Solar System

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Coolguys235@yahoo.com
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

THE SUN
The Sun is the most prominent feature in our solar system. It is the largest object and
contains approximately 98% of the total solar system mass. One hundred and nine Earths
would be required to fit across the Sun's disk, and its interior could hold over 1.3 million
Earths. The Sun's outer visible layer is called the photosphere and has a temperature of
6,000°C (11,000°F). This layer has a mottled appearance due to the turbulent eruptions of
energy at the surface.
Solar energy is created deep within the core of the Sun. It is here that the temperature
(15,000,000° C; 27,000,000° F) and pressure (340 billion times Earth's air pressure at sea
level) is so intense that nuclear reactions take place. This reaction causes four protons or
hydrogen nuclei to fuse together to form one alpha particle or helium nucleus. The alpha
particle is about .7 percent less massive than the four protons. The difference in mass is
expelled as energy and is carried to the surface of the Sun, through a process known as
convection, where it is released as light and heat. Energy generated in the Sun's core
takes a million years to reach its surface. Every second 700 million tons of hydrogen are
converted into helium ashes. In the process 5 million tons of pure energy is released;
therefore, as time goes on the Sun is becoming lighter.
The Sun appears to have been active for 4.6 billion years and has enough fuel to go on for
another five billion years or so. At the end of its life, the Sun will start to fuse helium into
heavier elements and begin to swell up, ultimately growing so large that it will swallow
the Earth. After a billion years as a red giant, it will suddenly collapse into a white dwarf
-- the final end product of a star like ours. It may take a trillion years to cool off
completely.
Sun Statistics
Mass (kg) 1.989e+30
Mass (Earth = 1) 332,830
Equatorial radius (km) 695,000
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 108.97
Mean density (gm/cm^3) 1.410
Rotational period (days) 25-36*
Escape velocity (km/sec) 618.02
Luminosity (ergs/sec) 3.827e33
Magnitude (Vo) -26.8
Mean surface temperature 6,000°C
Age (billion years) 4.5
Principal chemistry
Hydrogen 92.1%
Helium 7.8%
Oxygen 0.061%
2 Carbon 0.030%
Nitrogen 0.0084%
Neon 0.0076%
Iron 0.0037%
Silicon 0.0031%
Magnesium 0.0024%
Sulfur 0.0015%
All others 0.0015%
MERCURY
Mercury was named by the Romans after the fleet-footed messenger of the gods because
it seemed to move more quickly than any other planet. It is the closest planet to the Sun,
and second smallest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is 40% smaller than Earth and
40% larger than the Moon. It is even smaller than Jupiter's moon Ganymede and Saturn's
moon Titan.
If an explorer were to step onto the surface of Mercury, he would discover a world
resembling lunar terrain. Mercury's rolling, dust-covered hills have been eroded from the
constant bombardment of meteorites. Fault-cliffs rise for several kilometers in height and
extend for hundreds of kilometers. Craters dot the surface. The explorer would notice that
the Sun appears two and a half times larger than on Earth; however, the sky is always
black because Mercury has virtually no atmosphere to cause scattering of light. As the
explorer gazes out into space, he might see two bright stars. One appearing as cream
colored Venus and the other as blue colored Earth.
Until Mariner 10, little was known about Mercury because of the difficulty in observing
it from Earth telescopes. At maximum elongation it is only 28 degrees from the Sun as
seen from Earth. Because of this, it can only be viewed during daylight hours or just prior
to sunrise or after sunset. When observed at dawn or dusk, Mercury is so low on the
horizon that the light must pass through 10 times the amount of Earth's atmosphere than it
would if Mercury was directly overhead.
Although Mercury is not tidally locked to the Sun, its rotational period is tidally coupled
to its orbital period. Mercury rotates one and a half times during each orbit. Because of
this 3:2 resonance, a day on Mercury (sun rise to sun rise) is 176 Earth days long as
shown by the following diagram.
Mercury's history of formation is similar to that of Earth's. About 4.5 billion years ago the
planets formed. This was a time of intense bombardment for the planets as they scooped
up matter and debris left around from the nebula that formed them. Early during this
formation, Mercury probably differentiated into a dense metallic core, and a silicate crust.
After the intense bombardment period, lava flowed across the surface and covered the
older crust. By this time much of the debris had been swept up and Mercury entered a
lighter bombardment period. During this period the intercrater plains formed. Then
Mercury cooled. Its core contracted which in turn broke the crust and produced the
prominent lobate scarps. During the third stage, lava flooded the lowlands and produced
the smooth plains. During the fourth stage micrometeorite bombardment created a dusty
surface also known as regolith. A few larger meteorites impacted the surface and left
3 rayed craters. Other than the occasional collisions of a meteorites, Mercury's
bright
surface is no longer active and remains the same as it has for millions of years.
Could water exist on Mercury?It would appear that Mercury could not support water in
any form. It has very little atmosphere and is blazing hot during the day, but in 1991
scientists at Caltech bounced radio waves off Mercury and found an unusual bright return
from the north pole. The apparent brightening at the north pole could be explained by ice
on or just under the surface. But is it possible for Mercury to have ice? Because
Mercury's rotation is almost perpendicular to its orbital plain, the north pole always sees
the sun just above the horizon. The insides of craters would never be exposed to the Sun
and scientists suspect that they would remain colder than -161 C. These freezing
temperatures could trap water outgassed from the planet, or ices brought to the planet
from cometary impacts. These ice deposits might be covered with a layer of dust and
would still show bright radar returns.
VENUS
Venus, the jewel of the sky, was once know by ancient astronomers as the morning star
and evening star. Early astronomers once thought Venus to be two separate bodies.
Venus, which is
named after the
Mercury statistic Roman goddess
of Mass (kg) 3.303e+23 love and beauty,
is Mass (Earth = 1) 5.5271e-02 veiled by thick
Equatorial radius (km) 2,439.7 swirling cloud
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 3.8252e-01 cover.
Mean distance from the Sun (km) 57,910,000 Astronomers
Mean distance from the Sun (Earth = 1) 0.3871 refer to Venus as
Rotational period (days) 58.6462 Earth's sister
Orbital period (days) 87.969 planet. Both are
Mean orbital velocity (km/sec) 47.88 similar in size,
Orbital eccentricity 0.2056 mass, density and
Tilt of axis (degrees) 0.00 volume. Both
Orbital inclination (degrees) 7.004 formed about the
Equatorial surface gravity (m/sec^2) 2.78 same time and
condensed out of
Equatorial escape velocity (km/sec) 4.25
the same nebula.
Visual geometric albedo 0.10
However, during
Magnitude (Vo) -1.9
the last few years
Mean surface temperature 179°C
scientists have
Maximum surface temperature 427°C found that the
Minimum surface temperature -173°C kinship ends here.
Atmospheric composition Venus is very
Helium 42% different from the
Sodium 42%
Oxygen 15%
Other 1%
Earth. It has no oceans and is surrounded by a heavy atmosphere composed mainly of
4 dioxide with virtually no water vapor. Its clouds are composed of sulfuric acid
carbon
droplets. At the surface, the atmospheric pressure is 92 times that of the Earth's at sea-
level.
A Venusian day is 243 Earth days and is longer than its year of 225 days. Oddly, Venus
rotates from east to west. To an observer on Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set
in the east.
Venus' surface is relatively young geologically speaking. It appears to have been

completely resurfaced 300 to 500 million years ago. Scientists debate how and why this
occurred. The Venusian topography consists of vast plains covered by lava flows and
mountain or highland regions deformed by geological activity. Maxwell Montes in Ishtar
Terra is the highest peak on Venus. The Aphrodite Terra highlands extend almost half
way around the equator. Magellan images of highland regions above 2.5 kilometers (1.5
miles) are unusually bright, characteristic of moist soil. However, liquid water does not
exist on the surface and cannot account for the bright highlands. One theory suggests that
the bright material might be composed of metallic compounds. Studies have shown the
material might be iron pyrite (also know as "fools gold"). It is unstable on the plains but
would be stable in the highlands. The material could also be some type of exotic material
which would give the same results but at lower concentrations.
At least 85% of the Venusian surface is covered with volcanic rock. Hugh lava flows,
extending for hundreds of kilometers, have flooded the lowlands creating vast plains.
More than 100,000 small shield volcanoes dot the surface along with hundreds of large
volcanos. Flows from volcanos have produced long sinuous channels extending for
hundreds of kilometers, with one extending nearly 7,000 kilometers (4,300 miles).
Venus Statistics
Mass (kg) 4.869e+24
Mass (Earth = 1) .81476
Equatorial radius (km) 6,051.8
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) .94886
Mean distance from the Sun (km) 108,200,000
Mean distance from the Sun (Earth = 1) 0.7233
Rotational period (days) -243.0187
Orbital period (days) 224.701
Mean orbital velocity (km/sec) 35.02
Orbital eccentricity 0.0068
Tilt of axis (degrees) 177.36
Orbital inclination (degrees) 3.394
Equatorial surface gravity (m/sec^2) 8.87
Magnitude (Vo) -4.4
Atmospheric pressure (bars) 92
Atmospheric composition
5 Carbon dioxide 96%
Nitrogen
Trace amounts of: Sulfur dioxide, water vapor,

carbon monoxide, argon, helium, neon,
hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride.
EARTH
From the perspective we get on Earth, our planet appears to be big and sturdy with an
endless ocean of air. From space, astronauts often get the impression that the Earth is
small with a thin, fragile layer of atmosphere. For a space traveler, the distinguishing
Earth features are the blue waters, brown and green land masses and white clouds set
against a black background.
Many dream of traveling in space and viewing the wonders of the universe. In reality all
of us are space travelers. Our spaceship is the planet Earth, traveling at the speed of
108,000 kilometers (67,000 miles) an hour.
Earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun at a distance of about 150 million kilometers (93.2
million miles). It takes 365.256 days for the Earth to travel around the Sun and 23.9345
hours for the Earth rotate a complete revolution. It has a diameter of 12,756 kilometers
(7,973 miles), only a few hundred kilometers larger than that of Venus. Our atmosphere
is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 1 percent other constituents.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system known to harbor life. Our planet's rapid spin
and molten nickel-iron core give rise to an extensive magnetic field, which, along with
the atmosphere, shields us from nearly all of the harmful radiation coming from the Sun
and other stars. Earth's atmosphere protects us from meteors, most of which burn up
before they can strike the surface.
Earth Statistics
Mass (kg) 5.976e+24
Mass (Earth = 1) 1.0000e+00
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 1.0000e+00
Rotational period (days) 0.99727
Rotational period (hours) 23.9345
6Equatorial escape velocity (km/sec) 11.18
Atmospheric pressure (bars) 1.013
Nitrogen 77%
Oxygen 21%
Other 2%
MARS
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and is commonly referred to as the Red Planet.
The rocks, soil and sky have a red or pink hue. The distinct red color was observed by
stargazers throughout history. It was given its name by the Romans in honor of their god
of war. Other civilizations have had similar names. The ancient Egyptians named the
planet Her Descher meaning the red one.
Before space exploration, Mars was considered the best candidate for harboring
extraterrestrial life. Astronomers thought they saw straight lines crisscrossing its surface.
This led to the popular belief that irrigation canals on the planet had been constructed by
intelligent beings. In 1938, when Orson Welles broadcasted a radio drama based on the
science fiction classic War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, enough people believed in the
tale of invading Martians to cause a near panic.
Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal
color changes on the planet's surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions
might support a bloom of Martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant
life to become dormant during colder periods.
In July of 1965, Mariner 4, transmitted 22 close-up pictures of Mars. All that was
revealed was a surface containing many craters and naturally occurring channels but no
evidence of artificial canals or flowing water. Finally, in July and September 1976,
Viking Landers 1 and 2 touched down on the surface of Mars. The three biology
experiments aboard the landers discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in
the Martian soil, but provided no clear evidence for the presence of living
microorganisms in the soil near the landing sites. According to mission biologists, Mars
is self-sterilizing. They believe the combination of solar ultraviolet radiation that
saturates the surface, the extreme dryness of the soil and the oxidizing nature of the soil
chemistry prevent the formation of living organisms in the Martian soil. The question of
life on Mars at some time in the distant past remains open.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere of Mars is quite different from that of Earth. It is composed primarily of
carbon dioxide with small amounts of other gases. The six most common components of
the atmosphere are:
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 95.32%
7 Nitrogen (N2): 2.7%
 Argon (Ar): 1.6%
 Oxygen (O2): 0.13%
 Water (H2O): 0.03%
 Neon (Ne): 0.00025 %
Martian air contains only about 1/1,000 as much water as our air, but even this small
amount can condense out, forming clouds that ride high in the atmosphere or swirl
around the slopes of towering volcanoes. Local patches of early morning fog can form in
valleys. At the Viking Lander 2 site, a thin layer of water frost covered the ground each
winter.
There is evidence that in the past a denser martian atmosphere may have allowed water to
flow on the planet. Physical features closely resembling shorelines, gorges, riverbeds and
islands suggest that great rivers once marked the planet.
Temperature and Pressure
The average recorded temperature on Mars is -63° C (-81° F) with a maximum

temperature of 20° C (68° F) and a minimum of -140° C (-220° F).
Barometric pressure varies at each landing site on a semiannual basis. Carbon dioxide,
the major constituent of the atmosphere, freezes out to form an immense polar cap,
alternately at each pole. The carbon dioxide forms a great cover of snow and then
evaporates again with the coming of spring in each hemisphere. When the southern cap
was largest, the mean daily pressure observed by Viking Lander 1 was as low as 6.8
millibars; at other times of the year it was as high as 9.0 millibars. The pressures at the
Viking Lander 2 site were 7.3 and 10.8 millibars. In comparison, the average pressure of
the Earth is 1000 millibars.
Mars Statistics
Mass (kg) 6.421e+23
Mass (Earth = 1) 1.0745e-01
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 5.3264e-01
8 Magnitude (Vo) -2.01
Minimum surface temperature -140°C
Mean surface temperature -63°C
Maximum surface temperature 20°C
Carbon Dioxide (C02) 95.32%
Nitrogen (N2) 2.7%
Argon (Ar) 1.6%
Oxygen (O2) 0.13%
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 0.07%
Water (H2O) 0.03%
Neon (Ne) 0.00025%
Krypton (Kr) 0.00003%
Xenon (Xe) 0.000008%
Ozone (O3) 0.000003%
JUPITER
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and is the largest planet in the solar system. If
Jupiter were hollow, more than one thousand Earths could fit inside. It also contains two
and a half times the mass of all the other planets combined. It has a mass of 1.9 x 10 27 kg
and is 142,800 kilometers (88,736 miles) across the equator. Jupiter possesses 62 known
satellites. The four largest are Callisto, Europa, Ganymede and Io, and were named after
Galileo Galilei who observed them as long ago as 1610. The German astronomer Simon
Marius claimed to have seen the moons around the same time, but he did not publish his
observations and so Galileo is given the credit for their discovery.
Jupiter has a very faint ring system, but is totally invisible from the Earth. (The rings
were discovered in 1979 by Voyager 1.) The atmosphere is very deep, perhaps
comprising the whole planet, and is somewhat like the Sun. It is composed mainly of
hydrogen and helium, with small amounts of methane, ammonia, water vapor and other
compounds. At great depths within Jupiter, the pressure is so great that the hydrogen
atoms are broken up and the electrons are freed so that the resulting atoms consist of bare
protons. This produces a state in which the hydrogen becomes metallic.
Jupiter's Ring
Unlike Saturn's intricate and complex ring patterns, Jupiter has a simple ring system that
is composed of an inner halo, a main ring and a Gossamer ring. To the Voyager
spacecraft, the Gossamer ring appeared to be a single ring, but Galileo imagery provided
the unexpected discovery that Gossamer is really two rings. One ring is embedded within
the other. The rings are very tenuous and are composed of dust particles kicked up as
interplanetary meteoroids smash into Jupiter's four small inner moons Metis, Adrastea,
Thebe, and Amalthea. Many of the particles are microscopic in size.
Jupiter's rings and moons exist within an intense radiation belt of electrons and ions
trapped in the planet's magnetic field. These particles and fields comprise the jovian
magnetosphere or magnetic environment, which extends 3 to 7 million kilometers (1.9 to
9
4.3 million miles) toward the Sun, and stretches in a windsock shape at least as far as
Saturn's orbit - a distance of 750 million kilometers (466 million miles).
Jupiter Statistics
Mass (kg) 1.900e+27
Mass (Earth = 1) 3.1794e+02
Magnitude (Vo) -2.70
Mean cloud temperature -121°C
Hydrogen 90%
Helium 10%
SATURN
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and is the second largest in the solar system with
an equatorial diameter of 119,300 kilometers (74,130 miles). Much of what is known
about the planet is due to the Voyager explorations in 1980-81. Saturn is visibly flattened
at the poles, a result of the very fast rotation of the planet on its axis. Its day is 10 hours,
39 minutes long, and it takes 29.5 Earth years to revolve about the Sun. The atmosphere
is primarily composed of hydrogen with small amounts of helium and methane. Saturn is
the only planet less dense than water (about 30 percent less). In the unlikely event that a
large enough ocean could be found, Saturn would float in it. Saturn's hazy yellow hue is
marked by broad atmospheric banding similar to, but fainter than, that found on Jupiter.
Saturn's ring system makes the planet one of the most beautiful objects in the solar
system. The rings are split into a number of different parts, which include the bright A
and B rings and a fainter C ring. The ring system has various gaps. The most notable gap
is the Cassini [kah-SEE-nee] Division, which separates the A and B rings. Giovanni
Cassini discovered this division in 1675. The Encke [EN-kee] Division, which splits the
A Ring, is named after Johann Encke, who discovered it in 1837. Space probes have
shown that the main rings are really made up of a large number of narrow ringlets. The
origin of the rings is obscure. It is thought that the rings may have been formed from
larger moons that were shattered by impacts of comets and meteoroids. The ring
composition is not known for certain, but the rings do show a significant amount of
10 They may be composed of icebergs and/or snowballs from a few centimeters to a
water.
few meters in size. Much of the elaborate structure of some of the rings is due to the
gravitational effects of nearby satellites. This phenomenon is demonstrated by the
relationship between the F-ring and two small moons that shepherd the ring material.
Saturn has 30 named satellites and more continue to be discovered.
Saturn Statistics
Mass (kg) 5.688e+26
Mass (Earth = 1) 9.5181e+01
Mean distance from the Sun (km) 1,429,400,000
Orbital period (years) 29.458
Magnitude (Vo) 0.67
Hydrogen 97%
Helium 3%
URANUS
Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun and is the third largest in the solar system. It
was discovered by William Herschel in 1781. It has an equatorial diameter of 51,800
kilometers (32,190 miles) and orbits the Sun once every 84.01 Earth years. It has a mean
distance from the Sun of 2.87 billion kilometers (1.78 billion miles). It rotates about its
axis once every 17 hours 14 minutes. Uranus has at least 22 moons. The two largest
moons, Titania and Oberon, were discovered by William Herschel in 1787.
The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, 2% methane and
small amounts of acetylene and other hydrocarbons. Methane in the upper atmosphere
absorbs red light, giving Uranus its blue-green color. The atmosphere is arranged into
clouds running at constant latitudes, similar to the orientation of the more vivid latitudinal
bands seen on Jupiter and Saturn. Winds at mid-latitudes on Uranus blow in the direction
of the planet's rotation. These winds blow at velocities of 40 to 160 meters per second (90
to 360 miles per hour). Radio science experiments found winds of about 100 meters per
second blowing in the opposite direction at the equator.
Uranus' Rings
11
In 1977, the first nine rings of Uranus were discovered. During the Voyager encounters,
these rings were photographed and measured, as were two other new rings and ringlets.
Uranus' rings are distinctly different from those at Jupiter and Saturn. The outermost
epsilon ring is composed mostly of ice boulders several feet across. A very tenuous
distribution of fine dust also seems to be spread throughout the ring system.
There may be a large number of narrow rings, or possibly incomplete rings or ring arcs,
as small as 50 meters (160 feet) in width. The individual ring particles were found to be
of low reflectivity. At least one ring, the epsilon, was found to be gray in color. The
moons Cordelia and Ophelia act as shepherd satellites for the epsilon ring.
Uranus Statistics
Discovered by William Herschel
Date of discovery 1781
Mass (kg) 8.686e+25
Mass (Earth = 1) 1.4535e+01
Rotational period (hours) -17.9
Magnitude (Vo) 5.52
Hydrogen 83%
Helium 15%
Methane 2%
NEPTUNE
Neptune is the outermost planet of the gas giants. It has an equatorial diameter of 49,500
kilometers (30,760 miles). If Neptune were hollow, it could contain nearly 60 Earths.
Neptune orbits the Sun every 165 years. It has eight moons, six of which were found by
Voyager. A day on Neptune is 16 hours and 6.7 minutes. Neptune was discovered on
September 23, 1846 by Johann Gottfried Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, and Louis
d'Arrest, an astronomy student, through mathematical predictions made by Urbain Jean
12 Le Verrier.
Joseph
The first two thirds of Neptune is composed of a mixture of molten rock, water, liquid
ammonia and methane. The outer third is a mixture of heated gases comprised of
hydrogen, helium, water and methane. Methane gives Neptune its blue cloud color.
Neptune is a dynamic planet with several large, dark spots reminiscent of Jupiter's
hurricane-like storms. The largest spot, known as the Great Dark Spot, is about the size
of the earth and is similar to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. Voyager revealed a small,
irregularly shaped, eastward-moving cloud scooting around Neptune every 16 hours or
so. This scooter as it has been dubbed could be a plume rising above a deeper cloud deck.
Long bright clouds, similar to cirrus clouds on Earth, were seen high in Neptune's
atmosphere. At low northern latitudes, Voyager captured images of cloud streaks casting
their shadows on cloud decks below.
The strongest winds on any planet were measured on Neptune. Most of the winds there
blow westward, opposite to the rotation of the planet. Near the Great Dark Spot, winds
blow up to 2,000 kilometers (1,200 miles) an hour.
Neptune has a set of four rings which are narrow and very faint. The rings are made up of
dust particles thought to have been made by tiny meteorites smashing into Neptune's
moons. From ground based telescopes the rings appear to be arcs but from Voyager 2 the
arcs turned out to be bright spots or clumps in the ring system. The exact cause of the
bright clumps is unknown.
Neptune Statistics
Discovered by Johann Gotfried Galle
Date of discovery September 23, 1846
Mass (kg) 1.024e+26
Mass (Earth = 1) 1.7135e+01
Magnitude (Vo) 7.84
Mean cloud temperature -193 to -153°C
Atmospheric pressure (bars) 1-3
13 Atmospheric composition
Hydrogen 85%
Helium 13%
Methane 2%
PLUTO
Although Pluto was discovered in 1930, limited information on the distant object delayed
a realistic understanding of its characteristics. Pluto is the second largest known dwarf
planet and tenth largest orbiting the Sun. From its time of discovery in 1930 to 2006 it
was considered to be the ninth planet in the solar system, but because additional objects
have been discovered including Eris which is 27% more massive, the IAU reclassified
Pluto and the other objects as dwarf planets. The New Horizons spacecraft was launched
on January 16, 2006 and will make its closest approach to Pluto on July 14, 2015. This
mission will provide an increased amount of information about this peculiar dwarf planet.
The uniqueness of Pluto's orbit, rotational relationship with its satellite, spin axis, and
light variations all give it a certain appeal.
Pluto is usually farther from the Sun than any of the eight planets; however, due to the
eccentricity of its orbit, it is closer than Neptune for 20 years out of its 249 year orbit.
Pluto crossed Neptune's orbit January 21, 1979, made its closest approach September 5,
1989, and remained within the orbit of Neptune until February 11, 1999. This will not
occur again until September 2226.
As Pluto approaches perihelion it reaches its maximum distance from the ecliptic due to
its 17-degree inclination. Thus, it is far above or below the plane of Neptune's orbit.
Under these conditions, Pluto and Neptune will not collide and do not approach closer
than 18 A.U. to one another.
Pluto's rotation period is 6.387 days, the same as its satellite Charon. Although it is
common for a satellite to travel in a synchronous orbit with its planet, Pluto rotates
synchronously with the orbit of its satellite. Thus being tidally locked, Pluto and Charon
continuously face each other as they travel through space.
The eclipses lasted as much as four hours and by carefully timing their beginning and
ending, measurements for their diameters were taken. The diameters can also be
measured directly to within about 1 percent by more recent images provided by the
Hubble Space Telescope. These images resolve the objects to clearly show two separate
disks. The improved optics allow us to measure Pluto's diameter as 2,274 kilometers
(1413 miles) and Charon's diameter as 1,172 kilometers (728 miles), just over half the
size of Pluto. Their average separation is 19,640 km (12,200 miles). That's roughly eight
Pluto diameters.
Pluto's icy surface is 98% nitrogen (N2). Methane (CH4) and traces of carbon monoxide
(CO) are also present. The solid methane indicates that Pluto is colder than 70 Kelvin.
Pluto's temperature varies widely during the course of its orbit since Pluto can be as close
to the sun as 30 AU and as far away as 50 AU. There is a thin atmosphere that freezes
and falls to the surface as the planet moves away from the Sun. The atmospheric pressure
14 for Pluto's surface is 1/100,000 that of Earth's surface pressure.
deduced
Pluto was officially labeled the ninth planet by the International Astronomical Union in
1930 and named for the Roman god of the underworld. It was the first and only planet to
be discovered by an American, Clyde W. Tombaugh. It has since been reclassified as a
Dwarf Planet along with Eris and Ceres.
Pluto Statistics
Discovered by Clyde W. Tombaugh
Date of discovery February 18, 1930
Mass (kg) 1.27e+22
Mass (Earth = 1) 2.125e-03
Mean distance from the Sun (Earth = 1)) 39.5294
Rotational period (days) -6.3872
Magnitude (Vo) 15.12
Methane
Nitrogen
* Mean distance from the Sun.
Historical Data
Name # Orbits Date Discoverer
Sun - - -
Mercury I Sun - -
Venus II Sun - -
Earth III Sun - -
Moon I Earth - -
Mars IV Sun - -
Phobos I Mars 1877 Asaph Hall
Deimos II Mars 1877 Asaph Hall
JUPITER V Sun - -
Metis XVI Jupiter 1979 Stephen Synnott
15
Adrastea XV Jupiter 1979 D. Jewitt & E. Danielson
Amalthea V Jupiter 1892 Edward Emerson Barnard
Thebe XIV Jupiter 1979 Stephen Synnott
Io I Jupiter 1610 Simon Marius & Galileo Galilei
Europa II Jupiter 1610 Simon Marius & Galileo Galilei
Ganymede III Jupiter 1610 Simon Marius & Galileo Galilei
Callisto IV Jupiter 1610 Simon Marius & Galileo Galilei
Leda XIII Jupiter 1974 C. Kowal
Himalia VI Jupiter 1904 C. Perrine
Lysithea X Jupiter 1938 S. Nicholson
Elara VII Jupiter 1905 C. Perrine
Ananke XII Jupiter 1951 S. Nicholson
Carme XI Jupiter 1938 S. Nicholson
Pasiphae VIII Jupiter 1908 P. Melotte
Sinope IX Jupiter 1914 S. Nicholson
Saturn VI Sun - -
Pan XVII Saturn 1990 Mark R. Showalter
I
Atlas XV Saturn 1980 R. Terrile
Prometheus XVI Saturn 1980 S. Collins & others
Pandora XVII Saturn 1980 S. Collins & others
Epimetheus XI Saturn 1980 R. Walker
Janus X Saturn 1966 Audouin Dollfus
Mimas I Saturn 1789 William Herschel
Enceladus II Saturn 1789 William Herschel
Tethys III Saturn 1684 Giovanni Domenico Cassini
Telesto XIII Saturn 1980 B. Smith & others
Calypso XIV Saturn 1980 B. Smith & others
Dione IV Saturn 1684 Giovanni Domenico Cassini
Helene XII Saturn 1980 P. Laques & J. Lecacheus
Rhea V Saturn 1672 Giovanni Domenico Cassini
Titan VI Saturn 1655 Christiaan Huygens
Hyperion VII Saturn 1848 William Cranch Bond
Iapetus VIII Saturn 1671 Giovanni Domenico Cassini
Phoebe IX Saturn 1898 William Henry Pickering
Uranus VII Sun 1781 William Herschel
Cordelia VI Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Ophelia VII Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Bianca VIII Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Cressida IX Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Desdemona X Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Juliet XI Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Portia XII Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Rosalind XIII Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Belinda XIV Uranus 1986 Voyager 2
Puck XV Uranus 1985 Stephen Synnott
16
Miranda V Uranus 1948 Gerard Kuiper
Ariel I Uranus 1851 William Lassell
Umbriel II Uranus 1851 William Lassell
Titania III Uranus 1787 William Herschel
Oberon IV Uranus 1787 William Herschel
Neptune VIII Sun 1846 Johann Gotfried Galle
Naiad III Neptune 1989 Voyager 2
Thalassa IV Neptune 1989 Voyager 2
Despina V Neptune 1989 Voyager 2
Galatea VI Neptune 1989 Voyager 2
Larissa VII Neptune 1989 Stephen Synnott
Proteus VIII Neptune 1989 Stephen Synnott
Triton I Neptune 1846 William Lassell
Nereid II Neptune 1949 Gerard Kuiper
Pluto IX Sun 1930 Clyde W. Tombaugh
Charon I Pluto 1978 J. Christy
Key:
Name Name of the planet(in bold) satellite.
Orbits Sun or planet about which it orbits.
Date Date of discovery.
Discoverer Discoverer.
COMETS
Comets are small, fragile, irregularly shaped bodies composed of a mixture of non-
volatile grains and frozen gases. They have highly elliptical orbits that bring them very
close to the Sun and swing them deeply into space, often beyond the orbit of Pluto.
Comet structures are diverse and very dynamic, but they all develop a surrounding cloud
of diffuse material, called a coma, that usually grows in size and brightness as the comet
approaches the Sun. Usually a small, bright nucleus (less than 10 km in diameter) is
visible in the middle of the coma. The coma and the nucleus together constitute the head
of the comet.
As comets approach the Sun they develop enormous tails of luminous material that
extend for millions of kilometers from the head, away from the Sun. When far from the
Sun, the nucleus is very cold and its material is frozen solid within the nucleus. In this
state comets are sometimes referred to as a "dirty iceberg" or "dirty snowball," since
over half of their material is ice. When a comet approaches within a few AU of the
Sun, the surface of the nucleus begins to warm, and volatiles evaporate. The evaporated
molecules boil off and carry small solid particles with them, forming the comet's coma of
gas and dust.
When the nucleus is frozen, it can be seen only by reflected sunlight. However, when a
coma develops, dust reflects still more sunlight, and gas in the coma absorbs ultraviolet
radiation and begins to fluoresce. At about 5 AU from the Sun, fluorescence usually
17 more intense than reflected light.
becomes
As the comet absorbs ultraviolet light, chemical processes release hydrogen, which
escapes the comet's gravity, and forms a hydrogen envelope. This envelope cannot be
seen from Earth because its light is absorbed by our atmosphere, but it has been detected
by spacecraft.
TYPES OF COMET
Comet Kohoutek
Comet Hyakutake
Comet 1993a Mueller
Comet Hale-Bopp
Comet Hale-Bopp
Comet Ikeya-Seki
ASTEROIDS
Asteroids are rocky and metallic objects that orbit the Sun but are too small to be
considered planets. They are known as minor planets. Asteroids range in size from Ceres,
which has a diameter of about 1000 km, down to the size of pebbles. Sixteen asteroids
have a diameter of 240 km or greater. They have been found inside Earth's orbit to
beyond Saturn's orbit. Most, however, are contained within a main belt that exists
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Some have orbits that cross Earth's path and some
have even hit the Earth in times past. One of the best preserved examples is Barringer
Meteor Crater near Winslow, Arizona.
Asteroids are material left over from the formation of the solar system. One theory
18 that they are the remains of a planet that was destroyed in a massive collision
suggests
long ago. More likely, asteroids are material that never coalesced into a planet. In fact,
if the estimated total mass of all asteroids was gathered into a single object, the object
would be less than 1,500 kilometers (932 miles) across -- less than half the diameter of
our Moon.
Much of our understanding about asteroids comes from examining pieces of space debris
that fall to the surface of Earth. Asteroids that are on a collision course with Earth are
called meteoroids. When a meteoroid strikes our atmosphere at high velocity, friction
causes this chunk of space matter to incinerate in a streak of light known as a meteor. If
the meteoroid does not burn up completely, what's left strikes Earth's surface and is called
a meteorite.
Of all the meteorites examined, 92.8 percent are composed of silicate (stone), and 5.7
percent are composed of iron and nickel; the rest are a mixture of the three materials.
Stony meteorites are the hardest to identify since they look very much like terrestrial
rocks.
Because asteroids are material from the very early solar system, scientists are interested
in their composition. Spacecraft that have flown through the asteroid belt have found that
the belt is really quite empty and that asteroids are separated by very large distances.
Before 1991 the only information obtained on asteroids was though Earth based
observations. Then on October 1991 asteroid 951 Gaspra was visited by the Galileo
spacecraft and became the first asteroid to have hi-resolution images taken of it. Again on
August 1993 Galileo made a close encounter with asteroid 243 Ida. This was the second
asteroid to be visited by spacecraft. Both Gaspra and Ida are classified as S-type asteroids
composed of metal-rich silicates.
Asteroid Summary
19 Radius Distance*
Num Name Albedo Discoverer Date
(km) (10^6km)
1 Ceres 466 413.9 0.10 G. Piazzi 1801
511 Davida 168 475.4 0.05 R. Dugan 1903
433 Eros 17.5 x 6.5 218 ? G. Witt, A. Charlois 1893
15 Eunomia 136 395.5 0.19 De Gasparis 1851
52 Europa 156 463.3 0.06 Goldschmidt 1858
951 Gaspra 17x10 330.0 0.20 Neujmin 1916
10 Hygiea 215 470.3 0.08 De Gasparis 1849
243 Ida 58x23 428 ? J. Palisa 29 Sep 1884
704 Interamnia 167 458.1 0.06 V. Cerulli 1910
253 Mathilde 28.5 x 25 396 0.03 J. Palisa 1885
2 Pallas 261 414.5 0.14 H. Olbers 1802
16 Psyche 132 437.1 0.10 De Gasparis 1852
87 Sylvia 136 521.5 0.04 N. Pogson 1866
4 Vesta 262.5 353.4 0.38 H. Olbers 1807

Solar System

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1

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Venus' surface is relatively young geologically speaking. It appears to have been

Trace amounts of: Sulfur dioxide, water vapor,

Temperature and Pressure

The average recorded temperature on Mars is -63° C (-81° F) with a maximum

Saturn has 30 named satellites and more continue to be discovered.

* Mean distance from the Sun.

Comet 1993a Mueller

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