Hamilton Power Systems

Power Systems
for the
Non-Power Engineer
Hamilton Section
February 25, 2005
W.O. (Bill) Kennedy, P.Eng., FEIC

IEEE Canada President
Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy
51.50 MW 51.50 MW 51.50 MW

6.00 MVR 6.00 MVR 11.00 MVR
9 10 11
3 1 2
1.06 pu
-2.43 Deg
50 MW
80 MW
25 MVR 40 MVR
205 MW
5
6 103 MVR
88.4 MVR
7
95.00 MW 0.99 pu
5.10 MVR -11.01 Deg
1 MW
8 1 MVR
95.00 MW
0.00 MVR 1.02 pu
-4.62 Deg
Purpose
Giveyou a basic understanding of what
power systems are and how the
components fit together and work
Concepts will be emphasized
Mathematics will be kept to a minimum
Mathematics only when necessary
1
Introduction
Firstpart covers power system
components
Second part covers how the
components fit together and work
along with some measures of
power system performance
A little bit of Physics

Hans Christian Oerstead discovered the
relationship between magnetism and
electricity
Michael Faraday discovered that a
voltage is induced on a wire when it was
moved in or through a magnetic field
James Clerk Maxwell developed the
mathematics of electromagnetics
Real and Reactive Power

Real power does the work
Reactive power helps real power
do the work
Power systems need both or they
won’t work
What is reactive power?
2
Reactive power
Quarterback can
throw a bullet, but
not very far
For long distances,
throws in an arc
Real power is the
bullet
Reactive power is
the height of the arc
Reactive Power
Capacitors store energy equal
to ½CV2
Capacitor banks are used to
boost or raise voltage
Reactors use energy equal to

½LI2
Motors and fluorescent lights
require reactive power
Part 1 - Equipment
Generators
Transformers
Transmission Lines
Loads
3
Generators
Generators
Fundamental Law
E = N dΦ/dt
Where Φ is the flux
Magnetic example
Highschool physics
Faraday's discovery – motion
Maxwell – mathematical theory
Generators
Rotor turns inside of the generator –
satisfying Faraday’s Law
Voltage induced on the stator – follows
a sine wave
Take advantage of space and put three
coils equally spaced, 120o apart
4
Generators
Three Phase
1.5
1.0
Magnitude
0.5 Phase A
0.0 Phase B
-0.5 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 Phase C
-1.0
-1.5
Degrees
Motion of rotor induces a voltage on the stator

Stator doesn’t move and waveform reflects effect of
rotor field as it moves inside the machine
Generators
Control
Terminal voltage
Speed
Terminal voltage controlled by varying

the voltage applied to the dc field of the
rotor
Speed controlled by governor, as load
increases, fuel supply increases
Generators
Speed and frequency (60 Hz)
Frequency (f) = n/60 * p/2
Poles are in pairs, hence divide by 2
Speed in revolutions per minute, whereas
frequency in cycles per second, hence
divide by 60
Steam sets – high speed, small rotors
Hydro sets – low speed, big rotors
5
Generators
Two pole machine
rotates at 3600 rpm
– steam generator
Twelve pole
machine rotates at
600 rpm – hydro set
Generators
Generation by Fuel Type (Canada)
0%
2%
2%
10% 16%
coal
3%
nuclear
hydro
14%
oil
gas
dual fuel
pumped storage
ot her
53%
Prime mover drives the generator

Energy sources in Canada
Generators
Generator Capability Curve Capability curve
1
0.8
Limits
0.6 Stator heating
0.4
Rotor heating
Reactive Power
0.2
0.00
0
-0.2
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 Stability
Real Power
-0.4
-0.6
What’s required
-0.8
What’s used
-1
6
Generator Capability Curve
0.8
0.6
0.4
Reactive Power
0.2
0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
-0.2
Real Power
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Transformers
Follow Faraday’s Law
E1=N1dΦ/dt & E2=N2dΦ/dt
Flux (dΦ/dt) is constant
Voltage change depends on number of
turns, and basic equations can be
equated with the result:
E1/N1 = E2/N2
Transformers
Since conservation
of energy must be
preserved and
voltage varies
inversely, current
must vary directly
I1N1 = I2N2
7
Transformers
Usual connection for the transmission system

is WYE grounded at the high voltage
Generators connected DELTA
Loads can be both
Transmission lines
Transmission lines are the highways on
which power travels
Losses are proportional to the current
squared on the line times the resistance
Want highest practical voltage to
minimize losses
As we will see, SIL is an important
property of transmission lines
Surge Impedance Loading

(SIL)
Transmission line
consists of:
Shunt capacitance
Series resistance and
inductance
Distributed along length
of line
Treat as distributed
lumped elements
Can ignore resistance
8
(SIL)
Close the breaker at
sending end
Load
Shunt capacitance
charges to ½ CV2
Close the breaker at

receiving end and feed
the load
Load Series inductance uses
energy at ½ LI2

(SIL)
Equating shunt and series energies
½ CV2 = ½ LI2
Performing the math yields
SIL (power) = V2/SI
Properties of Surge Impedance (SI)

Remains fairly constant over a wide range of
voltages
Starts around 400 Ω at lower voltages and
decreases with bundling to around 225 Ω at
1500 kV
Capacitance and inductance also remain
constant
Using this we can construct the following
table
9
Properties of Transmission Lines
Voltage (kV) SI (Ω) R (Ω/km) X (Ω/km) Charging SIL X/R
(kVAr/km) (MW)
69/72 370 0.4 0.5 15 13/14 1.2
138/144 370 0.2 0.5 70 50/55 2.5
230/240 340 0.07 0.45 225 170 6

single
230/240 300 0.07 0.4 290 180/195 6
bundled
345 bundled 285 0.026 0.365 525 415 14
500 bundled 250 0.018 0.345 1340 990 20
St. Clair Curve
3.25
3.00
2.75
2.50
2.25
Line Loading (SIL)
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10
Length (km)
Loads
Three types of load models
Constant MVA – motors
Constant current – resistive loads
Constant impedance – reactor & capacitor
banks
For power flow – use constant MVA
For transient studies need a combination and
may require frequency
10
Summary – Part 1
Generators – make the product
Transformers – raise and lower voltage
to allow efficient transport of product
Transmission lines are the highways
Loads are the end user of the product
Time for a Break
Characteristics of power systems

Generation is usually remote from loads
Transmission needed to connect generation
to load
Transformers needed to raise/lower voltage
Want as high a voltage as practical for
transmission – minimizes losses
Use load size, generator size and line SIL to
get line voltage
In Saskatchewan, lines are typically 170 km
long
At that distance – loading 2 times SIL
11
Putting it all together
Generators produce real power (P)
Generators produce/consume
reactive power (Q)
Generator Q for underexcited
operation is around half overexcited
ability

Transmission lines consume P in form
of losses, typically 5% to 7% of
generation
Lines produce/consume Q depending
on power flow on the line as a fraction
of SIL
< SIL – VArs flow out of line
> SIL – VArs flow into line
Half from each end, if voltages are equal

Loads consume P & Q
P required for resistive loads
Q required for reactive loads – induction motors
Synchronous motors can produce/consume Q
Switching and/or load stations
Use shunt reactor/capacitor banks to
produce/absorb Q
Primarily for voltage control
12
Breakers
Breakers used to
connect/disconnect
equipment
Breakers must be
capable of picking
up and dropping
loads
Breakers
Breakers must be
capable of switching
unloaded
transmission lines
Breakers must be
capable of
interrupting the
symmetrical fault
plus any dc offset
How the power system works

Fundamental rules
Maintain reactive power balance and
voltages will be in required range –
typically +/- 5% of nominal
Maintain load/generation balance and
frequency or speed remains constant –
typically 60 Hz +/- 0.02 Hz
13
Power flow
To solve a power flow need to solve for four
variables at each bus
Bus voltage – V
Bus angle – б
Real power – P
Reactive power – Q
However, some variables already known
Load P & Q
Generator bus V
Power flow
Need a model of the system
Per unit system is best
Must have consistent voltage ratios
Base impedances on voltage level
Most models involve some lumping, i.e.
not practical to model every detail
However, this depends on the type of
study
Solution methods
Four solution methods
Gauss-Siedel – solves vector equations
Newton-Raphson – solve for P & Q by
separation of variables
dc – solves circuit as a dc circuit by
treating jX as a resistance
Decoupled load flow – variant of Newton-
Raphson. Separates V & б
14
Solution methods
Solution results
Balance generation with load and losses
Keep all bus voltages within tolerance +/-
5%
Require a slack or swing bus. Can be a
fictitious generator to supply/absorb P & Q
Solution achieved when swing bus P & Q
equal zero
Not practical, therefore minimize swing bus
P&Q
Types of studies
Steady state studies
Operations – study effect today and
tomorrow, usually short time, e.g. up to
one month
Planning – study effect of load and
generation three or more years in future
Fault – study what happened yesterday
Types of studies
Dynamic studies
All of the above: Operations, Planning &
Fault
Transients – what happens as power
system moves from one steady state to
another
Additional studies determine equipment
ratings, e.g. breaker duty
15
Contingencies
Contingencies test the system for
robustness
Contingency – loss of one or more
components at a time
Costs escalate if system designed for
more than two contingencies
Example loss of a generator and line or
transformer – N-G-1 (NERC category C)
Power system example

51.50 MW 51.50 MW 51.50 MW
6.00 MVR 6.00 MVR 11.00 MVR
9 10 11
3 1 2
1.06 pu
-2.43 Deg
50 MW
80 MW
25 MVR 40 MVR
205 MW
5
6 103 MVR
88.4 MVR
7
95.00 MW 0.99 pu
5.10 MVR -11.01 Deg
1 MW
8 1 MVR
95.00 MW
0.00 MVR 1.02 pu
-4.62 Deg
Power System Performance

WAMS – Wide Area Measurement
Systems
Losses – we’ve ignored losses up
to this point
Measuring outages
Lines & Stations
Delivery Point measures
16
WAMS
Slow speed synchronized
measurements of voltages, power and
frequencies on a power system
IEEE Standards PC37.118 – in voting
stage
Want to capture slow-speed events
High-speed events captured by fault
recorders
Synchrophasor Standard
PC37.118
Standard defines measurement, accuracy & test
requirements (includes timing requirements)
UTC Time PMU estimates phasor
Phasor defined (GPS) equivalent from an interval
at t = 0.
of the waveform.
X = Xr + jXi
Phasor
Measurement X(n) = Xr(n) + jXi(n)
X Unit (PMU)
X(n)
Xi
Xi(n)
Xr
X r(n)
1
Waveform matches
phasor definition 0.5
at t = 0. The estimate is compared

-0.012 -0.008 -0.004
0
0 0.004 0.008 0.012
with the defined phasor to
determine error (TVE).
-0.5
ε = √ [((Xr(n) - Xr) 2 + (Xi(n) - Xi) 2 ) / (Xr 2 + Xi 2 )]

-1
Phasor Systems in WECC

PMU to PDC, real time
BPA - 15 in NW, 1 in CAL
SCE - 14 in S. CAL &
NEV
PG&E - 6 in N. CAL
PNM - 2 in NM
WAPA - 3 in COLO & NM
BC Hydro - 6 in BC
APS/SRP - 5 in AZ & NM
PMU to stored files
Alberta ISO - 4 in Alberta
2nd Level, PDC-PDC
SCE - BPA
WAPA - BPA
BPA & SCE to Cal ISO
17
Inter-utility WAMS Development
BPA-SCE
Limited data
Uses analog channel
Since 1998
BPA-CAISO
Full data flow, T1 link
Since 9/2002
BPA-WAPA
Full data, T1 link
Since 6/2004
SCE - CAISO
Selected data - T1 link
Since 12/2004
PG&E – CAISO Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy
P 5: AB01 Calgary FreqL

LcaseID=021008NWGenDrop_Alberta casetime=10/22/02_09:45:08
60.2
Reference time = 08-Oct-2002 22:00:00.000
60.1 60.047 Hz
60
59.9
59.8
59.7
59.6
59.513 Hz
59.5
1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400 3600
Time in Seconds
Summary Plot For 021008NWGenDrop_BPA&Alberta

021008NWGenDrop_BPA&Alberta 10/22/02_08:28:26
Reference tim e = 08-Oct-2002 22:25:00.000
60
59.9 Calgary
59.8
59.7
59.6
59.5 59.513 Hz
375 380 385 390 395 400 405

Time in Seconds
AB01 Calgary FreqL MF02
GC50 Grand Coulee Bus Voltage FreqL MF01
MALN Malin N.Bus Voltage FreqL MF01

SCE1 Devers 500 Bus Voltage FreqL MF01
COLS Colstrip Bus Voltage FreqL MF01
18
S u m m a r y P lo t F o r 0 2 1 0 0 8 N W G e n D r o p _ A llA n g s
0 2 1 0 0 8 N W G e n D r o p _ A llA n g s 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 2 _ 1 2 :5 9 :1 2
400
300
Ault/Bears Ears
200
Shiprock
Pinnacle Pk
100
C a lg a r y
0
S y lm a r
-1 0 0 BCH
D M W G /jfh
-2 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
T im e i n S e c o n d s s i n c e 0 8 - O c t - 2 0 0 2 2 2 : 3 1 : 1 5 . 5 3 1
SYLM Sylmar Bus Voltage VAngR MF01

AULT 345 kV Bus Voltage (Craig) VAngR MF02
BEAR 345 kV Bus Voltage (Craig) VAngR MF02
SHIP 345 kV Bus Voltage (San Juan) VAngR MF02
ING1 5L52 Custer Voltage VAngR MF03
DMR1 5L29 Malaspina Voltage VAngR MF03
NIC1 5L81 Ingledow Voltage VAngR MF03
AB01 Calgary VAngR MF04
Pinnacle Pk Bus VAngR MF05
Chief Joseph dynamic brake

1400 MW
“toaster”
Three 230 kV
structures
Resistive wire
strung
through
pulleys
Limited time
duration
.5 sec
normal
2 sec limit
Cool-off
required
Dynamic brake detail

Lower
brackets with
pulleys and
weights for
tension
Pulley section
adjusts for
ambient and
loading
temperature
changes
19
RAS initiated
Dynamic
Brake
Faulted PT causes
bus outage
RAS triggers Brake
Low Volt
Power flow drop
No gen drop initiated
Long fault causes
more significant
ringdown network
response
No net system
effects Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy
Transmission Losses
Losses are
Transmission Losses
stochastic
500
Simple system –
400
losses vary as a
L o s s e s (M W )
300
square of current
200
Complex system
100
– losses display a
0
4750 5000 5250 5500 5750 6000 6250 6500 6750 7000 7250 7500 7750 linear variance
Net Generation to Supply Alberta Load (MW)
Transmission Losses
Transmission Losses Histogram
500
400
300
Count
200
100
0
197
210
223
236
249
262
275
288
301
314
327
340
353
366
379
392
405
418
431
Losses (MW)
Histogram demonstrates a normal

distribution pattern for losses
20
Transmission losses
Net Gen Transmission Generation, Load and Losses by Day
Net Load
7500 Losses 1000
+3-sigma 900
7000 -3-sigma
800
Ave Losses
Geenration & Load (MW)
6500 700
Losses (MW)
600
6000
500
5500
400
5000 300
200
4500
100
4000 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour
Losses on AIES are very linear

Power system performance

Need measure system performance
Measure frequency and duration of
outages
Reason – outages occur infrequently
Measures of performance look at all
components and causes
Usually stated as an average of whole
system
Performance
For Alberta, AESO publishes data to its
website on line and terminal outages as
an overall average for the voltage class
For Delivery Points frequency and
duration data also published as a
system average
For comparison, all Canada data is
included for Delivery Points
21
Performance
Two types of duration are measured
Momentary < 1 minute
Sustained > 1 minute
Following are examples of charts
published on the AESO website
http://www.aeso.ca/transmission/5548.html
Transmission - line
Alberta Interconnected Electric System
Transmission Outage Statistics
Summary for Line Related Forced Outages
For the Period From 1997 - 2001
Frequency Total Average Frequency

Kilometer Number of Unavailability Number of
Voltage per 100 km.a Outage Outage per 100 km.a
Years Sustained per 100 km.a Momentary
Class (kV) (faults100 Duration Duration (faults/100
(km.a) Faults (%) Faults
km.a) (hours) (hrs/fault) km.a)
69/72 9,017 186 2.06 1,130 6.08 0.14% 601 6.67
138/144 54,417 322 0.59 2,272 7.06 0.05% 685 1.26
240 33,968 235 0.69 1,159 4.93 0.04% 320 0.94
500 1,595 14 0.88 37 2.64 0.03% 95 5.96
Total 98,997 757 0.76 4,598 6.07 0.05% 1,701 1.72
System Average Interruption Frequency

SAIFI-MI
1.6
Alberta
1.2
Frequency
Canada
0.8
0.4 Ice Storm

Removed
0.0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
22
System Average Interruption Duration
SAIDI
400
Alberta
Duration (minutes)
300
Canada
200
100 Ice Storm

Removed
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year
Summary
Generators – make the product
Transformers – raise and lower the
voltage and current to allow efficient
transport of the product
Transmission lines are the highways
that allow the power to flow from the
generator to the load
Loads are the end user of the product
Summary – Part 2
Power flow studies model and test
the system for robustness
yesterday, today and tomorrow
N-G-1 (NERC ‘C’) is used to test
the system for operation today and
into the future
23
Summary – Part 2
Losses are an important part of
power system design and operation
Higher voltage lines reduce losses
However, losses are fixed when the
conductor is chosen
Must do a conductor optimization
study
Summary – Part 2
Outages are measured using
frequency and duration techniques
Presented as system average
numbers
Summary
Power systems are mankinds most complex
machine
Power systems cover thousands of square
kilometers
Supply thousands of customers all day -
everyday
Must always work together – generally do
Must supply power and energy when
requested – ultimate Just in Time system
24
That’s all folks!
Comments
Questions
Feedback
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Power Systems

W.O. (Bill) Kennedy, P.Eng., FEIC

51.50 MW 51.50 MW 51.50 MW

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

A little bit of Physics

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Real and Reactive Power

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

 Reactors use energy equal to

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

 Motion of rotor induces a voltage on the stator

 Terminal voltage controlled by varying

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

 Prime mover drives the generator

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

 Usual connection for the transmission system

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Surge Impedance Loading

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

 Close the breaker at

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Surge Impedance Loading

SIL (power) = V2/SI

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Properties of Surge Impedance (SI)

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

69/72 370 0.4 0.5 15 13/14 1.2

138/144 370 0.2 0.5 70 50/55 2.5

230/240 340 0.07 0.45 225 170 6

500 bundled 250 0.018 0.345 1340 990 20

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

St. Clair Curve

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Time for a Break

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Characteristics of power systems

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Putting it all together

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Putting it all together

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

How the power system works

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Copyright © 2005 W.O. (Bill) Kennedy

Reactors use energy equal to

Motion of rotor induces a voltage on the stator

Terminal voltage controlled by varying

Prime mover drives the generator

Usual connection for the transmission system

Close the breaker at

Histogram demonstrates a normal

Losses on AIES are very linear