switching operation of the inverters,
as depicted in Fig. 6. However, for most of the islanded
analysis, the detailed switching operation has been
neglected, in order to reduce simulation time and Figure 7 - LV distribution network used Case A
facilitate convergence, and an average model, where each
state variable is averaged over the PWM switching
With this modeling approach, the tested LV network is
period, is adopted, as generally shown in Fig. 6. The
shown in Fig. 7. It presents a DG unit, three loads, a
averaging model is more efficient and with less numerical
MV/LV Transformer and cables lines, whose lengths are
convergence problem than the detailed switching model.
shown in Fig. 7, and characterized by R=0.164 Ohm/km,
Moreover the presented average model has been
X=0.0691 Ohm/km and B=185.35 µS/km. The switching
transferred in the d,q coordinates using a Park
of the breaker starts the islanding events.
Transformation, and completed with the required current,
voltage and Phase-Looked Loop (PLL) regulations and RTDS model (Case B)
with the required protection functions. At last we obtain a After CESI residential loads characterization, a large 4-
dynamic model expressed in amplitude and phase of wires unbalanced LV grid has been implemented by
voltages and currents instead of instantaneous sinusoidal ENEL-CESI in the Real-Time Digital Simulator (RTDS)
values. installed in the ENEL Smart Grid Test Center of Milano.
The RTDS allows to simulate a large number of power

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23rdInternational Conference on Electricity Distribution Lyon, 15-18 June 2015

Paper 0780

system components and control model in real-time, in the DIgSILENT Power Factory are reported here, but similar
time domain, using the “Dommel algorithm”. results were obtained with the switching and average
The LV grid, represented in Fig. 8, is composed by three Simulink models. The tests have been carried out
feeders (urban, rural, and urban-rural mixed feeder), modifying the loads and inverter rated powers, in order to
single and three-phase loads (with the caracteristics and analyze the islanded grid behavior under different initial
dynamics derived by the CESI load caracterization) and conditions.
18 PV inverter-based distributed generators (6 three-
phase 10 kWp, 3 three-phase 20 kWp, 4 single-phase 6 Pg [kW] PL [kW]
kWp, 5 single-phase 3 kWp). Pg = P L 50 50.2
Each generator is regulated in P,Q mode, where the P set- Pg < P L 50 59.1
point is generated using the P-f characteristic represented Pg > P L 50 30.1
in Figure 2 b). Indeed, the Q set-point is generated using
the Q-V characteristic represented in Fig. 2a. Generators
are synchronized to the grid voltage using a PLL and the
coupling to the grid is performed using a transformer
with short-circuit impedance equal to 6%. Finally, the

Frequency [Hz]
interface protection and the capability curve has been
modeled for each generator. The LV grid is fed, from the
MV grid, by a Dy11 MV/LV transformer. The grid
neutral wire is connected to the transformer secondary
winding neutral point. Lines are represented using the PI
section model, where the zero-sequence impedance takes
into account the neutral wire effect.
Time [s]
Voltage p.u.

Time [s]
Figure 9 - Frequency and voltage at the LV Busbar 0.4 kV

Figure 8 - RTDS model of the LV grid (Case B) Fig. 9 shows frequency and voltage of the islanded LV
grid portion between the standards imposed thresholds.
EXAMPLES OF SIMULATION RESULTS The uncontrolled islanded condition is facilitated by the
regulation of active and reactive power, but also due to a
In this work parametric analyses considering various regulation effect of the dynamic load model considered.
combinations of Q(V) and P(f) regulations have been
performed, taking into account the inertia of rotating Examples of Results for Case B
machines and the initial active and reactive power RTDS simulation results are shown in Table 2. In this
unbalance, in order to identify the role of the different case the load model parameters are based on the updated
parameters in determining islanding conditions. In the measurements reported in Table 1.
following, few samples of the results obtained are It may be observed that:
presented and discussed. 1. With only PV static generation, without any Q(V) and
P(f) regulation, islanding is not possible even in case
An Example of Results for Case A
of small power unbalance. The same occurs, if part of
The inverter model has been tested with dynamic load PV generation is substituted by synchronous
models, including the residential and industrial model machines.
parameters of [3]. Results show how uncontrolled 2. With only PV static generation, with Q(V) and P(f)
islanding operations occur in a LV network. Furthermore, regulation with hysteresis (according to CEI 0-21
the influence of the standards regulation requirements Italian rules), islanding is not possible even in case of
leads to islanding events starting from different power small power unbalance. Instead, if hysteresis is
balance conditions between loads and generator. Due to excluded for P(f) regulation (like requested in RfG
space constraints, only results performed with rules from ENTSOE), stable islanding operation is

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Paper 0780

possible only if the generation is greater than the load. different dynamic response of the loads intentionally
This is possible because the P(f) may reduce the adopted by the two studies, highly influences the
generation power, according to the frequency growth, behaviour of the phenomena. In particular, it should be
until a new balance condition will be restored. The better investigated the dynamic characterization of loads
same occurs, if part of PV generation is substituted by (P and Q variation function of V and f, inertia, cos , etc)
synchronous machines. in order to achieve sufficient level of details, not below
3. With only PV static generation, with or without any that of IEEE 1993 report [3] which is old and focused on
Q(V) and P(f) regulation, transient islanding is always the creation of aggregations at HV level. With regards to
possible even in case of small power unbalance. In generators, different generators capabilities strongly
this case the generation could be disconnected before influence the system behaviour.
fast reclosing (operated on MV side) only if narrow Finally, further potential influencing factors/elements are
frequency thresholds are activated. On the other hand, not still fully investigated: fast voltage support, power
if part of PV generation is substituted by synchronous system stabilization, synthetic inertia, power factor
machines, it is possible to disconnect the generation regulation [6], and energy storage systems. Such
during the fast reclosing only if a large power elements should be included as well in dynamic studies,
unbalance is present. Again this phenomenon is due to in order to assess their effects on the system.
the inertia increment of rotating machines.
Of course, the above mentioned results have to be REFERENCES
considered as qualitative and not quantitative due to the [1] CEI Comitato Elettrotecnico Italiano, “Standard-CEI 0-16,
variability and uncertainty of all factors influencing the Reference technical rules for the connection of active and
transient to reach the island operation and during the passive consumers to the HV and MV electrical networks of
island operation itself: a) V and f measurement methods; distribution Company”, 2011-12.
b) actuation periods of Q(V) and P(f) regulations; c) [2] CEI Comitato Elettrotecnico Italiano, “Standard-CEI 0-21,
Reference technical rules for the connection of active and
loads behavior in function to V and f; d) power factor; e)
passive users to the LV electrical Utilities”, 2011-12.
generators and loads inertia. These factors are not [3] IEEE Task Force on Load Representation for Dynamic
completely determinable because, for some of them, a Performance, 1993 “Load Representation for dynamic
reference to standards does not exist. performance analysis”, IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, Vol. 8, No.2.
CONCLUSIONS [4] K. Tomiyama et al., 2003, “Modeling of Load During and
Before new network code on Requirements for after System faults based on Actual Field
Generators (RfG), “narrow” band frequency thresholds Data”,Proceedings IEEE Power Engineering Society
hindered stable island and guaranteed, with very high General Meeting
probability, disconnection before fast reclosing operated [5] Y. Xue, L. Chang, S. Bækhøj Kjær, J. Bordonau, and T.
Shimizu, 2004, " Topologies of Single-Phase Inverters for
by the circuit breaker at the beginning of MV feeder.
Small Distributed Power Generators:An Overview", IEEE
After RfG requirements (partly introduced in some Trans. on Power Electronics, Vol.19,No. 5, pp. 1305 - 1314.
Countries), the possibility of uncontrolled islanding [6] L. Cocchi , A. Cerretti et al. “Influence of average power
operation has significantly increased. factor management on distribution network power losses"
The conclusions of the present study are, anyway, CIRED 2015 Lyon conference.
qualitative, because studies are valid only for the used
loads models and generators models; in particular, the
Generation No regulation Regulation Q(V), Regulation Q(V),
type Q(V), P(f) P(f) with histeresys P(f) without histeresys
CEI 0-21 RfG

YES (soglie strette non attive)


NO NO
P%>0
Stable island

YES (soglie strette non attive)


+ NO NO
P%>0

YES
YES YES
• Narrow tresholds enabled: <0.6
• Narrow tresholds enabled:<0.5 s • Narrow tresholds enabled: <0.6 s
s,
• Narrow tresholds disabled: <0.7 s, scatto • Narrow tresholds disabled:<5.2 s,
Transient island, • Narrow tresholds disabled: <5 s,
V large treshold trip or trip V
not permanent trip V
operation YES YES
+ YES
• Narrow tresholds enabled:<1.5 s • Narrow tresholds enabled:<3 s
• Narrow tresholds enabled:<0.8 s
• Narrow tresholds disabled: <9 s, • Narrow tresholds disabled: <14 s,
• Narrow tresholds disabled: <1 s, scatto V
large strshold trip large strshold trip

Frequency narrow tresholds if Frequency narrow tresholds if P%>


Frequency narrow tresholds if P%> 0%
Disconnection P%> 10% 10%
before FR
(0.6 s)
+
Frequency narrow tresholds Frequency narrow tresholds Frequency narrow tresholds
If P%> 45% If P%>99% if P%> 99%

Table 2 – RTDS simulation results.

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