Örebro University, Sweden

Department of Humanities
May 22, 2006

FM Radios and Rural Development

Case Study: Lira District, Northern Uganda

MA Thesis
Global Journalism
Supervisor: Leonor Camauër
Author: Denis Ocwich

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements…………….………………………………………………………..…...iii
Key words……………………………………………………………….………….…......….iv
Abstract……………………………………………….………….…………………………...v
1 Introduction………………………………………………………………..………....1
1.1 Background……………………………………………………………………..….......1
1.2 Statement of the problem………………………………………………………..……..2
1.3 Justification for the study………………………………………………………..……..2
1.4 Aim of the study and research questions………………………………..……………..2
1.5 Scope and limitations of the study…………………………………………… ………3
1.7 Outline of the thesis……………………………………………………………..……..4
2 Theoretical framework and previous research…………………………..…………5
2.1 Development as a concept……………………………………………………..……….5
2.1.1 Development and culture…………………………………………………..…………..6
2.1.2 Capital development………………………………………………………..………….7
2.1.3 Development, peace and communitarianism………………………………..……........8
2.1.4 Contemporary global paradigm of development…………………………..…………..8
2.1.5 Democracy and diversity of radio channels……………………..………..…………...9
2.2 Bottom-up displaces top-down model…………………………………..………........10
2.3 Media as a tool for social change…………………………………………….………10
2.3.1 Development journalism………………………………………………….…….........10
2.3.2 Diffusion of innovations……………………………………………………………….12
2.3.3 Two-step flow hypothesis………………………………………………….………...13
2.3.4 Radio and participatory communication in rural areas………………….…………...14
2.3.5 Free radio, democracy and politics…………………………………….…………….16
2.4 Previous research………………………………………………………….…………17
2.4.1 Research on community broadcasting and participation……………….……………18
2.4.2 Research on diffusion of innovations in rural areas…..……………….…………….18
2.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….……………..19
3 Methods and material…………………………………………………….………..20
3.1 Methods: focus groups and respondent interviews………………………….………20
3.1.1 Analysis of interview data………………………………………………….………..22
3.2 Criteria for selection of radio stations and interviewees………………….…………23
3.2.1 The FM stations………………………………………………………………….….23
3.2.2 Focus groups participants…………………………………………………………...23
3.2.3 Respondent interviews…….…………………...…………………………………....23
3.3 Presentation of the selected stations and interviewees……………………...………23
3.3.1 The FM stations……………………………………………………………………..23
3.3.2 Focus groups participants…………………………………………………………...23
3.3.3 Respondent interviews………………………………………………………………24
3.4 Limitations of the methods………………………………………………………….24
3.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..25
4 Analysis and interpretation of findings………………….……………………….27
4.1 Developmental programmes: A typology…………………………………………...27
4.1.1 News programmes…………………………………………………………………..27
4.1.2 Peace and reconciliation……………………………………….……………………28
4.1.3 Cultural awareness………………………………………………………………….30
4.1.4 Religious programmes……………………………………………………………...32
4.1.5 Health education………………………………………………………..………..…33
4.1.6 Farming information………………………………………………………………..35
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4.1.7 Environment alert………………………………………………….………………..37
4.1.8 self-help and small-scale investments………………………………………………38
4.1.9 Law and order…………………………………………………………..…………...38
4.1.10 Human rights and family values…………………………………………………….39
4.1.11 Political awareness and democracy…………………………………………….……41
4.1.12 Summary…………………………………………………………………………….42
4.2 Form and degree of community participation……………………………………….43
4.2.1 Letter to the editor……………………………………………………………….…..43
4.2.2 Phone-ins……………………………………………………………………………44
4.2.3 News sourcing………………………………………………………………………46
4.2.4 Summary…………………………………………………………………………….47
4.3 Programme genres…………………………………………………………………..47
4.3.1 News………………………………………………………………………………..48
4.3.2 Talk shows………………………………………………………………………….48
4.3.3 Expert programmes…………………………………………………………………48
4.3.4 Special interest groups……………………………………………………………...49
4.3.5 Music, dance and drama…………………………………………………………….49
4.3.6 Summary…………………………………………………………………………....50
5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………51
5.1 Discussion of the findings…………………..………………………………………51
5.2 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………..56
References……………………………………………………………………………….....58
Appendix A……………………………………………………………………..…………62
Appendix B………………………………………………………………………..………64
Appendix C………………………………………………………………………..………65

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 Acknowledgements

First, I am indebted to Leonor Camauër who was very friendly, cheerful and meticulous in her
supervision of this thesis. She always gave me enough time to discuss with her the approach of
this project.
Although I personally take responsibility for all the shortfalls of this work, I share all the good
points with Camauër – it was her sharp guidance and critical eyes that led to this final product.
From helping me sharpen the research/interview questions, to the relevant literature (including her
personal books) for analyzing and interpreting the research findings, she was able to steer me to a
focused direction.
Three Cheers, Dr Camauër!

My second invaluable appreciation goes to the Swedish International Development Agency

(SIDA) and Örebro University (Dept of Humanities) both of which, in the process of winnowing
applicants, found me needy enough and worth the scholarship to do this one-year Master of
Global Journalism. On my own, I would not have been able to raise funds to meet the costs of this
great course. My salutation also goes to the Coram of lecturers: Stig Arne Nohrstedt, Roland
Stanbridge, Leonor Camauër, Ulrika Olausson, George Strachal, Kaarle Nordenstreng, Ullamaija
Kivikuru, Rune Ottosen, Birgitta Hoijer and Eva Magnusson.

Of course I will also never forget my penniless parents, Imat Mary Olea and Adwong Nelson
Olea, who jointly saw the value in putting me to school. At primary level, and at secondary level,
they struggled to raise money to pay my school fees.
For giving me a strong foundation for a bright future, I say: Apwoyo Atek (mother tongue for
‘Thank you very much!’)

I am equally grateful to all the radio journalists and listeners who accepted my request to
interview them either in the focus groups or individual interviews in Lira during the first week of
January 2006.

Finally, to all my MAGJ course-mates: It was all fun, a lot of group learning, and sharing of ideas
over the 10 months we spent together.

To everyone, I say ‘God Bless You!’

Key words
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FM radios – Frequency Modulation (FM) radio stations which have narrow and
localized broadcasting, normally covering a radius of not more than 100 miles.

Rural areas – Less developed, and predominantly peasantry areas in the

countryside, away from the metropolitan cities.

Development – Any process of change that improves the lifestyles of the people
within a given society, or which enhances their cultural heritage.

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 Abstract
This study was stimulated by the rapid rise in the number of community-based FM radios in
Uganda. The overall aim is to develop knowledge on how the FM radios can best work closely
with and help the rural people to improve their welfare. It expounds the relationship between FM
radios and rural development, from the perspective of Third World countries. The case study is on
three privately owned but community-focused FM radios – Radio Rhino, Radio-Wa and Radio
North – all based in Lira district, northern Uganda. Empirical data was collected through three
focus group discussions with a total of 22 radio listeners, and individual respondent interviews
with six radio editors and reporters. The field interviews were conducted in Lira between January
2 and January 8, 2006.
The overarching research question was: In what ways are the FM radios improving the lives of
their local audience? The specific questions were: What kinds of developmental programmes are
aired out by the FM radios? How does the community participate in the production of the radio
programmes? What are the perceptions of the local people about the ways the FM radios are
improving their lives? What do the radio editors and reporters conceive of the ‘developmental’
role of radio?
Despite some weaknesses in the radios’ programming and the mode of interaction with the rural
people, the findings of this study show that the rural communities are better off today than in the
old days when FM radios were non-existent. The FM stations have come up with different
developmental programmes that have positively contributed to changing the rural people’s ways
of life. These include programmes on farming, health, marital values, environment, cultural
issues, human rights, democracy, law and order, religious teachings and peace and reconciliation.
Such programmes feature experts, professionals and opinion leaders who address numerous topics
of interest to the community. The news bulletins on the stations – both in the local language and
English – have have enhanced fast flow of useful information across the villages. The local people
participate in the production of these programmes through letters to the editor, and phone-ins,
among others. Programmes such as political talk shows, which feature on all the FM stations,
have become some of the most important ways of community participation.
The interpretation and conclusions are based on the empirical data analysis and the theories of
development advanced by international development communication scholars, as presented in
chapter two. The study ends with some recommendations on how the FM radios can best serve
the interests of the poor people in rural areas, and help improve their lives.

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1 Introduction
This chapter lays the foundation for the rest of the thesis. From the background, and statement of
the problem, it proceeds to present the justification, purpose of the study, the study aims and
objectives, research questions, the scope and limitations of the study, and then it concludes with
an outline of the subsequent chapters.

1.1 Background
The last twelve years have witnessed a rapid evolution of the broadcasting industry in Uganda.
The trend is largely a result of the forces of globalization, especially liberalization, privatization
and the free market economy touted by the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and
other multilateral institutions since the late 1980s. In Uganda’s case, the number of radio stations
has increased from only one state-owned channel, Radio Uganda, by 1993, to 148 radio stations
by December 2005. After the liberalization (sometimes called de-regulation) of the airwaves,
which removed state monopoly of broadcasting in 1992, several players, including businessmen,
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), churches, foreign donors and Ugandans living abroad,
jumped into the fray to start or fund FM stations.

Apart from Radio Uganda, which operates on Amplitude Modulation (AM) and covers the entire
country, all the stations are Frequency Modulation (FM) radios broadcasting mainly within
smaller communities and have narrower outreach. Although Radio Uganda, first launched in
1954, still broadcasts in 26 languages including the two national languages – English and
Kiswahili – it has lost much of its audience to FM radios which have captured local niches
through popular music and humorous DJ presenters. The use of local languages is another reason
why FMs are very popular to the communities.

The FM stations are issued broadcasting frequencies (upon payment of a fee) by the Uganda
Communications Commission (UCC). After getting the frequency, the owners have to pay a fee to
the Uganda Broadcasting Council (UBC) in order to acquire an operational licence. Both UCC
and UBC are statutory bodies set up by the government to regulate the operation of the electronic
media, among others. They are also charged with enforcing an ethical code of broadcasting, as
well as development-oriented programming.

Uganda is one of the leading African countries with the highest number of FM radio stations.
Although the capital city, Kampala has the largest concentration of FMs, almost each of the 69
districts of the country has at least one FM station. The rural-based radios are mostly owned by
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churches and NGOs. Lira, the focus of this research, is about 300 kilometres from Kampala City.
The district has five FM stations, three of which have been chosen for this study. Although Lira’s
FMs’ operations are mainly funded by advertising and other sources, they have taken on a
community-based model, with the local people influencing the types of programmes that come
out on air. The FMs reach the entire district, with a population of about 700,000 people.

1.2 Statement of the problem

The rapid growth of FM radios has raised concerns over whether they are serving the public
interest or the interests of advertisers and their profit-minded owners. On the one hand, there are
people who argue that the FMs are conduits of Western cultural products like music and
advertisements, which are suppressing development-oriented local content. On the other, there are
those who believe that FM radios have taken stations closer to the people than in the days of only
Radio Uganda, and therefore helped to raise the level of awareness among the rural people, on
government policies, national and international events, etc. I belong to the latter category, and my
hypothesis is that the FMs are playing significant roles in the development of rural areas.

1.3 Justification for the study

It is important that the radios serve the interests of the most vulnerable people in the rural areas.
More than 80 percent of the people of Uganda live in the rural areas, and up to 38 percent of the
country’s 27 million people live below the poverty line; they cannot earn more than a dollar per
day. Both the national Poverty Eradication Action Programme (PEAP), the national
communication policy, and the mission statements of many FM radios concur on the need for
radios to enhance developmental programmes countrywide. Since radio is the most popular and
ubiquitous mass medium in Uganda, and since there is widespread need to improve the lives of
the population, this study becomes pertinent and relevant.

1.4 Aim of the study and research questions

The overall aim of the study is to develop knowledge on how the FM radios can best work closely
with and help the rural people to improve their welfare. This overall aim is further specified by
the following more concise objectives, which are divided according to professional and activist
motives. Aims 1 – 4 relate to production of new knowledge; aims 5 – 9 relate to policy change.

1. To add to/strengthen the academic literature and discourses on journalism and

development in rural areas.

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 2. To inform the academia (journalism studies) about latest trends brought forth by FM
radios in rural media utilization.
3. To find out the main contributions of the FM radios in the development of rural areas.
4. To find out appropriate adjustments in editorial policies of the FM radios to help promote
development in rural areas.
5. To ascertain and explain the development needs of rural areas.
6. To encourage setting up of more community radios in rural areas.
7. To promote participation (rights of access to radio) of the rural masses in the FM radio
programmes for their localities.
8. To reawaken the need for more development-oriented journalism in the rural areas.
9. To identify barriers to rural communities’ participation or interaction with radio stations.

It is my hope and wish that the above objectives will in turn encourage and promote better
relationships between the FM radios and rural areas, in terms of development. My overarching
research question is: In what ways are the FM radios improving the lives of the local audience?
This is further specified with the help of the following questions answered by the empirical data:

1. What kinds of developmental programmes are aired out by the FM stations?

2. How does the community participate in the production of the radio programmes?
3. What are the perceptions of the local people about the ways the FM radios are improving
their lives?
4. What do the radio editors and reporters conceive of ‘developmental’ role of radio?

1.5 Scope and limitations of the study

The study covers several aspects of development as explained by the theories presented in chapter
two. The case study is on three FM radios based in Lira, one of the most poor districts of Uganda.
Below are some of the limitations:

To begin with, the study does not cover the interplay between the FMs and other factors that
determine development in rural areas. Many studies have shown that radio is only good at
providing information to the masses. But the final decisions by human beings to adopt certain
ways of life are much more influenced by other factors, including family members, friends, local
leaders, and socio-cultural institutions (Servaes, 1999: 23). Perhaps if the scope had encompassed
such areas as well, the findings and conclusions would give a better picture of what factors,
besides radio, stimulate rural development.

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The field study also fell on a very ‘political’ period on the calendar of Uganda. By the time
respondent interviews and focus group discussions were conducted in Lira (first week of 2006),
national political campaigns had gained momentum ahead of the country’s general elections,
which took place on February 23, 2006. Because of this, I am afraid that most of the programmes
coming out of the radio stations under investigation, as well as the mood of the listeners, were
heavily tilted towards politics. The results of this study may therefore be different from what
would have been found out if the research did not coincide with political campaigns.

The negative impacts of radio in the rural areas are also not within the scope of this study. This
presents a limitation because there could be certain ‘negative’ aspects of rural broadcasting which
might outweigh or affect the positive contributions of radio in the rural areas.

Equally important is that the study does not compare the programmes of the FM radios in Lira
with those of Radio Uganda. A comparison would help to project a better understanding of the
differences between the two types of radios, and conclude whether the upcountry-based FMs are
making any big change, compared with the national public service radio based in the city.

Finally, radio ownership at household level is not within the scope of this study. But if this was
done, it could have added another interpretation of the contribution of FMs in the rural families.

1.6 Outline of the thesis

The next chapter combines the theoretical framework with literature review. The first part of the
chapter establishes the discourses, paradigms and concepts set forth by various scholars in
explaining the relationship between development and the mass media broadly, but in particular
radio in the rural areas. The second part presents some past scholarly studies whose findings and
conclusions are relevant in understanding the relationship between FM radios and rural
development. The methods used in the field data collection and the analysis of this data, their
strengths and limitations, description and criteria for selection of the samples, and the nature of
empirical materials gathered, are presented in chapter three. Chapter four, which takes up more
than a half of the whole thesis, then presents the findings, analysis/discussion and interpretation of
the interviews, before chapter five presents the conclusions and recommendations for either
further research, or how to improve the workings of FM radios in rural areas.

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2 Theoretical framework and previous research
This chapter looks at the multi-faceted relationship between development and the mass media in
general and radio in particular. The first part comprises the theoretical framework, while the
second part presents some previous studies relevant to the topic of radio and rural development.
The chapter begins with defining the concept of development, and proceeds to examine some of
the most critical dimensions of development – including culture, democracy, peace,
communitarianism, and capital development. It also compares the top-down development
paradigm with the modern dialogical or bottom-up approach, and presents some of the most
popular theories about mass media effects on the audience, with regard to development. The
contribution of the mass media as a tool for social change in the rural areas is also evaluated under
this chapter. Finally, the chapter concludes that despite criticisms against, and weaknesses of,
some of the theoretical assumptions, the theories presented by communication scholars are very
useful in the study of radios and rural development in any society.

2.1 Development as a concept

Since the mid 20th century, ‘development’ has become a term synonymous with ‘growth’,
‘modernisation’, and ‘social change’ (Mattelart & Mattelart, 1998: 36). These concepts, which are
most often applied to the ‘Third World’, have been at the centre of many scholarly studies. But
researchers have not been able to agree on a single definition of development – perhaps because
of the diverse nature of the notion (Fisher, 2001; Sparks, 2001; Waisbord, 2001). I agree with
some scholars who contend that the meaning of development in one part of the world may be
different from that of another area. This is because each country is considered peculiar in its own
physical environment, culture, natural resources, and general way of life (Fisher, 2001; Servaes et
al., 1996). Of course there are some similarities (common features) here and there, but each
country remains unique in its own setting.

The best definition of development, for this thesis, is taken from Servaes et al. (1996), who see
development as “a multidimensional process that involves change in social structures, attitudes,
institutions, economic growth, reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty” (Servaes et
al., 1996: 82-83). In olden fashion, development meant the poor countries imitating the
‘developed West’, and abandoning ‘traditional’, ‘barbaric’ or ‘uncivilized’ technologies and
cultures in favour of the ‘modern’ Westernised ones (Thussu, 2000). Latter scholars coined the
term ‘another development’, which calls for satisfaction of needs, endogenous self-reliance,
participatory democracy and life in harmony with the environment – now popularly known as
sustainable development (Servaes, 1999; Servaes et al., 1996; Waisbord, 2001).

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One agrees with Servaes (1999) that ‘development’ is one of the oldest and most powerful of all
Western ideas about social progress or lack of it. It can be traced to as far back as the works of
19th century philosophers such as Condorcet, Comte, Durkheim, Saint-Simon, Spencer and even
Karl Marx (Servaes, 1999: 19).

During the late 1940s and 1950s, development thinkers viewed the problem of
‘underdevelopment’ or ‘backwardness’ in the ‘Third World’ as something that could be solved by
importing the technologies, and mechanical or human skills from the West – mainly Europe and
the United States of America – to the ‘poor’, ‘undeveloped’ countries (Mattelart & Mattelart,
1998: 36; Sparks, 2001; Thussu, 2000). This approach, which became the dominant paradigm
until the 1970s, looked at development as a linear top-down process (Mattelart & Matterlart,
1998). So the opinion and knowledge of the local people from areas where such ‘developmental’
programmes were channeled, were hardly sought, especially during design or planning stage of
such projects. Soon such programmes failed or had minimal success. This prompted the
development implementers to realize the need to gather local views because, as noted earlier in
the opening paragraphs of this chapter, an outside view of a society’s ‘development’ may be very
different from an assessment done my the society itself; and different parts of the world were/are
endowed with different cultures and natural resources (Servaes, 2001; Thussu, 2000).

Fisher (2001: 52) looks at development as “the material and spiritual quality of human life.” Most
modern-day scholars and development agencies concur that for whatever type of development to
be achieved, all aspects that affect the welfare of human beings must be taken into consideration
(Sparks, 2001). Many development theorists now look at it from the point of view of the universal
human rights benchmark, as enshrined in the United Nations (UN) Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR), which was adopted on December 10, 1948 by the UN General
Assembly. This covers everything that is good for the life of a human being.
In summary, despite all the different definitions, development must be viewed as any ‘good’
change for a better life of any human being. We look at the different faces of development in the
following sub-themes.

2.1.1 Development and Culture

The concept of culture has a very broad meaning. Just like the disagreement over what
development itself means, scholars have often come up with different definitions of culture
(Fisher, 2001). However, there is a common thread that runs through all the different definitions
of culture, which is that culture is viewed as the deposit of knowledge, beliefs, experiences or
12
shared meanings about symbols, signs, values, attitudes, hierarchies, religion, timing, roles,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions through individual and group
striving (Hyde-Clarke, 2006; McQuail, 2001; Servaes et al., 1996; Sparks, 2001). It includes the
way we eat, live or dress. In general, culture is the social setting in which a certain ‘reference
framework’ has found its basis or is ‘institutionalised.’ This then becomes the determinant of the
way people within a particular community interact or communicate with each other, or with
people from a different setting (Hyde-Clarke, 2006; Waisbord, 2001). Culture is not static; it can
change over time. That is why some scholars, like McQuail (2005) view it as a process, and
believe that passing on of “cultural heritage is one of the main functions of mass media”
(McQuail, 2005: 97). Culture also can refer to “texts and symbolic artifacts that are encoded with
particular meanings by and for people with particular identifications” (McQuail, 2005: 113).
Servaes et al. (1996) elaborate:
Under the concept of culture, we mean material and immaterial aspects of a certain
way of life, passed on and corroborated via socialization processes (e.g. schools,
media, church) to the members of this society. This process is never linear…it is
sporadic and ubiquitous and transcends geographical and ‘cultural’ boundaries.
(Servaes et al., 1996: 87)

The cultural context of a given place is very important during communication or information for
development. Change within any society depends in part on the members’ willingness to abandon
certain cultural traits in favour of new ideas or ways of life (Hendy, 2000). That is why scholars
view culture as a significant factor in any process of development, and the media as agents of
cultural evolution. There is an obvious correlation between the media and culture, and as McQuail
puts it, “every aspect of the production and use of mass media has a cultural dimension”
(McQuail, 2005: 113).

2.1.2 Capital Development

Almost all human beings need money, jobs, cars, bicycles, household utensils, food, houses,
roads, telephones, radios, hospitals, and other tangible goods and services to make life better. In
the development discourse, increase or growth in any, or all, of the physical things that boost the
human living standard and interactions among people, is given a generic term of ‘capital
development’ (Servaes et al., 1996).

The level of capital development in any given village, country, region or society determines to
what extent that community’s way of life changes (Norris & Zinnbauer, 2002; UNDP, 2005). The
type of food they eat, the standard of schools their children go to (if any), the quality of water they
drink, their dressing styles, medical services, life expectancy at birth, the level of ‘access to the

13
outside world’, and so on, are all determined by the amount of goods and services available to
them (Servaes et al., 1996). At the same time, capital development itself may be heavily
determined by the cultural attitudes of a group of people within a particular region. Cultural and
capital development are thus closely knit.

2.1.3 Development, peace and communitarianism

Another important school of thought in the field of development is that which interlocks
development with peace and communitarianism. The latter notion comes from the word
‘commune’, which means a mutually supportive social group of people, in which possessions and
responsibilities are shared. This perspective stresses that for meaningful societal development to
be realized, members of whole communities must be in harmony with each other, and that every
member of the society must be free to contribute towards the general community wellbeing.

Among the leading exponents of this perspective are; Paulo Freire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile
Durkheim, John Ruskin, Mahatma Gandhi, Leo Tolstroy and intellectual leaders of the current
worldwide environment and peace movements including Johan Galtung, the Norwegian peace
researcher (Tehranian, 1996: 44). This school emphasizes the preservation of the community as
the highest value, necessary for peace and development (McQuail, 2005). It argues that when
people are mobilized together as a group, for instance through a community radio, they tend to
‘develop’ much better than when everyone does as he or she wishes, to satisfy his or her own
selfish needs. The only weakness with this theory is that it does not take into account the current
liberalization environment and the profit-oriented, privately stimulated media ownership and
investment trends ushered by globalization. Still, that does not invalidate this theory, which better
applies to rural African communities such as those in Lira district, northern Uganda, where people
still value extended families and community spirit, unlike in Europe or America, where
individualism is the norm.

2.1.4 Contemporary global paradigm of development

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, development might mean different things, to different
people. But of late, global development organizations like the United Nations (UN), the World
Bank and the International Monetary Fund, have codified standard indicators of development. For
this study, we refer to this as ‘contemporary paradigm of development’. The UN Development
Programme (UNDP) has a Human Development Index (HDI), a composite indicator which it uses
to measure and rank the progress in different countries every year – which findings are published
in its annual Human Development Report (HDR).

14
The HDI covers three broad dimensions of human welfare: income, education and health. These
are then broken down to numerous significant indicators of human development. They include life
expectancy, adult literacy, enrollment in schools, gender equality, infant mortality, maternal
mortality, access to information, health services, transport and communication, child rights,
democracy and food security. Other elements encompass employment, capital-intensive
technology, investment, and access to water and electricity (Norris & Zinnbauer, 2002). To use
UNDP’s own words, “the HDI is a barometer for changes in human well-being and for comparing
progress in different regions” (UNDP, 2005: 21).

Servaes (1999: 14) says, “In sum, it is safe to say that today scholars, as well as policymakers,
look upon development as an ethical-political process of social change.” It is safe therefore, to
argue that modern theorists see the whole dimension of human life as a yardstick for gauging
development.
In interpreting development trends in Lira district, northern Uganda, this study takes into account
the HDI, as well as the articles enshrined in the UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

2.1.5 Democracy and diversity of radio channels

Democracy is defined differently by different scholars. But there are key elements that determine
whether a society is democratic or not. These include the rule of law, respect for human rights,
transparency and accountability by local leaders, regular and free elections of leaders, freedom of
expression and of the press, justice and equal opportunity for all members of the community
(White, 2001). As the UNDP puts it in its annual HDR 2005:
Democracy is a fundamental aspect of human development. It is both intrinsically
valuable, and therefore a human development indicator in its own right, and a
means towards wider human development goals. (UNDP, 2005: 20)

It is important to study the relationship between radio and democracy because, as Hendy (2000:
139) explains, “radio imbues itself with an aura of democracy.” In a free society, the multiplicity
of opinions and expressions through debates, talk shows, phone-ins, etc. on radio is good for the
community. This makes radio a “free marketplace of ideas” through which different views can
make the audience learn to be discernible (Hendy, 2000: 139). The theory of diversity of channels
believes that whenever there are more channels of communication, like a number of radio stations
within a community, the audience has the opportunity to absorb various information, through
various sources. This is good because only one source or channel can manipulate the population. I

15
agree with McQuail (2005: 91) that the “diversity of channels, though not an end in itself, is an
important attribute of development.”

2.2 Bottom-up displaces top-down model

As noted at the beginning of this chapter, the earlier development paradigm, that emerged
immediately after the Second World War, supported a top-down development approach. There
was little or no consultation at all with the would-be beneficiaries of development programmes.
This one-way implemention of developmental programmes proved unsustainable (Kobayashi et
al, 2005; Melkote & Kandath, 2001: 190). What followed was a reversal of the approach, hence
the now famous bottom-up model, which stresses the need to gather the views of the local people
and working closely with them in all stages of developmental programmes (Sparks, 2001: 374)

The bottom-up model, (sometimes referred to as Development Support Communication), became

the dominant paradigm from the 1980s. It stresses consultation and participation of the intended
beneficiaries of any development campaigns. This participatory community appraisal became
known as bottom-up because the views, needs, and interests of the community determine the
course of any development. It also helps to contextualize development projects (Melkote &
Kandath, 2001: 191). The ‘beneficiaries’ (local community) are no longer considered mere
passive, illiterate, irrational and unsuspecting spectators (Kivikuru, 2006).

2.3 Media as a tool for social change

No scholar disputes the fact that the media has enormous impact on any society. The only
disparity of thinking is on whether the media-induced changes (especially on culture) are good or
bad for the community. It is also a question of how long it takes for media products to cause
change in the lifestyles of people. Some of the schools of thought about the media-society
relationship, and the impact of media content on people, are examined in the following sections.

2.3.1 Development journalism

This concept is pertinent, especially from the Third World point of view. Analysts and scholars
who propound this idea believe that the media could be harnessed to promote social, and political
development, as well as national or community building. This perspective became consistent with
the dominant communication paradigm advanced by Western, mainly American communication
scholars, which urged that “the mass media could play a crucial role in society and, by
implication, could be an agent in the ‘modernization’ of the Third World” (Thussu, 2000: 325).

16
This scholarship emphasizes the importance of development news on radios and other media, as
opposed to infotainment (Streeten, 2002; Waisbord, 2001). From the 1970s and 1980s, most
developing countries started articulating that it was the role of the mass media to create unity and
foster development (Thussu, 2000: 327). As Fisher (2001: 53) puts it, the mass media are
expected to act as “multipliers of development and agents of modernization.” Similarly, Sparks
(2001) sees radio as “the magic multiplier” and the peasant as “the main target” for information
and change (Sparks, 2001: 365-367). In this perspective, write Mattelart & Mattelart (1998: 36),
the media were seen as “perfect agents for mobilizing people in favour of modernization by
disseminating modern attitudes... Being equipped with technological tools was a guarantee of
progress within everyone’s reach.”

In covering the development news beat, a journalist should critically examine, evaluate, and
report the relevance of a development project to national and local needs. Typical stories for the
development journalist would be about agricultural breakthroughs, successful literacy
programmes, or the impact of large-scale projects on local communities. The issues addressed by
the media must affect the lives of the ordinary people or the majority (Fisher, 2001). Some
scholars refer to development journalism as ‘positive journalism’.

But as a result of an upsurge in Western-dominated international media corporations around the

world, as mentioned earlier, questions and concerns have arisen about ‘cultural imperialism’ of
mass media products. Similar to the New World Information and Communication Order
(NWICO) debates of 1970s and 1980s, development scholars and experts are today still worried
that instead of pitching developmental stories, the modern mass media are dousing the public with
too much entertainment, sex, fashion, food, celebrity stories travel and sensationalism (Melkote &
Rao, 2001; Nordenstreng, 1975; Thussu, 2000: 325-341; Waisbord, 2001).

As an antidote to the problem of “information imperialism” from the West to the Third World,
development-oriented scholars in the late 1990s and 2000s, came up with this new paradigm –
which views journalism as a stimulant and ingredient for development. Development journalism
has been one of the key concepts informing the evolution of the mass media in the South since the
NWICO dispensation of the 1970s and 1980s (Nordenstreng, 1975; Thussu, 2000: 325-341).
2.3.2 Diffusion of innovations
The theory of diffusion of innovations was first developed in the United States of America in the
early 20th century and improved in the 1960s and 1970s by communication scholars, Everett
Rogers and Shoemaker. It posits that the mass media play an outstanding role during transfer of
technology or ideas conceived from other places that might be very useful in improving the lives
17
of the people in other areas. It could be about energy-saving stoves, new family planning or
sanitation techniques, mobile phones, Ventilation Improved Pit latrines (VIP), or just about
anything!

McQuail and Windahl (1993) sum it up:

In practice, the targets of most efforts at innovations diffusion have been farmers
and members of rural populations. These efforts were first made and evaluated in
the United States in the 1920s and 1930s, and are now a feature of most
programmes for development in Third World countries. They relate not only to
agriculture but also to health and social and political life. (McQuail & Windahl,
1993: 73)

In his 1962 publication, The Diffusion of Innovation, Rogers’ hypothesis was that “development-
as-modernization” was a type of social change in which new ideas are introduced into a social
system in order to produce higher per-capita incomes and levels of living through more modern
production methods and improved social organization (Mattelart & Mattelart, 1998: 36).

The media is crucial here. Other studies, however, tend to agree that the media is more effective
in “spreading awareness of new possibilities and practices” (Servaes, 1999: 23), than causing
direct social change. The media’s impact is better felt when augmented by other channels of
communication, including interpersonal interaction (McQuail, 2005). Other scholars such as
Willbur Schramm view the mass media as a “bridge to a wider world”, and as the vehicles for
transferring new ideas and models from the North to the South, and within the South from urban
to rural areas (Thussu, 2000: 41-42). Modernization is, under this theory, conceived as a process
of diffusion whereby “individuals move from a traditional way of life to a more complex, more
technically developed, and more rapidly changing way of life” (Servaes 1999: 27).

Rogers and Shoemaker have laid down five stages in the diffusion of innovations model:
awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption or rejection. Although the mass media play a
crucial role in the first stage, to raise awareness, the decisions of the people whether or not to
adopt “innovative ideas” are influenced primarily by interpersonal factors (e.g. friends, family,
opinion leaders, government bureaucrats, etc.) rather than directly by the media. This is where the
weakness of the diffusion of innovation hypothesis lies (Mattelart & Mattelart, 1998: 37); it
believes the media is whole-powerful to directly cause change in a society.

Despite the criticism, however, this theory is very important in studying progress (or lack of it) in
rural areas where diffusion and adoption of cultural and technological innovations are more
necessary (Waisbord, 2001).
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2.3.3 Two-step flow hypothesis
This is one of the most popular media effects theories, and is somehow related to the diffusion of
innovation hypothesis. The two-step model emerged in 1940 when Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard
Berelson and Hazel Gaudet conducted the first full-scale investigation of the effects of political
mass communication in America. Their aim was to find out whether the mass media had
immediate, direct and powerful effects (magic bullet) on the audience and their reaction (Franklin
et al., 2005: 266-267; McQuail & Windahl, 1993; Servaes, 1999: 23). As it turned out, the study,
which covered 600 voters in Erie County, Ohio (Mattelart & Mattelart, 1998: 34), discovered that
unlike in the (previous acclaimed) magic bullet theory, the mass media effects were minimal
(Sparks, 2001: 365). Consequently, Lazarsfeld and his colleagues developed the notion of a ‘two-
step’ flow of media messages, and that the audience has the ability to “select and interpret media
messages” (Franklin et al., 2005: 266).

Their conclusion was that messages filter through from the mass media to opinion leaders, peers
or family, who then play vital roles in decisions that people make after being exposed to media
messages. Opinion leaders are members of social groups who are better informed and
knowledgeable on certain issues. Mattellart & Mattelart (1998: 34) explain what the two steps
mean: “The first step involves people who are relatively well informed because they are directly
exposed to the media; the second step involves those who have less contact with the media, and
depend on others for information.”

This hypothesis was later developed by Katz and Lazarsfeld in the 1950s, but with the main
conclusion emphasizing the earlier findings that media images do not have a direct impact on the
audience. This view of media effects was corroborated by a number of other latter investigations,
and came to be dubbed the ‘limited effects paradigm’ of media influence. Just as in the diffusion
of innovation model, the two-step flow theory helps to explain the role interpersonal
communication plays in enhancing media effects.

But here, as Fisher (2001) stresses, media messages and interpersonal influences complement
each other in any mass communication campaign. Fisher quotes Professor Kenneth Eapen,
renowned scholar of “mass communication and national development”, who reinforced the
discourse that effective communication is essential to meaningful development:

Mass media may create general awareness and facilitate development of

appropriate attitudes…however, their input must be meaningful. Mass media
messages cannot be disseminated without human interaction: There is little doubt
19
 that people do learn from mass media, but to be translated into action, these
learnings require support from various forms of interpersonal communication and
on-the-spot support… If development is to be effective, local goals must tie the
mass media in projects to traditional communication channels. (Fisher, 2001: 54)

Although it offered a “salutary caution against the contemporary assumption of media as an all
powerful Leviathan” (Franklin et al., 2005: 267), the two-step flow model of media effects is
criticized by some scholars for greatly underrating the power of the media. Lazarsfeld et al. did
not distinguish between media effects on political opinions and other social spheres; their study
focusing solely on politics during the four weeks of US presidential elections in 1940. The study
did not look at the long-term influence of television on attitudes, for instance.

It is also possible that other than coming up with a two-step model, Prof. Lazarsfeld and
colleagues could have named it a ‘multi-step flow’ because in many cases, at any time, the same
individual might depend on others or be depended upon by others, for media messages.
Nonetheless, it is still a pertinent theory for studying the relationship between FM radios and rural
development.

2.3.4 Radio and participatory communication in rural areas

The concept of participatory communication here means the process by which people within a
particular community “create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual
understanding” (Waisbord, 2001: 5). In the case of radios, it means debates or other active forms
of participation in the decision-making, production and the thrashing out numerous diverse ideas
over radio. This can be on any pertinent issue affecting the community’s welfare.

Hendy (2000: 195) quotes German playwright, Bertolt Brecht to have once urged against radio
being a channel through which homes passively received information and entertainment: If
listeners could transmit as well as receive, he argued, then they would become producers of radio
as well as consumers, and it would become a truly public, two-way forum of communication.
Scholars have particularly singled out the power of the FM radio, which brings the radio station
closer to a small, local audience. This is certainly significant for the grassroots masses, which
hardly ever had a chance to express their views on centralized AM radios based in the capital
cities (Kivikuru, 2006; Streeten, 2002). The closer the radio is to the audience, the easier it is for
the social and environmental needs of the masses to be considered during programme production
and feedback – hence dialogical communication which is crucial for development. In fact, some
scholars have argued that radio is part of the society itself, and the way radio works in any society
reflects that society’s context.

20
Starting from the 1970s, scholars have been laying greater emphasis on grassroots participation,
more equality in the distribution of the benefits of development, more inputs by recipient nations
and local communities, and enhancing the quality of life in developing countries (Fisher, 2001:
55; White, 2001). The theory of participation is linked with the democratic participant theory of
media functions and operation. McQuail (2000: 160) writes thus:
This theory found expression in the 1960s and 1970s in pressure for local and
community radio and television. It challenged the dominance of centralized,
commercialized, state-controlled and even professionalized media. It favoured
media that would be small in scale, non-commercial and often committed to a
cause. Participation and interaction are key concepts. (cited in Kivikuru, 2006: 8)

According to the dialogical pedagogy, developed by Paulo Freire, the ‘subjugated’ peoples must
be treated as full human subjects in any political process (Servaes et al., 1996: 7). This idea of
participatory and self-management relationship between radio stations and the local audience was
also the main concern of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) during the NWICO debates in the 1970s. UNESCO, just like many development
communication scholars and development agencies, believes that participation by, or consultation
of, the masses is key to bringing any change to society. Participatory theorists criticized the earlier
top-down paradigm for having “ethnocentric and paternalistic view of development” (Waisbord,
2001: 17). This lack of respect for local views, as noted in the preceding pages, hampered success
of many development projects.

The other discourse about participatory communication was formulated by UNESCO during the
1977 meeting of communication experts from different countries, who met in the Yugoslav
capital, Belgrade to chart out solutions to the information-divide between the North and South.
According to Servaes et al. (1996: 18), the Belgrade meeting laid down three key points about
access to the media in rural areas, and participation by the ordinary people:
• Access refers to use of media for public service. It may be defined in terms of the
opportunities available to the public to choose varied and relevant programmes, and to
have a means of feedback to transmit its reactions and demands to production
organizations.
• Participation implies a higher level of public involvement in communication systems. It
includes the involvement of the public in the production process and also in the
management and planning of communication systems.
• Participation may be no more than representation and consultation of the public in
decision-making.

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2.3.5 Free radio, democracy and politics
It was mentioned in the forerunning pages that democracy is a salient component of development.
Now we look at how democratic and other political developments are nurtured and enhanced by a
free and fair radio. By free and fair radio we mean the type which is not subjected to rigorous
controls and draconian legal frameworks of either the government or corporate ownerships and
advertising interests (Hendy, 2000: 206). The president of the World Bank, James Wolfensen puts
it succinctly:
A free press is not a luxury. A free press is at the absolute core of equitable
development, because if you cannot enfranchise poor people, if they do not have a
right to expression, if there is no searchlight on corruption and equitable practices,
you cannot build the public consensus needed to bring about change. (Norris &
Zinnbauer, 2002: 4)

Classical liberal theorists suggest that the free press strengthens the process of democratization
and human rights by keeping the governments under constant monitoring and checks. A free press
also helps the public to scrutinize those in authority, highlighting policy failures,
maladministration, scandals and corruption, and acts as “the voice of the disadvantaged” (Norris
& Zinnbauer, 2002: 2). This perspective further believes that radio, just like other mass media,
can be effective in promoting development and good governance as long as there is press freedom
and diversity of access to the media, by the public (Curran & Gurevitch, 1993; Franklin et al.,
2005).

The watchdog role of the media was stressed as early as the 18th and 19th century by several
thinkers including polemicist Edmund Burke who compared the press to the ‘Fourth Estate’ of
government (Franklin et al., 2005: 84; McQuail, 2005: 555). The Fourth Estate theory views the
press as a very powerful arm of government, after the executive, judiciary and legislature. The
argument here is that radios, just like other mass media, plays a central but unofficial role by
informing and guiding the public on important public issues, offering them platform to debate
problems (Quick, 2003: 982; Servaes et al., 1996: 104-105). But this role can only be played
effectively when the media is “independent and free from censorship” (Franklin et al, 2005: 85).

Norris and Zinnbauer (2002: 2) posit that the mass media will have a positive impact on good
governance and human development if they function effectively as a watchdog holding the
powerful to account, and as a “civic forum facilitating a diversity of voices in public debate.”
They elaborate further about this theory:
A long tradition of liberal theorists from Milton through Locke and Madison to
John Stuart Mill have argued that a free and independent press within each nation
can play a vital role in the process of democratization by contributing towards the
22
 right of freedom of expression, thought and conscience, strengthening the
responsiveness of governments to all citizens, and providing a pluralist platform of
political expression for a multiplicity of groups. (Norris & Zinnbauer, 2002: 4)

It is obvious that the media play a crucial role in improving the welfare of the people by
highlighting the pertinent issues and increasing the level of public debate on the subjects that are
of public interest. But some critics of the freedom of expression and diversity discourse have
argued that media freedom and diversity of channels do not necessarily empower the voiceless
people. The argument, which I agree with, is that those who frequently speak out on the radios are
not the poor or illiterate people, rather the affluent urban elite who have the necessary facilities.
McQuail (2005: 95) observes that the class that has the resources and power has control over the
means of mental production so that in the end the views of those who lack the means are
subjected to the dominant ideas of the well-to-do listeners.

I concur with McQuail’s point of view to some extent, more so when we look at the liberalized
and globalised era, where the media is increasingly falling into the grips of profit-minded moguls
and conglomerates. Hendy (2000) writes: “That deregulation has brought a huge expansion in
radio activity seems beyond dispute. But the central question is whether it has in fact delivered the
greater choice in radio listening it promised…” (Hendy, 2000: 25-26).

2.4 Previous research

Due to he fact that FM radios are a new phenomenon in the rural areas of Uganda, not many
studies have been conducted related to the contribution of FM radios in the development of rural
areas. However, I wish to cite a few local and international studies whose findings and
conclusions are relevant to this research.

2.4.1 Research on community broadcasting and participation

In 2004, the Uganda Broadcasting Council (UBC) produced The national Electronic Media
Performance Study, which found out that community FM stations have “the potential to take care
of unique features of specific communities” (UBC, 2004: 59). The study reports that community
radios help to meet the needs of the people by producing ‘local content’ in the ‘local language’,
and thus giving people a chance to contribute their views on the programmes relevant to their
needs. The study’s objective included gathering people’s views to inform a review of the current
national broadcasting policy and regulation. It used household surveys and focus groups, covering

23
five sample districts, including Lira. With regard to community broadcasting, it concluded that the
FM radios have helped to meet the rural people’s information, education and entertainment needs.

Another study conducted on community radios in South Africa and Namibia between August
2001 and January 2005, also concluded that community radios promote democracy and
citizenship in rural areas by giving voice to the voiceless. “The single most important factor in
this process is the fact that community radio ‘taps into’ and revitalizes community communication
in Africa…People are ‘hungry’ for community communication,” the researcher, Ullamaija
Kivikuru, a professor of journalism at the Swedish School of Social Science, University of
Helsinki in Finland, concluded (see Kivikuru, 2006: 7). The study relied on interviews, discussion
forums and survey materials.

2.4.2 Research on diffusion of innovations in rural areas

In 2003, three researchers, Chris Garforth, Yadar Khatiwada and David Campbell conducted a
study on Communicating research to support knowledge interventions in agricultural
development: case studies from Eritrea and Uganda. Using questionnaires and household surveys
with farmers in eastern Uganda, the researchers found out that 63 percent of subsistence and 80
percent of semi-commercial farmers have heard information on improved agricultural
technologies on radio. They concluded that the Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture (PMA)
messages had sank to the rural areas because of radios, which have helped to change people’s
attitudes about the technologies to adopt and new crop varieties to grow. The study, however, did
not specify whether the media was the only factor that influenced farmers’ decisions.

Emphasising the importance of knowledge transfer via radio, Garforth et al. concluded:
“Information and knowledge from outside a social system can make an important contribution to
agricultural and rural development…Information coming from outside the area can bring fresh
ideas, awareness of new opportunities” (Garforth et al., 2003: 1). Their findings were presented at
the Development Studies Association Conference in Glasgow, September 10 – 12, 2003.

The findings by Garforth et al. corroborate an early 1950s study by Daniel Lerner, a political
science professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the US. In that first major
comprehensive survey titled The passing of traditional society, Lerner examined the degree to
which people in the Middle East (Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iran and Egypt) were exposed
to national and international media, especially radio. The study concluded that contact with the
media helped the process of transition from a ‘traditional’ to a ‘modernized’ state. Lerner thus

24
characterized the mass media as a ‘mobility multiplier’, which “enables individuals to experience
events in far-off places, forcing them to reassess their traditional way of life” (Thussu, 2000: 56).

Twenty years after the Lerner study, in the early 1970s Professor Kenneth Eapen, a mass
communication scholar, conducted an intensive field study of media effects and potential for
development in Zambia and Indonesia. He concluded that mass media may “create general
awareness and facilitate development of appropriate attitudes” (Fisher, 2001: 54). Eapen’s
position, however, was that mass media need to be augmented by ‘human interaction’ for the full
impact to be realized.

2.5 Conclusion
Having examined the different theories and previous studies presented above, it is worth
concluding that almost every theory has its own strengths and shortfalls. But that does not
denigrate their usefulness in such a scientific investigation as this one focusing on the FM radios
and rural development. Instead it calls for applying as many theories as possible, to be able to
interpret and understand a phenomenon. And this study has tried as much as possible to integrate
many theories about development, and the role and effects of mass media (including FM radios),
especially regarding growth and social changes in rural areas. The next chapter presents the
methods used in empirical data collection, analysis and interpretation.

25
3 Methods and material
This chapter presents the methods employed in the gathering, analysis and interpretation of
empirical data. It also explains the reasons for choosing the three FM radio stations under study,
as well as the selection of interviewees and focus groups participants. It then weighs the strengths
and weaknesses of the selected methods, against the methods that could have been used in this
investigation, but were not because of limited time. In order to widen the scope of the data from
the individual interviews and the focus groups, I also collected a full-week programme schedule
from one of the stations (Radio North), and constructed an overview of the same from the other
two stations which were unable to provide printed copies of their weekly schedules. This was
helpful, not for content analysis which method I did not use, but for “mapping” and “comparing”
the major development programmes of the three radios, over a week. An overview of the
programmes, which was reconstructed by the researcher, is found in Appendix C of this thesis.

3.1 Methods: focus groups and respondent interviews

Because of time limitation and the scope of study, I utilized two methods of qualitative study –
focus group discussions and respondent interviews. A focus group discussion is, in other words, a
group interview. It involves bringing together a group or series of groups of individuals to discuss
an issue in the presence of a moderator (Franklin et al., 2005: 83). Groups are carefully structured,
with members selected to represent distinctive demographic and social characteristics appropriate
to the particular study.

According to Morgan (1997: 34), focus group projects often use “homogenous strangers” as
participants; rely on relatively structured interviewing with high moderator involvement; have 6
to 10 participants per group; and have a total of three to five groups per project. Homogenous
strangers here means people who may not be known to each other but share similar characteristics
targeted by the researcher. On average, each group discussion lasts between one and two hours.
Like all other methods of scientific study, focus group discussion has both its strengths and
weaknesses. The most significant strength is its ability to bring together a number of people,
hence the researcher is able to gather a large amount of data within a shorter time than in other
methods. This makes focus groups “quick and easy” (Morgan, 1997: 13). But varying participants
is not easy, and sometimes it’s difficult to guarantee that all the invited people turn up on time.

The fact that focus groups are driven by the researcher’s interests can also be a source of
weakness. I share the argument by Morgan (1997) that: “The fact that the researcher creates and
directs the groups makes them distinctly less naturalistic than participant observation so there is

26
always some residual uncertainty about the accuracy of what the participants say” (Morgan, 1997:
14). This is more or less the same weakness with respondent interviews – which involve
conducting individual interviews with people the researcher thinks are better placed to provide
certain answers to the research question(s).

Just as it’s the case with focus groups, the purpose of the respondent interview is to “elicit open-
ended responses” (Lindlof, 1995: 178). Respondents are usually asked to express themselves on
an issue or situation, or to explain what they think or how they feel about their social world. But
the respondents sometimes lay claim to more than they really posses or know – this can ‘mislead’
the findings, unless the researcher verifies the data by other methods. The advantage of
respondent interviews and focus groups, however, is that they are both conducted face-to-face,
and so the researcher can use follow-up questions instantly. That is why I think the combination
of focus groups and respondent interviews for this study provided the best synergy to produce a
more reliable data.

For the purpose of this study, three focus groups discussions, each lasting between one and two
hours, were conducted in Lira between January 2 and January 10, 2006. All the discussants were
listeners of at least one of the radio stations under inquiry. In the first group, eight people
participated. The second and third groups had seven people each. For comprehension and
compatibility, the discussions were conducted in the local language, Lwo, which is the mother
tongue of all the interviewees. One of the group interviews was conducted in the premises of
Rupiny, a local newspaper in Lira town. The other two were conducted in a classroom at Ireda
Primary School, two kilometers from Lira town. All the discussions were tape-recorded.

An interview guide was designed for the purpose of the focus groups. Among others, participants
were asked whether they think the FM radios have improved their lives in any ways; whether they
think the radios have developmental programmes; how they participate in the radio programmes;
what factors hinder their participation; which programmes they liked most and why; and their
suggestions for improvement of the radio programmes (See the interview guide in Appendix A).

The other component of the study comprised six individual respondent interviews with three news
editors/station managers (one from each of the three FM stations), and three field reporters (also
from the three different stations). Respondent interviews are face-to-face interviews with
individuals that the researcher feels can best answer the research questions. For this study, the
interviews lasted between 30 and 45 minutes apiece. All the interviews were conducted at the
interviewees’ own stations, tape-recorded and held separately with each reporter or editor. This
27
was to avoid a situation where, if the editor and his or her reporter were interviewed together, the
latter would probably not feel free enough to express some views that might contradict those of
his or her editor.
The respondents were asked to comment on the kinds of programmes which they think are
developmental; how such programmes are promoting rural development; how the people
participate in the production of the programmes; and the challenges of reaching out to the rural
communities (see Appendix A for detailed interview guide).

3.1.1 Analysis of interview data

In the analysis of the empirical material, I followed the procedures prescribed by Lindlof (1995),
Morgan (1988) and Rubin & Rubin (1995). The first step was to code the data from both the
respondent interviews and the focus groups. Coding is a process in which “the researcher
creatively scans and samples data-texts, looks for commonalities and differences, and begins to
formulate categories” (Lindlof, 1995: 224).
Similar concepts, ideas or themes were categorized together in order to label, separate, compile
and organize the data. The dominantly appearing themes and ideas were interpreted as more
important, while the seldom appearing patterns were viewed as less important to the phenomenon
of FM radios and rural development.

Direct quotations from the interviewees, and exemplars were also useful in the analysis,
especially to advance argumentation. Exemplars are incidents, examples, strips and case studies
(Lindlof, 1995: 229) which support the researcher’s hypothesis. In this case, the hypothesis is that
FM radios are promoting development in the rural areas.
The other phase was the ‘triangulation’ of data, which involves a ‘compare-and-contrast’
assessment of more than one form of evidence about an object of inquiry (Lindlof, 1995: 239). In
doing the triangulation, the different data from focus groups and respondent Interviews were
synchronized, distilled, gleaned for evidence and compressed. Besides ‘constant comparison’ of
the responses from the different interviewees, the moderator/interview guide was equally a useful
tool for data analysis. Since I used the same set of questions for all the three focus groups, and the
same set of questions for the respondent interviews, these provided the ‘frame’ within which to
make comparative analyses of the data (see Morgan, 1988: 70).

3.2 Criteria for selection of radio stations and interviewees

3.2.1 The FM stations

28
The three FM radio stations under investigation – Radio-Wa, Radio Rhino and Radio North – are
general audience stations based in Lira, my home district. Their signals cover a radius of about
100 kilometres from Lira town. One of the reasons for choosing them is that I felt closer and
familiar with them, and they were easily approachable within a short time. Picking other stations
outside Lira would have required additional funds (for transport, accommodation and other field
expenses), which money was not available. The chosen stations also have wider rural audience
reach, and more community-based programming, as compared with two other FM stations in the
same district.

3.2.2 Focus groups participants

Before they were included in the focus groups, the participants were asked whether they are
regular listeners of any of the radios under study. Only adults aged over 20, and regular listeners
of at least one of the three stations, and rural residents, were chosen.

3.2.3 Respondent interviews

I used a purposive non-random sampling technique. This involved choosing carefully which
editors or reporters were better placed to answer the interview questions, based in part on their
experience in working with radio. One news editor (or station manager), and one field reporter
were chosen from each of the three stations. These positions are very significant in deciding what
goes on air. I therefore thought they would be the most suitable to speak about how their stations
are enhancing development in rural areas.

3.3 Presentation of the selected stations and interviewees

3.3.1 The FM stations
All the three FM stations are privately owned and based in Lira, about 300 kilometres from the
capital city, Kampala. They all broadcast predominantly in the local language, Lwo, although they
have some slots for English (the national language), especially news and announcements. Radio
Rhino 96.1 FM was the second radio station to be opened in Lira in 2000. It is owned by a
religious group, the Christian Life Church. Radio-Wa 89.8 FM, (which means Our Radio), was
launched in 2001 by the Catholic Church, which also operates a TV station named TV-Wa. Both
the radio and TV share the same premises at the Diocesan headquarters. Radio North 88.8 FM
was launched in December 2001, with one of its goals being promotion of community
development initiatives. It is owned by a London-based Ugandan woman.
3.3.2 Focus groups participants

29
In all the groups, I tried as much as possible to vary the characteristics of participants. There were
at least three women in each group. Participants also included elderly men and women (aged 50
and above), young people (in their 20s and 30s), farmers, civil servants, teachers, businessmen,
local leaders, housewives, students, etc. This variation helped to enliven the discussions by
bringing in different perspectives from the different interviewees (see Appendix B for the list of
interviewees).

3.3.3 Respondent interviews

The three editors and three reporters I interviewed had all worked in their respective capacities
and stations for at least one year. Their ages range from 28 to 49. Only one woman, the station
manager/editor from Radio-Wa, featured among the interviewees. I could not find more women
holding editorial positions or working as reporters.

3.4 Limitations of the methods

If there had been enough time and funds for the study, the best approach would have been to
combine qualitative and quantitative methods of investigation. Using only two qualitative
methods – respondent interviews and focus group discussions – definitely cannot elicit certain
answers that are better provided by quantitative methods. The use of survey questionnaires
(quantitative method), for one, could have been useful in reaching out to a larger number of radio
audience, with closed, straight-to-the-point questions on a number of aspects that cannot be
exhausted through the respondent interviews or focus groups (see Morgan, 1997: 17-30).

Ethnography is another suitable way of studying behaviours of a group of people, over a longer
period of time. As Lindlof and Taylor (2002: 16) put it, the term ethnography does not imply any
single method or type of data analysis, although participant observation is a strategy that nearly all
ethnographers employ. Ethnography is associated with “living intimately and for a longer period
of time within a single native community” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002: 17). Since development as a
phenomenon, or the impact of mass media on development in rural areas, are long-term processes,
ethnography/participant observation would have been suitable for studying FM radios and rural
development. But because of time limitation, I inevitably had to avoid it.

Among quantitative methods, content analysis would have been a useful method in this study.
This would involve critically analyzing the types of programmes aired out on the FM radios, say
for at least one month, to ascertain whether they are developmental-oriented. But because of the
time limitation, I could not utilize this approach too.

30
Another limitation is to do with the fact that I am very familiar with the object of study. In other
words, being so accustomed to what you are studying can often make things appear too “ordinary
and taken for granted” (McCracken, 1988: 32). The fact that I was born and educated in Lira
district, the area of study, could present a limitation. According to McCracken (1988), deep and
long-lived familiarity with the culture/subject of study has “potentially the grave effect of dulling
the investigator’s powers of observation and analysis” (McCracken, 1988: 23). Scholars working
in another culture can discover “new interesting things” much better than a person working in his
or her own environment. Some interviewees or respondents also get acquainted with their
environments to the extent that they get “almost completely submerged beneath the surface of
consciousness” (McCracken, 1988: 23). Hence they tend to ignore certain bits, considering them
‘unimportant’ or ‘not new’.

But I also agree with McCracken, who himself hastens that despite this limitation, long-term
acquaintance also has the advantage of giving the investigator a “fineness of touch and delicacy of
insight that few ethnographers working in other cultures can hope to develop. This is an
exceptional analytical advantage” (McCracken, 1988: 32).

To avoid complacency with familiar cultures and societies, I had to “manufacture distance”,
which, according to McCracken (1988: 23), is to “create a critical awareness of matters with
which we have a deep and blinding familiarity.” Good research helps respondents report their
experience by ‘manufacturing the distance’. The other remedies include meticulous literature
reviews and deft crafting of interview questions. I tried my best to do all these. I even had the
additional advantage of interacting with the interviewees in the local language (Lwo), which is an
incentive in any interviewing, as opposed to using an interpreter.

3.4 Conclusion
Despite the limitation of the chosen methods, the study was able to eke out valuable findings and
conclusions. The use of focus groups and respondent interviews proved to be the best and most
effective combination of methods given the amount of time I had at my disposal. Although each
of them can be used as a stand-alone method, the respondent interviews and focus group
discussions can produce the best results when combined.

The three focus groups, for instance, were very useful in “bringing on board” 22 people of diverse
backgrounds. The discussions were held in free and informal atmospheres and settings. This

31
stimulated frank, lively debates that helped me to gain insights into the interviewees’
understandings of how FM radios are enhancing developments in their villages. Materials from
focus groups were helpful in cross-checking what the radio editors and reporters said, and vice
versa.
The six respondent interviewees were also well-placed radio editors/station managers and
reporters who offered the relevant and elaborate answers to the research questions. True the
number of people interviewed was low, but since qualitative research does not aim at statistically
generalized conclusions, the number of interviewees does not gravely affect the findings. The
overall aim of the study was to develop knowledge on how the FM radios can best work closely
with, and help the rural people improve their lives. This goal can be realized regardless of the
number of interviewees.

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4 Analysis and interpretation of findings
This chapter, which is the longest of the thesis, presents the findings from the three focus group
discussions, six respondent interviews, and an insight gleaned from the programme schedules of
the three FM stations. The findings are structured according to the dominant themes related to
development, except for the third section. The chapter is divided into three main sections: The
first part presents a typology of the developmental programmes found in the three stations. The
second section looks at the form and degree of community participation, and the third handles the
programme genres. My own views are woven into the chapter, especially during interpretation of
the findings.

4.1 Developmental programmes: A typology

By typology of developmental programmes, the researcher means the different types of
programmes that are deemed to be development-oriented. The interpretation of the development
orientation of the different programmes is derived from the emphasis put on them by the focus
groups and respondent interviewees, as well as from the theories of development presented in
chapter two of this thesis. The programmes are presented here in descending order of importance,
based on the interviewees’ judgements. All the programmes, apart from news bulletins, are
entirely in the local language – Lwo.

The times and days or the programmes are indicated, not to draw any conclusions about them, but
just to help in understanding the relationships between the programmes and the times or days
allotted to them. Those that appear early in the morning (5.00am to 7.00am) and in the evening
(6.00pm to 10.00pm) are considered more important because these times of the day attract more
listeners. The programmes given more time also attract greater public interest than those given
less time in a week (see Appendix C).
It is important to note that the typology was done with a view on thematic areas which are
relevant to development, as opposed to programme genres which we will look at in the third
section of this chapter.

4.1.1 News programmes

In both the respondent interviews and focus groups, the importance of news emerged as one of the
dominant themes. The news editors and reporters said the news bulletins, especially the morning
and evening ones in the local language (Lwo), are among the most listened to programmes. The
fact that all the three stations schedule their news bulletins – both in the local language and in
English – around the same time, that is, between 7.00am and 8.00am in the mornings, and

33
between 7.00pm and 8.00pm in the evenings, shows that news is among their top priorities. These
are the times with highest number of listeners. As Pelegrine Otonga, the news reporter of Radio-
Wa put it, “People always want to know what is happening around them, in the central
government or local council, and outside the country.” The local language and English news in all
the stations last between 15 and 30 minutes each.

On the role of information, the news editor of Radio North, Patrick Ebong stressed:
Before the FM stations came on air five years ago, people were ignorant of things
transpiring in the cabinet, parliament or even here in the district local government.
But now anything happens in the central government in Kampala, or here at the
district headquarters, and within a few minutes even people deep in the rural areas
have already got the news. Now, tell me if that is not development brought about
by the FM radios!

For international news, especially news about Africa, all the three FMs relay live the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Focus on Africa programme between 6.00pm and 6.30pm every
weekday. This is very good because it keeps the local community abreast with what transpires in
other parts of the African continent. Unfortunately not many local people can understand English,
and others care less about things happening outside Uganda. But such news serves the interests of
a section of the audience, and therefore one can say it’s a good step by the radios. Besides the
BBC reports, the stations also sometimes incorporate important international news, like the war in
Iraq, in their news bulletins. Such reports are normally sourced from the Internet, lifted from the
daily newspapers, or from the international TV channels like CNN. The bulk of the FM’s news is
about very local issues and events, because that is what the audience is most interested in,
according to the editors and reporters.

4.1.2 Peace and reconciliation

The contribution of the FM radios towards bringing peace to northern Uganda after 20 years of
civil war was emphasized by both the respondent interviewees and focus groups. One focus group
participant, Caroline Akullu, 29, had this to say: “When we finally see an end to this war, which
might come soon, we should not forget the impact of the local radios.”

For more than two years now, the FM stations have been running peace and reconciliation
programmes targeted at luring the Lord’s Resistance army (LRA) rebels – a guerrilla group
operating in northern Uganda since the mid 1980s – to lay down their arms and come out of the
bush. Most of the rebels were born and raised in Lira and other neighbouring districts from where
they were either forcefully abducted and conscripted into rebel ranks, or they willingly joined the
rebel group. The radio stations, in collaboration with church leaders and peace Non-Governmental
34
Organizations (NGOs), have been drumming the spirit of reconciliation and forgiveness of the
rebels who have killed, abducted or maimed many people, as well as destroying or looting
people’s property.

The most comprehensive peace programmes, as mentioned in the focus groups, are Karibu
(Kiswahili word for ‘welcome’) and Dwog Pacu (Lwo words for ‘come back home’). Both
programmes are aired out live every Monday, Wednesday and Friday on Radio-Wa. The
mornings (10.00am – 11.00am), feature Karibu, during which reconciliatory letters sent in by
residents are read out on air, mostly appealing to the rebels to “stop fighting and come back home
and let our area develop.” Besides reading the reconciliatory letters sent by members of the
audience, the programme presenter plays songs for the rebels. The songs are often dedicated by
members of the audience. Some listeners also phone-in live to applaud the rebels who have come
back, and appeal to “our brothers” who are still fighting to come back home.

“Even if they are in the bush, the rebels have radios, and we are sure they listen to our
programmes because those who come back (surrender) always tell us they used to listen to so and
so speaking on our radios,” said Pelegrine Otonga of Radio-Wa.

Radio-Wa’s evening programme, Dwog Pacu runs from 9.30pm to 11.00pm and is hosted by the
most popular DJ in the district, called Kakaba. The station chose to use the famous presenter to
appeal to the rebels. During the evening programme, three to five returnee former rebels are
hosted in the studios where they speak about their harsh experiences in the bush and the ‘good
life’ they are now enjoying at home. A focus group participant said: “Some of them (rebels)
testify on air that they decided to escape from the rebel camps and come back home after listening
to the voices of their friends with whom they were in the bush…as far as Radio-Wa is concerned,
I think they are doing a wonderful work of peace building.”

According to Sister Joe Martin Nalubega, the station manager/news editor of Radio-Wa, a total of
2570 rebels have returned home “as a result of our radio programmes.” She stresses: “So you can
see how powerful radio is! We are winning the war without a gun…Peace and development have
been the main contribution of this radio.” The mission of Radio-Wa is to “inform and transform
the community.”

The Karibu and Dwog Pacu programmes, said Nalubega, have become ‘role models’ not only
within Uganda, but has also attracted foreign-based peace NGO workers who have traveled all the

35
way to Lira to learn about how Radio-Wa’s peace programmes work. “Some white people came
from the US, UK and Germany, and they recorded the programmes,” said Nalubega.

Radio Rhino and Radio North also have peace initiative programmes, with similar aims and
objectives as those of Radio-Wa. But theirs are less comprehensive as compared with the
programmes on Radio-Wa. However, the fact that both stations have similar programmes could
be interpreted to mean that they are very significant programmes in the promotion of peace, which
is one of the main public concerns among the people of Lira and no rthern Uganda as a whole.
After prolonged insurgency, people are desperate for peace, which they see as a prerequisite for
development.

4.1.3 Cultural awareness

This section presents the dominant cultural programmes as mentioned by both the respondent
interviewees and focus group participants. Although not a programme in itself, the use of local
language was highlighted as an aspect of cultural development. The use of elderly presenters,
such as 60-year-old John Peter Okullu Arach on Radio Rhino, was another thing mentioned as
good for cultural development. These elderly presenters are said to be well-versed with the norms,
values and traditions of the local community.

For the case of Radio Rhino, Okullu Arach presents the Tekwaro (traditional leaders) programme
on Tuesdays from 4.00pm to 5.00pm. This is said to be contributing to “preservation” of the local
cultures, like knowledge of the origins of local clans, traditional artifacts, and certain important
cultural practices which would otherwise be extinct. Okullu Arach also presents a programme for
local language poetry and songs on the same radio station. Although young people always prefer
‘modern’ pop music, R&B, Jazz, and other Western lyrics, the older generation (40 years and
above) are always enchanted by the local songs, including old ones which bring back their “good
old days”. But that is not to say that the young generation is totally opposed to local language
songs; but rather that they want less of it and more of the English language music.

Pelegrine Otonga of Radio-Wa said “people do like the local songs.” To promote local artistes,
both Radio-Wa and Radio North have scheduled times for local music and local artistes to appear
in the studios, during which they speak about their songs. On Radio-Wa, there is a programme
every Sunday from 10.00am to 12.00pm dedicated to local musicians who go to the studios and
talk about how they managed to come up with their songs, and the deeper meanings of their
lyrics. This process helps to inspire other people, especially young ones, who may emulate and
start performing or composing their own songs. The programme started early last year, and, as
36
Otonga said, “since then we have hosted over 40 local singers.” For those who cannot physically
make it to the station, the editors make efforts to go out and record an interview with them, which
interviews are then played on air later.

The FM radios have become the best “marketing forum” for musicians. Kenneth Okello, the
station manager/editor of Radio Rhino said:
It is the radio that brings musicians to the limelight. We don’t charge them anything
to play their songs, and they don’t demand anything from us for playing their
songs. For as long as they have released a new song, most of them usually just run
to us to play their songs, and so far we have about 25 local hits among the songs we
normally play everyday.

The themes of the songs are mostly on social issues, and therefore a source of education for the
public on social values. I think this is one way to enhance development because the songs can
motivate people into doing positive things advocated for in the songs. For instance, there is a
popular song by a man called Morris Ekuka, which advises people to pay taxes, to enable the
government provide services to the community. This has become one of the most influential
songs, and the singer was one time invited to the ministry of local government, where he was
given a bicycle as a gift for his “innovative” and “developmental-minded” song.

In general, the local music talents have been able to “pop up” mainly as a result of the local
radios. Among the popular local musicians are those working as presenters on the FM radios. One
of them, Angena Super, a DJ on Radio Rhino, has so far released four music albums, the latest of
which, Wilobo yite twolo (the world is alert), was one of the popular songs being played on the
FM radios and selling very well in the music stores at the time of my field interviews. A number
of other FM DJs have also released songs, and, as Kenneth Okello estimated, “about 20 local
musicians have been promoted by the FMs.” However, because of a weak copyright law in
Uganda, the musicians are not getting good earnings because of piration of their music.

All the three FM radios also have specific times during which listeners phone in to request for
local songs of their choice. A focus group participant, Bentorina Muga said: “At least these young
people can earn some little money from their music albums, which is good for them and their
families. We can therefore say that the FMs have done a good job for the sake of development.” It
is not clear how much money the musicians earn from the sale of their music tapes, or CDs. Some
of the musicians are contracted by NGOs or government departments to produce a song to
promote a local issue of public interest.

37
4.1.4 Religious programmes
Apart from DJ presentations, music and advertisements, religious programmes seem to take up
the largest amount of airtime on all the stations. For instance, on Radio North, everyday the
station opens at 4.00am with Renew your faith in Jesus, followed by other religious programmes
such as Youth in Christ, and Praise & Worship. The religious programmes run until 7.00am.
During the three hours, it is either gospel song being played, or a church leader in the studio
preaching to people to obey God, love one another, repent for their sins in order to be forgiven, or
renew their faith in the Lord.

Radio Rhino features Pastor John Kizza, one of the most popular church leaders in northern
Uganda. Every Wednesday from 8.30pm up to midnight, he is in the studio preaching against sin
and bad behaviour in society, praying to heal the sick, and receiving calls from listeners who want
to be prayed for. Says Kenneth Okello, the station’s editor:

Some people simply call to thank him for the programme; many of them testify that
they have either got healed or changed from being drug addicts or drunkards, to
morally upright and healthier human beings. It is amazing how religious teachings
can significantly change people’s lives for the better.

On days when the pastor fails to appear in the radio, adds Okello, “people keep calling, asking:
‘where is pastor?’ So we think the programme is doing something good for the community, that is
why people like it very much.”

The Catholic-owned Radio-Wa runs more religious programmes than the other stations. Since
evangelisation of the community is one of it’s core aims, the station has three religious
programmes per week. Every morning, it opens it’s airwaves at 6.30am with gospel songs and
religious teachings until the 7.15am local news bulletin. Another religious programme, Saints,
runs every weekday (Monday to Friday). On these days, from 8.30pm to 9.00pm, a Catholic priest
or nun is on air to give listeners “food for the heart” – as the station’s manager/editor, Sr Joe
Martin Nalubega called it. On Sundays, between 6.00am and 7.30am, Radio-Wa relays live mass
from the cathedral.

These programmes have wide listenership for two main reasons. First, at that time (4.00am –
7.00am), most people wake up and turn on their radio sets as they prepare themselves for the
days’ work. The second reason why religious programmes are popular is that the majority of the
local people are Christians, and so any teachings about God touch their hearts, and encourages

38
them to have good behaviour towards other people, or to be faithful to God to avoid going to
‘hell’ after one’s death.

Bentorina Muga, a widow in her 50s, said in one of the focus groups that she likes the religious
programmes because they help her to teach her children and grandchildren how to behave in the
family and towards their neighbours. “I always sit down together with them when listening to
Pastor John Kizza on Radio Rhino, and I keep referring to the teachings of the Bible about respect
for one’s parents and neighbours. In a way this has improved their attitudes,” said Muga.

The contributions of such godly teachings on radio may not be so obvious. But when you hear of
people abandoning smoking or drug abuse, after listening to religious testimonies on radio, then I
think it’s a positive development for society. For instance, a married man who changes from a
drunkard to a teetotaler can possibly save some money or work harder than before, to cater for his
family. Such a man will also possibly become less aggressive towards his wife and children. The
spirit of love for other human beings, which is emphasized in the religious teachings, helps to
build harmony in society, with people being more willing to help each other, hence communal
development. The fact that all the three FMs value the religious programmes means they are
important to the community. It could also mean that the radio managers chose to lay emphasis on
religious programmes because they believe most of the listeners are Christians.

4.1.5 Health education

Society can only develop when people are healthy, and the media have a responsibility to help
people live healthily. Along this line, all the three FMs have programmes during which medical
doctors appear in the studios to talk about general or specific diseases, their causes, symptoms and
how to avoid them or where to seek for treatment.

On Radio-Wa, there is Meet the Doctor, a programme on which Dr. Richard Nam from Lira
hospital appears every Sunday between 5.00pm and 6.00pm. The doctor can choose and base his
topic of discussion on any “disease of the week”, depending on either letters sent in by the
audience, or any current health problem or concern to the community. The topics that keep
coming up include sexually transmitted diseases, and reproductive health issues. It is a widely
listened to programme.

A focus group participant, David Odur, (aged 34) acknowledged:

The programme offers a lot of tips about many diseases. One time the doctor talked
about a disease called candida; it’s symptoms and how to treat it. We realized that

39
 was exactly the disease my wife and I had been suffering from but we didn’t know
what it was. After the radio programme, we went and got the right treatment and
since then (14 months ago) we are fine.”

Another focus group participant, Levi Awio, a 43-year-old father of six said his children stopped
having frequent bouts of malaria after he acquired insecticide-treated bed nets to keep off
mosquitoes, which are known to transmit malaria. It was through the radios that he learnt of free
mosquito nets being distributed at a health centre in Lira.
“We think the radios are doing a great job in promoting the health of the community,” said James
Tweny, a news reporter with Radio Rhino, on which a related programme, Dr. Rhino, runs every
Thursday between 8.00pm – 9.00pm. Unlike that of Radio-Wa, the programme on Radio Rhino
features mainly family planning experts who address issues such as reproductive health, child
upbringing, the need for fewer and properly-planned-for number of children in the families, and
so forth.

On Radio North, there is My Doctor, a programme similar to the ones on Radio-Wa and Radio
Rhino. It runs twice a week, on Fridays and Sundays between 10.00am and 10.30am. It also
features health professionals who receive letters and phone calls from the public, and responds to
them accordingly. On the same station, there is also Home hygiene, another health programme
falling on Mondays from 2.20pm – 3.00pm. As the name suggests, this programme tackles
household hygiene. Through it, the community gains tips on simple but important things like
disposal of garbage, cleanliness of the kitchen, bedroom, and utensils, and the need to wash hands
before eating or after visiting the toilet. This is an important element of development because
once people keep their households and their bodies clean, then they can certainly reduce the risk
of catching bacteria-induced diseases.

The HIV/AIDS pandemic is another area of interest by the radios in Lira. As a reflection of the
national agenda, which considers HIV/AIDS as a big threat to national development, the radios
have programmes aimed at sensitizing the community on the disease. On Radio Rhino, a
HIV/AIDS programme sponsored by the district administration comes up every Monday from
8.30pm to 9.30pm. The medical officials appear on air to sensitize the community on the ABC
(Abstain, Be Faithful, and use Condom) model of HIV prevention, as well as on HIV/AIDS
counseling, prevention of transmission from mother to child, among others. Radio North also has
a similar (8.00pm – 9.00pm) programme sponsored by the American Embassy in Uganda.

A focus group participant, Christine Apio, in her mid thirties, said:

40
 Two or three years ago many people in the villages had very little information
about HIV. Some people even did not know how to handle a person suffering from
HIV/AIDS…men in the villages were also inheriting women whose husbands died
of AIDS, this was increasing the infection rate. These days people have become
very conscious and cautious.

The fact that all the three FM stations have health programmes reflects the ranking of health as
very significant to the community. As a factor of development, human health is very important. A
focus group participant, Maria Ocen (50) said, “even if you are not sick now, the information and
advises you get from such programmes can help you live a healthy life.”
Patrick Ebong, the Radio North news editor, concurred: “The message to people who are not
infected to love their bodies and stay healthy, and to those already infected to live positively has
contributed to the fight against HIV/AIDS.”

4.1.6 Farming information

The relevance of radio in the promotion of rural agriculture and helping people improve their
peasantry lifestyles was dominant in both the focus groups and respondent interviews. The
interviewees however observed that the radios are not giving ‘enough’ airtime for farming
information because much of the airtime is used for political or entertainment programmes. There
are two types of farmer programmes on the radios – one is paid for by the institutions, NGOs and
government departments interested in promoting different components of rural agriculture. These
‘interested parties’ have their agricultural field workers who go on radio to encourage the farmers
to grow certain crops which have better markets. They also give information regarding how to sell
the produce.

The other type of programmes are those initiated by the radio stations themselves to update
farmers about market prices, new crop varieties, or the market demands for certain crops. On
Radio Rhino, a programme initiated by the editors and sponsored by the International Institute for
Tropical Agriculture (IITA) runs every Saturday from 6.00pm – 7.00pm. Among other things, the
programme announces the market price trends for both food crops and cash crops, “so that
farmers are not taken by surprise,” according to Kenneth Okello of Radio Rhino. It also teaches
farmers about animal and crop husbandry, including techniques for planting, weeding, harvesting,
storage and marketing approaches. Farmers are also encouraged to grow organic crops, which
fetch higher prices on the world markets.

A similar programme, Market price, features on Radio North every Thursday from 11.20am to
11.30am. The problem, however, is that the time allocated for such an important programme is

41
too little, only 10 minutes for the case of the Radio North one. Perhaps 30 minutes or so every
week would be more appropriate. Farming information is relevant to the community of Lira, and
Uganda as a whole, because the majority of people are peasants who live in the rural areas and
survive on subsistence agriculture. So they need to be guided on what crops are beneficial, both
for household consumption and sale. Another programme, also on Radio North, is run in
partnership with the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS), a government parastatal,
and the district agricultural officials. This partnership between the agricultural experts and radio
stations is good because it helps to drive home the right messages for the farmers.

On its part, Radio-Wa has two agricultural programmes – one is sponsored by Hunger Alert and
the Agency for Sustainable Development Initiatives (AVSI), both local NGOs. This one does not
have a fixed time slot, so it runs anytime of the week. But it also features agricultural officials
who have vast experiences in the field of agriculture.

According to the respondent interviewees, the radios last year played a crucial role in the
campaign against an outbreak of banana wilt disease, which spread across Uganda and destroyed
many banana stems. Through the radios, agricultural experts were able to raise massive farmer
awareness on the symptoms of the disease and how to contain it. Farmers were urged to cut down
affected banana plants. “Without the radios, most of us would probably not have known about the
disease,” said Wilson Ocen, a banana farmer who participated in one of the focus group
discussions.

In the focus groups and respondent interviews, two crops – sunflower and upland rice – were
mentioned as new crops that have been promoted through radio. Pelegrine Otonga, the Radio-Wa
news reporter, said the station last year gave platform to the Vice-President (VP) of the Republic
of Uganda, Prof. Gilbert Bukenya on its weekly Business Panorama programme to talk about the
benefits of upland rice. Radio-Wa’s Otonga said:
We hosted the VP three times on the radio, and the message on upland rice
penetrated the grassroots. As a result, people started growing upland rice
massively, and we hope that at least this region of the country will also now start
massive harvesting and selling upland rice next year.

Simpo Angom, a local farmer in her thirties, said she started growing sunflower last year on a
much larger scale when Mukwano Industries, a company that processes cooking oil from
sunflower, put out spot announcements on the radios, assuring farmers that it would buy all the
sunflower produced in Lira. Last August, she said, she got good sunflower yields and sold the
produce to Mukwano, which sale earned her over Uganda Shillings (Ugsh) two million (sh2m), an

42
equivalent of US dollars 1000. “I was able to finish our new house using part of the money, and
also paid school fees for our boy in secondary school,” Angom said.

4.1.7 Environment alert

Over the last decade, following the first global summit on the environment, held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, there has been a growing need for human beings to harness the
environment/natural resources for sustainable development. According to Radio North’s Patrick
Ebong, their FM station has designated a slot for Environment programme to raise public
awareness on the value of environmental protection. It runs every week on Wednesdays and
Fridays at 2.20pm – 3.00pm.

Radio-Wa also used to have a similar programme but unfortunately it has since been suspended to
create room for other “urgent programmes.” At the time of this study, the only environmental
programmes on both Radio-Wa, and Radio Rhino, were the Public Service Announcements
(PSAs) from the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) and the Wetlands
Inspections Division of the ministry of environment. The PSAs sensitize the public on the benefits
of tree planting, nature conservation, protection of wetlands, garbage collection and disposal, and
a number of other environmental topics. Radio Rhino and Radio-Wa were also planning to
reintroduce environmental programmes.

Isaac Okello, the news reporter at Radio North said:

We have been able to raise people’s awareness on the need for proper communal
use of the resources at their disposal…People need to conserve and preserve the
environment through, for example, planting two trees for every one tree cut. Those
are the key messages that the environmental experts put across when they come to
the studios. And many people have taken heed by planting trees.

However, it appears that the rural people are yet to put environmental issues among their
priorities. From the focus groups, environment was one of the least appearing themes, compared
with health, farming and news. In a way, people still need some environmental education so that
they stop looking at the environment as something which can ‘naturally’ take care of itself. Of
course through the radio programmes, the message will eventually percolate slowly and people
will in the long-run begin to understand the value of environmental protection and conservation.
Some interviewees suggested that the radio stations give at least 30 minutes for each programme
so that more listeners have the chance of calling in to express their views and get elaborate
answers. Even if there are not many callers, good time allows the guests in the studios to elaborate
on the subject being discussed.

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4.1.8 Self-help and small-scale investments
Poverty and lack of income came up famously in the focus groups. Although participants said
they still need more information, tips and guidance on starting up and sustaining small-scale
businesses, they commended the FM radios for providing some useful information in as far as
micro-credit schemes are concerned. They singled out a micro-finance programme which runs on
Rhino FM every Friday between 8.30pm and 9.30pm. The programme, sponsored by Finca, a
local microfinance NGO, gives tips on how and from where to access small-scale loans as well as
how to initiate or sustain income generating projects. Another programme sponsored by
Centenary Rural Development Bank (CERUDEB) and Development Training and Resource
Centre (DETREC) runs on Radio-Wa every week. There is, however, no fixed time for it.

James Okello, a businessman who secured a loan to start a poultry farm of 1500 chickens said in a
focus group session:
The information I got on Radio-Wa motivated me to approach CERUDEB for a
small bank loan. I wanted to start a poultry farm but I did not have the money. But
when I heard on radio that CERUDEB gives out loans I decided to approach the
bank. At first I thought I had no chance of getting the money. But I was happy that
they gave me a loan of one million shillings (about US dollars 500). I am now
about to finish repaying the loan.”

According to Radio Rhino’s Kenneth Okello, they often bring into the studio experts who talk on
a wide range of subjects, including savings, starting up small businesses, and proper records
keeping. Some people with ‘success stories’ are also invited to the radios to motivate other people
with testimonies of how they have managed to expand their businesses. Radio Rhino’s James
Tweny explains:
Many people could do better, but they often sit back thinking that they need a lot of
money to start income-generating projects. They need to be encouraged by such
‘success stories’ of people who have achieved something through hard work,
diligence, perseverance, good savings, etc.

4.1.9 Law and order

The aim of this live programme, which features once a week in each of the three stations, is to
teach the community important local and national laws. It also aims at building a society which is
law abiding and a community that can help the police in enforcing law and order. It involves
police community liaison officers who come up with different topics every week, and they
respond to phone calls and letters from the audience. The discussion can be about traffic and road
safety, defilement, domestic violence, trespass, assault, burglary, robbery etc. The police also give
out a telephone hotline for people to call to report criminal cases. On Radio-Wa, the programme

44
comes out every Thursday, 2.00pm to 3.00pm; the Radio Rhino and Radio North ones also fall on
Thursdays but at 10.00am – 10.30am for both of them.

The respondent interviewees and focus group participants lauded the crime prevention
programme because, as one of them said, “it has helped to reduce crime rate in the district.” Isaac
Okello, the news reporter of Radio North, also emphasized its value: “To me, unless people
observe law and order, then you cannot talk of development.”

A focus group participant, William Okello, a civil servant, had this to say:
We used to have a lot of fights between people in the villages. At Christmas time,
you would hear people have fought and injured or killed one another; and many
people would be arrested by the police. This time (Christmas of 2005) not a single
case of injury or death has been recorded by the police. The Christmas was
peaceful. So I think one of the contributing factors is this programme.

The importance of such a programme to the community is evidenced by the mere fact that it
features on all the three radio stations. The radio managers often come up with programmes
depending on public demand. It would not be wrong to state that ignorance of the law – both civic
and criminal law – is an obstacle to development. When the police officers go on air to interpret
the laws to the public, it not only enables people to obey the law, but it also sensitizes them on the
need to take it upon themselves to report criminal acts to police, other than think it’s the work of
the police to do everything. A community that cooperates with the police is a good community. At
the same time, people become aware of how to protect themselves and their property from thieves
and other criminals.

4.1.10 Human rights and family values

The watchdog role of radio, against abuse of people’s rights can never be underrated. As one of
the respondent interviewees, Agnes Tino put it: “Almost everything about the media boils down
to human rights.” To meet the different human rights needs of the community, the FM stations
have been running some human rights programmes, during which human rights activists speak out
to raise the awareness of the people on the different aspects of human rights.

On Radio North, there are four programmes dealing with human rights-related education. Human
rights development, a programme aired on Mondays (10.00am – 10.30am) and Tuesdays (2.20pm
– 3.00pm). A programme for persons with disability is also aired on Mondays (10.00am –
10.30am); while another one on the Right to education is on Tuesdays between 12.30pm and
1.00pm. The station further has a Youth Programme on Saturdays (10.00am to 10.30am);

45
Workers’ Rights, also on Saturdays from 11.20am to 12.00pm; and Children’s Rights programme
on Sundays between 12.30pm and 1.10pm.

On its part, Radio-Wa runs Women’s Desk, a very popular programme hosted by two renowned
women’s rights activists, Santa Adonyo and Mary Azore who are teachers by profession and
respected women in society. It is aired three times a week – on Monday, Wednesday and Friday
(all between 5.00pm and 6.00pm) – and the topics of discussion revolve around women’s affairs
and liberties in the family unit and society as a whole, and the rights of the girl child. The human
rights programmes, like most other programmes, are live and in the local language – Lwo. Besides
the above programmes, Radio-Wa occasionally hosts officials from the Uganda Human Rights
Commission to address current human rights concerns within the community.

The human rights programmes also address issues such as love and tolerance in marriage, and
cohesion between husband and wife, parents and children, as well as between neighbours. The
impact of the programmes was vivid from the testimonies of some women in the focus groups.
One of them, Teddy Adongo had this to say:

In 2004 I was on the verge of separating with my husband because he was

quarrelsome and disrespectful of me. But when we started listening to the
programmes together whenever we were both at home, he changed his behaviour
after realizing that a wife is supposed to be a good partner and a friend, not like a
doormat for a man to clean his shoes. He apologized for mistreating me…Since
then we are happy in our marriage.

The significance of family harmony is well exemplified by Radio North, which has three weekly
programmes concerned with family development. The Domestic Violence programme comes out
on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays between 4.35pm and 5.15pm. Another programme,
Matrimony and Values, is aired on Saturdays (5.30pm – 5.50pm), while a third programme,
Family Life and Faith is broadcast on Sundays, 8.40pm – 10.30pm.

Radio Rhino, however, is yet to start similar human rights programmes modeled along the line of
the ones on Radio-Wa and Radio North. But from the snapshot of the programmes on Radio
North and Radio-Wa, and from the emphasis on such programmes laid during the focus groups
and respondent interviews, it is clear that domestic violence and family cohesion are issues of
public interest to the community. One respondent, Isaac Okello put it better:

There was, and still is, a very high level of divorce between couples, and many
children are not respecting their parents. Some parents have also neglected their

46
 children. It is therefore important that we keep running such programmes as
Matrimony and Values, and we hope we are trying to put some building blocks.

To augment its current Women’s Desk programme, Radio-Wa was during the time of the field
study (January 2006) in the process of coming up with a programme on counseling – especially
counseling of people who have been traumatized in marriages. The station’s manager/editor, Sr
Joe Martin Nalubega said such a programme would help to “build a strong society based on
family values.”
As Patrick Ebong, the news editor of Radio North put it, “being aware of one’s rights is the
beginning of development, so we think such programmes are not in vain.”

4.1.11 Political awareness and democracy

Politics normally provides the hottest news for the media and the public alike. So promotion of
political awareness and democracy has become one of the top agendas of the local FM stations in
Lira. From the focus group discussions, it emerged that people are generally interested in politics,
more than anything else. For instance, during political talk shows, there is usually a much bigger
number of listeners than during in other programmes. In the words of Radio North’s Patrick
Ebong: “Listeners always become more active when there is a political talk show, especially
when a minister, an MP or any big person is on air.” This can be interpreted that people consider
politics to be a deciding factor for many things, especially social services like roads, education,
health, etc. for the community.

Radio North has three main types of political programmes: Every weekday between 8.00am –
9.00am, there is Current Affairs, a programme during which hot political topics of the day,
including news published by the daily newspapers, are analysed and commented upon by the
radio presenters. This keeps the rural people updated on developments in the national and local
governments. Other political programmes on Radio North, with the objective of raising political
awareness, are Democracy (10.00am to 10.30am on Wednesdays) and Roundtable debate
(8.45pm – 10.55pm on Sundays). Democracy is a programme during which a local politician goes
on air to talk about anything, ranging to the government policies, to political rights and roles of
the citizens in running a government. Roundtable involves a panel of journalists talking about a
latest topical issue within the political circles of local or national government. Many times issues
of corruption or other loopholes in government policies come up.

On Radio-Wa, there is Current Affairs, a forum which falls on Fridays between 8.30pm and
9.30pm. The equivalent of that is Perspectives on Radio Rhino every Saturday from 8.00pm until

47
midnight. During these live programmes, invited local or national politicians are put to task to
either explain recent anomalies in the government, or a new public policy or action. For the case
of Radio Rhino, the first one hour of the programme is for the guest to make an overview of the
topic, with the moderator (usually a journalist at the station) interjecting at some points to ask
questions, seek clarifications or keep the speaker in focus. The last one or two hours are for phone
calls or SMS messages from the audience, to which the guest (or guests) is given time to respond.
All the radios have scheduled their talk shows in the evening (8.00pm to 10.00pm), when there is
largest listenership.

During the focus group sessions, it emerged that people have gained some democractic insights
from the political talk shows. Some respondents said they had never thought ordinary people have
the right to challenge political leaders. “It feels good to hear a minister or Member of Parliament
answering questions fired by ordinary people, and promising to follow up issues raised by a
caller,” said a focus group participant. The problem, though, is that not many people have the
chance to participate in the talk shows. On average, any single talk show can receive about 10 –
20 calls. Some focus group participants proposed that more people should be given the chance to
phone in. They said many people are often eager to express their views but the phone lines are
always busy.

4.1.12 Summary
The eleven different programmes presented above may not be the only development-oriented
programmes. But at least they give a fairly broad scope of the kinds of developmental
programmes running on the three FM stations. Some of the programmes, like the religious ones,
peace and reconciliation, and cultural awareness have had direct impacts on the community.
Religious teachings, for instance, have helped to build the spirit of kindness and love for other
human beings. The radios are contributing to the realization of peace in northern Uganda, by
encouraging rebels, who have destabilized northern Uganda, to lay down their weapons. Many of
the guerrillas have surrendered as a result of the peace and reconciliation programmes on the
radios.

The radios have also been able to promote local singers and dramatists, as well as raise
community awareness on the need to nurture indigenous knowledge. Other radio programmes
such as farming and self-help projects have been able to stimulate rural development by providing
useful information on loans, and tips on how to start or improve income-generating projects. The
news programmes have greatly improved the flow of information in the rural areas; while the
programmes about human rights, family values, democracy and political awareness, have raised
48
the level of understanding about those issues. Like it was mentioned during the interviews, a
community which does not know its rights can hardly develop.
Other programmes, like environment alert, health education, and law and order, may not have
directly contributed to tangible development, but they have helped to raise public knowledge and
observation of the prescribed codes of behaviour. This is good for communal development.

4.2 Form and degree of community participation

By form of community participation, I mean the ways through which members of the audience
interact with the radio stations. This interaction can take place at different stages, including at the
time a radio station is coming up with a programme idea; when a programme is on air; at the time
the radio journalists are sourcing for information or seeking comments from the public; and
during reactions to programmes which have been broadcast.
The degree means the extent to which these interactions take place or continue. It includes, among
others: the number of listeners which can take part in any of the stages mentioned above; the
number of times the same person contributes on radio; and the number of programmes to which
the same person can contribute.

4.2.1 Letter to the editor

This refers to the letters written and posted or taken physically to the radio stations which
broadcast them free of charge. Since e-mail services are still not available in the rural areas, e-
mail letters are only used by a few listeners, especially within Lira town. The radio stations also
don’t have their websites, so they rely on public Internet cafes to check their mails or download
Internet materials. The use of short messaging services (SMS) via mobile phones is another form
of letter, but this is not yet common among the rural people.

At Radio-Wa, Pelegrine Otonga said everyday they receive an average of 100 letters sent in by
the listeners. Some of them write to comment or suggest solutions to social problems. Others
write to specific programmes on matters that affect them as individuals – like Meet the Doctor or
Women’s Desk. “Some people write to advise on the ways through which we can improve our
programmes. Others write to suggest a topic for the next discussion. And sometimes we get
brilliant ideas from them,” said Kenneth Okello, the editor of Radio Rhino. The station does not
record the numbers of letters received everyday, week or month. Some listeners ride their bicycles
several miles away from their villages to deliver their letters to the radio stations.

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During the interviews with the different editors of the FM stations, they noted that they often get
overwhelmed by the letters. “Sometimes we can only use about 50 per cent of the letters from the
listeners; and those whose letters are not read get disappointed and may never write again,” said
Radio-Wa’s Pelegrine Otonga. But some listeners said during the focus groups that they have
written a number of letters, many of which have been read on air. “Even if your letter is not used
at one time, you stand a chance of succeeding if you keep writing,” said one participant. The radio
editors cited “limited time” as the main reason why they cannot use all the letters. In some cases,
even if the letter is not read on air, the radio station can still learn something from it, regarding
what the listeners want. In fact, as an editor put it, some letters are not meant to be read on air, but
addressed to the stations to address an issue or improve a programme. The letters are also sorted
according to logic, coherence, legibility and theme. Those on “hot public topics” are more likely
to be read and/or answered to those with less salient issues. According to Radio-Wa’s Pelegrine
Otonga, most of the letters are in the local language, and the recommended size is normally one
page – unless the subject is too important.

However, to be able to write a letter, one has to be literate, and in possession of a pen and paper.
So this form of participation keeps off those who can neither read nor write. For instance, there
are many illiterate people (especially elderly women and men) in the villages who cannot
participate in this form, even if they would be interested. They can only do so by asking someone,
like a son or daughter, to write on their behalf.

A focus group participant, Edison Otim, 26 said: “I have so far written six letters and they have all
been read. And that’s the main way I have been participating in the radio programmes because I
don’t have a phone to call the radios.”

Another focus group participant, Rita Adur, a housewife in her 30s said:
One time I wrote about Odokomit-Bala road which had developed potholes and
was in a sorry state. In the letter, I criticized the local authorities for not putting our
taxes to better use, and for neglecting the road. One week later, the district
department of works sent road workers to upgrade the road. I think that was
possible because of the power of radio.

4.2.2 Phone-ins
The availability of mobile telephone networks in the rural areas of Lira has boosted
communication between the FM radios and the rural communities. At the respondent interviews
and focus groups, making phone calls to the FM stations emerged as a common way of
participation, especially during the live programmes – presentations and talk shows, etc. Different

50
categories of phone callers were mentioned: Those who call in at the time a programme is going
on live in the studios, and are put on air directly to the audience to express their views or
opinions. This is the most interactive form of participation because the moderator of the
programme can even ask follow-up questions when the caller is still on air. This type of phone-in
is popular with talk shows, a genre which I mentioned earlier and will look at in the next section.

The other type of phone calls mentioned is that where the callers want to contribute to a
programme, but for some reason do not want to go live on air; so they request to speak off-air.
Such people want to conceal their voices and names, especially when their statements or the
topics are controversial.
Also mentioned were those who call the radio stations to give tips for news or problems in the
community that they want the radios to follow up or address. Then there are people who call to
either correct wrong information or refute allegations leveled against them in the news bulletins,
talk shows or other programmes. In all these cases, ordinary people become producers of the
programmes.

Patrick Ebong, the news editor of Radio North said:

All these types of phone-ins help the audience to stay in touch with us. Sometimes
we receive up to 500 phone calls a day. People make a lot of phone calls, especially
when a popular politician is in the studio for a talk show. Those who don’t have
mobile phones sometimes borrow from friends or use public phones which are
available in the villages.

The focus group participants concurred with the respondent interviewees that mobile phones have
enhanced some degree of two-way communication between the radios and rural areas. Concerns
were, however, raised that the telephone lines are often jammed because each of the FM stations
have only single lines. Some focus group participants said they have ever tried to call to
contribute in live talk shows, but never succeeded because “the line is always busy.” The
interpretation we can get from the jammed telephone lines is that many people are interested in
such programmes.

In one of the focus groups, an issue emerged about “monotonous callers”. These are people whose
voices you keep hearing each time a talk show is on radio. Some of them are ‘common’ and
‘famous’ callers on all the radio stations whenever they have talk shows. This, participants noted,
is a problem because some chance should also be given to other people who have never
contributed.

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The cost of airtime for calling the radio stations, which must be paid by the individualcaller, is
also said to be “prohibitive.” Many people would rather not call, even if they have good ideas.
Some of those who call in are also usually brief online for fear of the call billing.
But despite all the problems, the value of phone-ins, which has come with the FM stations, should
not be underrated. As William Okello, a civil servant in his 50s, put it in one of the focus group
sessions:
Until 2000 when we had only Radio Uganda, people did not feel close to radios.
Radio Uganda was far, over 300 kilometres, away in Kampala; and we used not to
make phone calls to the radio station. And, in any case, most people did not have
mobile phones. But these days you can either walk to the radio stations or just pick
a mobile phone and dial, as long as you can afford the charges by the phone
operator.

4.2.3 News Sourcing

As a form of community participation, news sourcing was mentioned mainly by the respondent
interviewees as one of the important means of keeping in touch with the public. The process
involves the radios sending out reporters to the community to interview people and get their views
on topical issues. In other cases, when a newsworthy event happens in a village – like a new
classroom block built, a village bank opened, or a community borehole inaugurated – the
residents are interviewed by the radios’ reporters either for facts or their opinions on the benefits
they expect out of such a project. It can also be about what the residents of a particular locality
think about a social problem or an impending government project/policy.

However, as it emerged in the focus groups, the radio reporters tend to rely too much on the
“famous” politicians, local leaders and key public servants as their news sources. This leaves the
ordinary people with slim chance of being interviewed as news sources. The trend can be
attributed to the traditional news value of prominence, which ‘forces’ the reporter or editor to
keep thinking of the status of the person they are interviewing. Journalists are always obsessed
with “big names” that make their reports “bigger.”

But it is important that the radio journalists think of the ordinary man and woman when following
up news. Otherwise, the notions of diversity of information sources, community participation and
the right to receive and impart information, will be undermined if only the “top politicians” get
quoted all the time. The radio reporters and editors cited lack of funds and transport means to
facilitate them to go to rural areas seeking opinions and views from the local people. Each of the
radios operates on an annual budget of between sh50m and sh70m (between US dollars 30,000
and 40,000). The funds are mainly got from the owners’ coffers, and advertising revenue.

52
4.2.4 Summary
The three forms of community participation – letter to the editor, phone-ins, and news sourcing –
have become the key ways of interaction between the radio stations and the rural community.
However, each of them has its own limitations. Although letters were mentioned by the listeners
as the cheapest and most common form of participation, the editors said only about 50 per cent of
the letters received by the FM stations can be read on air or used in any way. The editors cited
“airtime limitation” as the biggest problem. It was also noted by the listeners and editors that
many people cannot participate in this way because they are either illiterate or stay far away from
the stations, and therefore they find it difficult to deliver have their letters posted or delivered in
person to the stations.

On the other hand, phone-in is the most instant form of participation. It is useful for instant two-
way and direct there-and-then interaction. This is very common during live programmes, such as
talk shows. But the majority of the local residents cannot afford the costs of calling. The
telephone lines are also very busy, and not many people can afford to call in at the same time.

The third form, news sourcing, is a bit too one-sided because the news editors and reporters are
the ones who decide who to talk to for a comment or views to be included in their reports. The
journalistic news value of prominence makes it difficult for the ordinary man and woman in the
village to participate in this form. People who are too far away from the FM stations are also
rarely talked to because the editors claim there is no money to send reporters to the villages.

However, despite the mentioned loopholes, it is fair to say that the FM stations are trying their
best to provide the platforms for the rural people to express their views on matters that affect their
lives.

4.3 Programme genres

Genres are, in some cases, related to the typology or programmes presented in the first section of
this chapter. But the difference is that in looking at genres, there was no consideration for
development orientation, which was the yardstick for judging the programmes with
developmental goals. In this section, I am concentrating only on the nature of the different
programmes aired on the three FM stations. One genre, for instance, may encompass both
developmental and non-developmental programmes. And different developmental programmes
may fall under different genres.

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4.3.1 News
As we discussed in the first section of this chapter, the public demand for news always surpasses
demands for all other programmes. It is therefore not a surprise that on all the FM stations, there
are at least two news bulletins in the local language everyday – one in the morning, and another in
the evening. The same applies to news bulletins in English. In-between, there are also news briefs
or breaking news updates in case anything ‘hot’ comes up.

The respondent interviewees said news bulletins, whose provision is incumbent upon the radio
station, need not take a lot of time; so each news bulletin is given between 15 minutes to 30
minutes. News is basically any event deemed to be of interest to the population, whether it has
happened within the local community or outside. From the focus groups, there were voices of
satisfaction that the FM radios are providing useful news. But one of the concerns, as mentioned
earlier, is that not many voices of the local people are represented in the news reports as sources.
News reports often include only a few people quoted, whether directly (with voices) or indirectly.

4.3.2 Talk shows

Talk shows have become very popular ways of reflecting public views over important public
matters. This genre, which features in all the FM stations at least once a week, offers platform for
people to express themselves, mostly through phone-in programmes which we mentioned
earlieron in this chapter. The debate, which lasts between one to three hours on every occasion, is
moderated by a presenter or editor at the radio station. The topic of discussion is usually decided
upon by the presenter or his editor, but bearing in mind public demands and latest “hot topics.”
The problem though, as it emerged during the focus groups, is that much of the talk shows are on
political topics. This is dangerous because many socio-cultural issues are then marginalized, and
yet there could be very important social or cultural issues that the public may need to discuss.
Politics should not sell at the expense of other themes of human interest.

4.3.3 Expert programmes

As the name suggests, this programme features people who are experts or professionals in
particular fields. The health programmes on all the FM stations, for instance, are strictly for
doctors or other senior health practitioners who are very knowledgeable and have relevant
experience on the subjects of discussion. The religious programmes are as well strictly for the
church leaders, while farming and environmental programmes are also for professionals in those
fields. Such programmes are initiated by the radio stations in consultation with the particular
experts who, in most cases, have to be paid some “token” (money) for their time spent on air.
Such programmes are said to be popular and influential because trusts and believes in what the
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experts talk about. Like in other programme, letters and phone-ins are common ways of
community participation in these programmes. And many people do follow the advises of experts,
although sometimes different experts can present conflicting viewpoints.

4.3.4 Special interest groups

Besides the expert programmes, the radio stations have come up with programmes for special
interest groups. These include persons with disability, women, the youth, children, farmers, and
the business community, among others. This diversity of programmes is a reflection of the
diversity of the audience, and helps to meet the specific interests of the target groups. On such
programmes, members of the specific interest groups, especially those who hold some special
posts, and opinion leaders, address their special interests, and answer phone-calls or letters from
the audience.

4.3.5 Music, dance and drama

These programmes, which are normally pre-recorded, also feature on all the FM stations.
According to the editors, they serve three main purposes – entertainment, education and cultural
preservation. The music, dance and drama programmes were introduced by the radio stations
following demands from the community, which values folklore as a very useful source of
education and entertainment. Most of the dramas aired during the programme are produced by
Lira Drama Club in the local language. The music is normally selected from among local albums
with educative themes or lyrics. Some impressive songs and dance tunes are recorded from
church choirs or community social groups.

One of the dramas which was dominantly mentioned during the focus groups is a one-hour play
titled Wek Abonyo kwani (Let Abonyo study). It’s a play about a village teenage girl whose
drunken father refuses to pay her school fees because “girls are supposed to be married away, so
no need to waste money and time on them in school.” But the poor little girl, with the full support
of her mother, is determined to sit for her Primary Leaving Examination, which she subsequently
passes with a distinction grade, to join secondary school on government scholarship.

When the girl finally finishes university and gets a good job, her father, who had ganged up with
his son to deny her the right to education, finally realizes the sweet fruits of education and
embraces Abonyo as “my dear bright daughter.” The daughter forgives the father, and the play
ends on a happy note – with a clear lesson on the benefit of sending daughters to school alongside
boys. Abonyo eventually becomes a role model for all the girls to emulate. This kind of
programme can therefore be interpreted as developmental oriented, and relevant to the community
55
of Lira, where girls are still not having equal rights with boys, especially in education and social
recognition.

4.3.6 Summary
According to the radio editors, some of the genres were stimulated by the developmental goals of
the radios, and therefore are closely related to some of the development-oriented programmes in
the first section of this chapter. For instance, cultural awareness was responsible for the music,
dance and dram genre; talk shows were stimulated by the need to broaden public awareness on
politics and democracy; expert programmes and special interest groups were kindled by the need
to serve specific interests of the public; news genre was stimulated by the need to provide useful
factual reports as opposed to opinion.

In the next chapter, I discuss the findings in relation with the theories presented in chapter two,
and conclude with some recommendations that could help further promote the contributions of
FM radios in bringing positive changes in the rural areas.

56
5 Conclusion
This final chapter of the thesis presents my concluding remarks on the findings of the study. It
also offers some recommendations on things that should be done to improve the contribution of
FM radios to the development of rural areas.

5.1 Discussion of the findings

From the findings and analysis in the previous chapter, it is rational to confidently conclude that
despite some weaknesses which call for adjustments, the FM radios are playing significant roles
in the promotion of development in the rural areas. In chapter two of this thesis, I presented the
various facets of development as defined by development communication scholars and
multilateral organizations such as the United Nations and its body, the UN Development
Programme (UNDP). I also reviewed the various theories of media effects on society. From the
data analysis, I can draw specific conclusions which support my hypothesis in chapter one that the
FM radios are promoting development in the rural areas.

From the analysis of the interview data, and the programme schedules of the three FM stations in
Lira, it is clear that most of the major programmes conform to the parameters of development.
And by development we should not only think of agricultural, health or nutritional programmes.
Even the fact that the FM radios have broadened the people’s horizon of access to information is
in itself an aspect of development. The diversity of information channels in the different FM
stations, brings with it different types of information sources to the rural people, almost free of
charge. It is good for people to be exposed to different kinds of information.

Because of the FMs (some of which relay the BBC Focus on Africa programme every evening),
information about events happening anywhere in the country and other parts of the world now
penetrate the villages much faster than in the days before FMs came. The news bulletins run by
each of the three stations every morning and every evening keep people abreast with events
happening within and outside their communities. Hence, the theory of diversity of information
channels is applicable here. This theory, as we looked at in chapter two, says that when there are
multiple channels of communication, the audience have alternatives/options from where to get
and compare/crosscheck information. At the same time, this diversity gives the community a
chance to express itself on different forums.

Before the FM radios started operating in Lira five years ago, people were relying solely on the
Public Service channel, Radio Uganda, which never used to address the most local needs of the
community. The lone radio station had to ‘cover’ the whole country and was therefore ‘detached’

57
from the villages. Its main interests were national issues. Fewer people used to have any
opportunity to participate in the production of the radio programmes. But now, with the localized
FM stations situated amidst the community, one can easily make a phone call, write a letter, or
just walk up to the radio stations to comment about, or express an opinion about any pertinent
issue or problem in his or her community. The closer the radio is to the audience, the easier it is
for the social and environmental needs of the masses to be considered during programme
production and feedback – hence dialogical communication which is crucial for development.

And of course as a result of the FM radios, whose signals are clearer than those of Radio Uganda,
more radio sets (transistors) have been bought by people and almost all rural families now have at
least one radio set. Some people go with their portable radios to the gardens, offices, or even
when riding bicycles from the villages to the town. This shows that the rural people, who cannot
afford TV sets or newspapers, love to listen to the radios! The theory of community radio,
community participation and the bottom-up model of communication becomes relevant in this
scenario. In this case, people have had the radios have been able to take into consideration the
views and demands of the local people, as well as giving prominence to local content. The rural
community has thus been feeling part and parcel of the FM programmes.

With programmes such as Women’s Desk, Youth Desk, Law and Order, Human Rights, among
others, the rural people are increasingly becoming aware of their human rights, while at the same
time guarding against either committing crimes, or falling victims to criminal acts. Being
conscious of one’s human rights, and being able to exercise them without violating other people’s
rights, is an important aspect of development as spelt out in the universal Declaration of Human
Rights and the UNDP Human development Index.

The religious programmes that feature in all the FM stations cannot be underrated either. Being a
Christian country, and given the fact that the majority of the population are committed Christians,
it is important that such religious programmes on radio, like the regular teachings by church
leaders on air, help to instill in people and reinforce in them good morals. Without morals, a
society cannot claim to develop.

Other important programmes, which we looked at in the previous chapter, include Health,
Environment, Sanitation, and HIV/AIDS awareness campaigns. These have, no doubt, contributed
to changing the people’s perceptions and behaviour, so as to stay healthy. Through such
programmes, many people have got tips on how to avoid certain diseases like malaria, cholera or
sexually transmitted diseases like HIV/AIDS. People have also increasingly become aware of the
58
symptoms/side effects of certain diseases, and how to treat them or where to seek for treatment in
case they fall sick.

The FM radios have also played a significant role in promoting information on how to
successfully start income-generating projects, or where to acquire small-scale credits/loans to
kick-start or expand one’s business. A number of people have benefited from programmes such as
Market Price, Farming, and Business Panorama, among others. Some of them have started
growing crops like upland rice and sunflower after getting information on how to grow them, and
where to get the seeds from, through the radios. By helping promote agricultural messages on new
crop varieties, for instance, the FM radios are fulfilling the theories of diffusion of innovations
and development journalism, which stress the role of the media in promoting technological
innovations.

In terms of family cohesion, it was evident from the focus group discussions how much the
members appreciated programmes like Family Life, which preaches peaceful co-existence,
tolerance, respect of the rights of one’s husband or wife, in-laws and children, and how to live in
harmony with one’s domestic neighbours. In a way, such programmes have helped to build the
spirit of communitarianism (which we discussed in chapter two), as an ingredient of communal
development.

The importance of peace for development should also be underlined. The ongoing rebellion in the
northern part of Uganda has greatly affected the development of Lira and other districts in
northern Uganda. Until peace can be achieved, the region cannot boast of development. That is
why we have to recognise the role of the FM radios through the Peace and Reconciliation, Dwog
Pacu (Come back home), Karibu (Welcome) programmes which have helped to lure rebels out of
the bush and encouraged the spirit of reconciliation and forgiveness between the insurgents, the
government and the community. Again, this is a fulfillment of the theory of peace,
communitarianism and development – which theory says that for any society to develop, people
must be in harmony with each other, and collectively work together for a common goal, rather
than for selfish motives.

Through the FM radios, the rural people have been able to stay in touch with political
developments and government policies. The rural people now know their political rights much
better than before. They can now confidently challenge political leaders or public servants on
policies or projects that seem to be inappropriate or are failing. The political talk shows, phone-
ins, letters, news programmes, etc. are positive steps in promoting democracy. Despite the fact

59
that not many people are yet having the capacity and will to take part in the talk shows, such
programmes have provided the forum for people to thrust issues that affect their lives.
The more people become aware of their democratic rights, the better their community will
develop. These rights include participation in elections of competent leaders, being able to
critique their leaders, detecting bad government policies, and demanding for political
accountability and transparency from both the local and national leaders.

The use of local language, and local content generally, by the FM radios is another important
element of development. As the Agenda of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS)
states, the use of local language and local media content (like music, drama, etc.), is crucial for
any community’s development. The FM stations in Lira seem to have taken note of this WSIS
recommendation. Without the ‘platform’ offered by the FM radios, there would not be many local
musicians or drama groups coming up. By promoting local music, dramas and other cultural
products, the FMs are fulfilling their development role as prescribed by the theory of
“development and culture”, which we looked at in chapter two. Under this theory, the media is
expected to help the community conserve and preserve it’s cultural heritage.

One thing which was not emphasized by the interviewees, but which I think is an important
element of development, is the employment provided by the FM radios to local people. The FM
stations have become a source of employment to many young people who, without the radios,
would probably be unemployed. Even though they are not getting good salaries and wages, for
now, these people have been able to earn a living and support their families. They include those
working as station managers, editors, technicians, reporters, receptionists and sales agents. Under
the UNDP Human Development Index, employment is an important component of human
development. Hopefully the radio employees’ wages/salaries will be improved. I hope too that
more women are recruited onto the radios’ staff; at the time of this field research, there were
fewer women than men working as editors and reporters in the radio stations.

Rural development itself was responsible for the rise of FM radios. Without the necessary
conditions to support the FM radios, they would not be having the capacity they have today, let
alone even springing up. The fact that the rural people are able to buy radio sets, and the fact that
there is electricity, telephone networks, advertisers, among others, shows that the rural areas have
attained some level of ‘development’ to offer audience to the radios.

Of course there are some loopholes that make it impossible to give the FM radios an excellent
pass in terms of rural development. For instance, there have been complaints that radios, because
60
of profit motives, feed the audience on too much advertisement, music and DJ jokes. The other
problem is that most of the people that take part in the political talk shows – either as guests or
callers – are influential politicians, not the ordinary man or woman. But rather than condemn the
FM radios for those weaknesses, we should understand the conditions under which they operate.
Being private stations without government subsidies, they have to ‘sell’ advertisements in order to
raise money to stay on air and pay staff. They also have to respond to audience demand. For
instance, most of what goes out on air is a result of ‘consumer taste’ from at least a section of the
audience – according to the editors, if the audience did not want particular programmes, they
(radios) would probably not produce such programmes.

From the findings, it is clear that both the radio editors/reporters and the listeners have the same
perceptions about the developmental role of radio. They only, in some cases, disagree on the
degree and form of participation or interaction between the rural areas and the FM radios.

The FMs have good ideas but they are constrained because of what the editors referred to as
“limited airtime” to cater for different programmes. The time limitation, they said, is based on the
fact that within the 20 hours of broadcasting per day, several programmes have to be included,
besides advertising, music and DJ programmes. Sometimes good programmes are displaced by
commercial advertisements because the radios need money to sustain their operations. Perhaps
this scenario could be avoided if the radios look for sponsorship for such programmes from
donors interested in promoting certain causes. But on the whole, the FM stations, during a period
of four years, have helped to promote and induce different forms of development in the rural areas
through the types of developmental programmes mentioned earlier in chapter four.
Although the degree of community participation is still low, one can say that the trend is
encouraging. As more people become aware of their rights, and as “competition” for the audience,
between the FM stations becomes stiffer, they will probably offer more platform for community
participation in order to tap more listeners, for their survival.
To address some of the loopholes, I propose the following recommendations.

5.2 Recommendations

Staff & human resource

61
 • All the staff, especially station managers, editors and reporters, should be given some form
of training on some development journalism. Although this did not become apparent in my
findings, it is my own observation that the more the media people get skills on
development journalism, the better they can perform in the rural areas.
• The government should come up with a “minimum wage” law to ensure that the FM
radios’ workers get not less than a certain amount of wages/salaries.
• More women should be encouraged to join the radios, either as reporters or editors. This
will boost gender balance in programming.
Participation
• The FM radios should find ways of encouraging more ordinary people and grassroots
leaders to take part, either as guests or contributors, in the talk shows, phone-ins and other
programmes.
• The FM radios in Lira should introduce pre-recorded talk shows for rural people who are
unable to take part in the live talk shows. This will involve journalists going out to the
grassroots to seek and record people’s views on any topical issue. The recorded debate is
then broadcast on air, say once or twice a week. This is an alternative form of community
participation, and some FM radios in other parts of Uganda were already doing it at the
time of this study.
Economy
• The FM radios should look for some form of sponsorship from NGOs, local government,
institutions or companies whose agendas are connected with rural development in general
or specific programmes. This will probably reduce advertisements as the radios will get
money they need, and thus give more time to such sponsored developmental programmes.
• The government should introduce affirmative action in favour of community FMs. This
could be done, for instance, by exempting rural-based community radios from paying
taxes like Value-Added Tax (VAT), or charging them subsidized license fees.
Cultural policy
• To promote local and national identities, the government should come up with a national
policy that local content constitutes not less than 50 per cent of all FM radios’ daily
programming. Local contents are programmes, drama or songs produced by the local
people, in the local language, sometimes using locally made instruments, and aimed at
promoting local themes, ideas or causes.
Special interests

62
 • The FM radios should introduce programmes for persons with disability, children, and
other interest groups whose special needs are poorly catered for under the current
spectrum of programmes.
Knowledge production
• Further research is recommended to assess the negative impacts of the FM radios, if any,
in the rural areas; and other factors that contribute to rural development, other than FM
radios. Participant observation, through ethnography, would be the best method of
studying this.

63
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 Appendix A

Interview guides for the focus groups and respondent interviews conducted in Uganda,
January 2 – January 8, 2006

Interview guide for the focus groups

Listening patterns
• What times of the day do you normally listen to radios?
• What days of the week do you normally listen to radios?
• How many radio stations (channels) do you listen to in a week?
• What else do you do while listening to the radio?
• Do you listen while doing other things? If so, why?
• During your ‘free’ time? If so, why?
• Are there some specific days/times in the week when you listen more to the radio than other
days/times?

Assessment of output
• What programme(s) do you like most? Why?
• Are you satisfied with what comes out of the radios?
• Do you think the radio programmes reflect your interests?
• What (benefits/gains) do you think you get from the radios?
• Do you think your village has gained from the coming up of FM radios?
• Have the radios changed your life in anyway?
• Are there any subjects that you would want the radios to address or give more time to?

Interaction between community and radio station

• Have you ever contributed your views to the radios? If ‘yes’, how? What kind of things (subjects)
do you write or call to ask/comment/complain about? If ‘not’, why?
• In what ways do you keep contact with the radios? Do you write letters to the stations, visit the
studios in person, or call in using phone?
• Are you a regular contributor to the radios’ programmes? How often do you contact them or
participate in the programmes?
• Do you think the radio managers take your needs into consideration? If ‘yes’, how? If ‘not’ why?
(plus any other pop-up questions)

Interview guide for the respondent interviews with editors and reporters

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Policy and aims
• Why was your radio station started here?
• What is your editorial policy?
• What do you think is the main role that your radio station plays in the community?
• Do you understand the concept of ‘development role’ of the media?
• What do you think about your mission as regards development?
• Have you met any hindrances when trying to achieve your goals?

Reach
• What is your coverage area (in terms of square miles)?

Output: Discuss the programme schedule with the interviewees.

• What considerations did/do you bear in mind when coming up with your programmes?
• How many hours do you broadcast per day?
• Are there some programmes that you give more time? If ‘yes’, why?

Sources
• Who are your major sources of information – politicians, business people, farmers, NGOs, etc?
Staff
• How many journalists do you have?
• What are their levels of education?
• Are they enough to go out and reach the communities?

Economy and funding

• How do you finance your station?
• How much is the budget?

Audience response
• Are there particular days or hours when people listen to the radio more? Why do you think so?
And what kinds of programmes to you have at those times?

Interaction with, and contribution to, the community

• Do the listeners contribute in the production and presentation of your programmes? If so, in what
ways do they take part?
• What kinds of things/issues do people normally ask for or complain about to the station?
• How many phone-ins, letters, or visits to the station do you get in a day, week or month?
• Do you think there are any benefits that the community has got from your radio?

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 Appendix B
List of focus group participants and respondent interviewees met in Lira, Uganda between January 2nd and
January 8th, 2006

Focus Group 1
Name Sex Age Residence Occupation
1. Bentorina Muga Female 50s Jinja Camp Housewife
2. James Emmy Ogwette Male 38 Odokomit Builder
3. Selester Anyango Female 25 Odokomit Student
4. Riziky Amolo Female 31 Ojwina Self-employed
5. S.W Odongo Male 61 Jinja Camp Businessman
6. William Okello Male 50s Onyapo-Oyere Civil servant
7. Micera Opono Male 47 Camp Swahili Security Officer
8. Caroline Akullu Female 29 Ober Housewife

Focus Group 2
Name Sex Age Residence Occupation
1. Wilson Ocen Male 58 Akia Farmer
2. Levi Awio Male 43 Adekokwok Teacher
3. Christine Apio Female 30s Akia Civil servant
4. James Okello Male 35 Railway Businessman
5. Edison Otim Male 26 Adekokwok Student
6. Maria Ocen Female 50s Ayago Nurse
7. Mary Apio Female 40s Akia Civil servant

Focus Group 3
Name Sex Age Residence Occupation
1. David Odur Male 34 Bala Farmer
2. Teddy Adongo Female 40s Bar Apwo Housewife
3. Simpo Angom Female 30s Bala Businesswoman
4. Tom Ogwal Male 31 Amuca Teacher
5. Charles Otim Male 53 Bala Politician
6. Agnes Tino Female 39 Bar Apwo Civil servant
7. Rita Adur Female 27 Bala Student

Respondent Interviewees
Name Radio Station Title
1. Patrick Ebong Radio North News Editor
2. Isaac Okello Radio North News Reporter
3. Sr Joe Martin Nalubega Radio-Wa Station Manager/Editor
4. Pelegrine Otonga Radio-Wa News Reporter
5. James Tweny Radio Rhino News Reporter
6. Kenneth Okello Radio Rhino Station Manager/Editor

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 Appendix C
Table showing selected FM radio programmes that the researcher considered developmental, as discussed
in chapter four, with the amount of time allotted to each of them in a week. The table excludes
advertisements and DJ programmes which take up most of the time. The programmes were selected at
random, and are here presented at random without any specific order of ranking.

Radio North FM
Prog Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Total time
per week
Gospel 4.00am – 4.00am – 4.00am – 4.00am – 4.00am – 4.00am – 4.00am – 21 hours
preaching & 7.00am 7.00am 7.00am 7.00am 7.00am 7.00am 7.00am
church
music
Local artiste 7.05am – 7.05am – 7.05am – 7.05am – 7.05am – 7.05am – X 4 hours, 45
7.45am 7.45am 7.45am 7.45am 7.45am 7.45am mins
Current 8.10am – 8.10am – 8.10am – 8.10am – 8.10am – X X 4 hours, 15
affairs 9.00am 9.00am 9.00am 9.00am 9.00am mins
People with 10.00am – X X X X X X 30 mins
disability 10.30am
Market price 11.20am – 11.20am – 11.20am – 11.20am – X X X 40 mins
for farmers 11.30am 11.30am 11.30am 11.30am
Human 2.20pm – X X X X X X 40 mins
rights 3.00pm
Domestic 4.35pm – 10.00am – 4.35pm – 4.35pm – X X X 2 hours, 30
violence 5.15pm 10.30am 5.15pm 5.15pm mins
Peace 7.45pm – X X X X X X 1 hour
initiative 8.45pm
Health X 2.20pm – X X X X X 40 mins
program 3.00pm
Education X 12.30 – X X X X X 30 mins
1.00pm
News in local 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 8 hours,
language 7.00am; 7.00am; 7.00am; 7.00am; 7.00am; 7.00am; 7.00am; 45 mins
6.30pm – 6.30pm – 6.30pm – 6.30pm – 6.30pm – 6.30pm – 6.30pm –
6.45pm 6.45pm 6.45pm 6.45pm 6.45pm 6.45pm 6.45pm
BBC Focus 6.00pm – 6.00pm – 6.00pm – 6.00pm – 6.00pm – X X 2 hours,
on Africa 6.30pm 6.30pm 6.30pm 6.30pm 6.30pm 30 mins
relay
News in 7.45am – 7.45am – 7.45am – 7.45am – 7.45am – 7.45am – 7.45am – 4 hours, 45
English 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; mins
1.30pm – 1.30pm – 1.30pm – 1.30pm – 1.30pm – 1.30pm – 1.30pm –
1.40pm; 1.40pm; 1.40pm; 1.40pm; 1.40pm; 1.40pm; 1.40pm;
7.30pm – 7.30pm – 7.30pm – 7.30pm – 7.30pm – 7.30pm – 7.30pm –
7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm
HIV/AIDS 9.00am – X 9.00am – X 9.00am – X X 2 hours, 15
9.45am 9.45am 9.45am mins
Democracy X X 10.00am – X X X X 30 mins
10.30am
Home X X 2.20pm – X X X X 40 mins
hygiene 3.00pm
Crime X X X 10.00pm – X X X 30 mins
prevention 10.30am
Modern X X X2.20pm – X X X X 30 mins
agriculture 3.00pm
Analysis of X X X 7.45pm – X X X 1 hour
current 8.45pm
affairs
My Doctor X X X X 10.00am – X 10.00am – 1 hour
10.30am 10.30am
Investment X X X X 11.20am – X X 1 hour
12.20pm
Environment X X X X 2.20pm – X 2.20pm – 1 hour, 20
3.00pm 3.00pm mins
Islam X X X X 4.35pm – X 4.35pm – 1 hour, 20
5.15pm 5.15pm mins
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Matrimony X X X X X 5.30pm – X 30 mins
values 6.00pm
Youth X X X X X 10.00am – X 30 mins
program 10.30am
Workers’ X X X X X 11.20am – X 40 mins
rights 12.00pm
Local drama X X X X X 4.35pm – X 1 hour
5.35pm
Children’s X X X X X X 12.30pm – 40 mins
corner 1.10pm
Family life X X X X X X 8.40am – 1 hour, 50
faith 10.30am mins
Round table X X X X X X 8.45pm – 1 hour, 15
debate (talk 10.00pm mins
show)

Radio Rhino
Prog Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Total hrs
per week
Gospel 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 5 hours, 15
music & 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am mins
prayers
News in local 7.45am- 7.45am- 7.45am- 7.45am- 7.45am- 7.45am- 7.45am- 5 hours, 15
language 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; 8.00am; mins
1.45pm- 1.45pm- 1.45pm- 1.45pm- 1.45pm- 1.45pm- 1.45pm-
2.00pm; 2.00pm; 2.00pm; 2.00pm; 2.00pm; 2.00pm; 2.00pm;
7.45pm- 7.45pm- 7.45pm- 7.45pm- 7.45pm- 7.45pm- 7.45pm-
8.00pm 8.00pm 8.00pm 8.00pm 8.00pm 8.00pm 8.00pm
News in 8.15- 8.15- 8.15- 8.15- 8.15- 8.15- 8.15- 3 hours, 30
English 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; mins
8.15pm- 8.15pm- 8.15pm- 8.15pm- 8.15pm- 8.15pm- 8.15pm-
8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm
BBC News 6.05pm – 6.05pm – 6.05pm – 6.05pm – 6.05pm – X X 2 hours, 5
relay (Focus 6.30pm 6.30pm 6.30pm 6.30pm 6.30pm mins
on Africa)
Farmers X X X X X 6.00pm – X 1 hour
program 7.00pm
Political talk X X X X X 8.00pm – X 3 hours
show 11.00pm
Cultural X X X X X X 8.30pm – 1 hour
dance & 9.30pm
music
Children’s X X X X X X 8.00pm – 30 mins
program 8.30pm
Phone-in for X X X X X X 9.30pm – 3 hours, 30
local song 12.00am mins
Youth Desk X X X X X 5.00pm – X 1 hour
6.00pm
Doctor X X X 8.00pm – X X X 1 hour
Rhino 9.00pm
Peace X 8.30pm – X X X X X 1 hour
Initiative 9.30pm
Traditional X 4.00pm – X X X X X 1 hour
leaders 5.00pm
forum
Pastor John X 8.30pm – X X X X X 2 hours, 30
Kizza 11.00pm mins
(evangelist)
HIV/AIDS 8.30pm – X X X X X X 1 hour
awareness 9.30pm
Micro X X X X 8.30pm – X X 1 hour
finance 9.30pm
Business X X X X 11.20am – X X 40 mins
community 12.00pm
Environment X X X X 2.20pm – X X 40 mins
3.00pm
Crime X X X 10.00am – X X X 30 mins
prevention 10.30am

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Radio-Wa FM
Programme Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Total
hrs per
week
Gospel songs 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 6.30am – 5 hours, 15
& religious 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am 7.15am mins
preaching
Main news in 7.15am – 7.15am- 7.15am – 7.15am – 7.15am – 7.15am – 7.15am – 9 hours
local language 7.45am; 7.45am; 7.45am; 7.45am; 7.45am; 7.45am; 7.45am;
1.15pm - 1.15pm - 1.15pm - 1.15pm - 1.15pm - 1.15pm - 1.15pm -
1.45pm; 1.45pm; 1.45pm; 1.45pm; 1.45pm; 1.45pm; 1.45pm;
7.15pm - 7.15pm- 7.15pm - 7.15pm - 7.15pm - 7.15pm - 7.15pm -
7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm 7.45pm
News in 8.15am – 8.15am- 8.15am – 8.15am – 8.15am – 8.15am – 8.15am – 2 hours, 30
English 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; 8.30am; mins
8.15pm - 8.15pm- 8.15pm - 8.15pm - 8.15pm - 8.15pm - 8.15pm -
8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm 8.30pm
Meet the X X X X X X 5.00pm - 1 hour
Doctor 6.00pm
Local Drama X X X X X X 6.00pm - 1 hour
7.00pm
Local artiste X X X X X X 10.00 - 2 hours
12.00pm
Live church X X X X X X 6.00am – 1 hour
prayers 7.00am
Dwog pacu 10.00 – X 10.00 – X 10.00 – X X 3 hours
(peace & 11.00am 11.00am 11.00am
reconciliatn)
Karibu (peace 9.30pm – X 9.30pm – X 9.30pm – X X 4 hours, 30
& 11.00pm 11.00pm 11.00pm mins
reconciliatn)
Saints prog 8.30pm - 8.30pm- 8.30pm - 8.30pm - 8.30pm - X X 2 hours, 30
(religion) 9.00pm 9.00pm 9.00pm 9.00pm 9.00pm mins
Talk show X X X X 8.30pm - X X 1 hour
(current 9.30pm
affairs)
Crime X X X 2.00pm - X X X 1 hour
prevention 3.00pm
Business X 10.00am- X 10.00am- X X X 2 hours
Panorama 11.00am 11.00am
Malaria X X X X X 8.30pm- X 1 hour
control 9.30pm
Women’s 5.00pm- X 5.00pm- X 5.00pm- X X 3 hours
Desk 6.00pm 6.00pm 6.00pm
Environment X 4.00pm – X X X X X 1 hour
5.00pm

73