Training report-BSNL

External Guidance by: Mr. R.kumar Divisional Engineer (I/D)

Mr.R.M.Verma(S.D.E.)

InternalGuidanceby:

Mr.M.Gupta(Faculty)

Prof.M.Chhawta(H.O.D.)

Submitted By: Mohd.Shadab

B.tech(C.S.)

Roll.no.-0722010029

H.I.E.T.Gzb

1
 Acknowledgement

Success of every project depends largely on the SELF & encouragement

and guidance of many others. I take this opportunity to express my

gratitude to the people who have been instrumental in the successful

completion of this study project.

First of fall I would like to thank the Management at BSNLfor giving

me the opportunity to do my one-month project training in their
esteemed organization.

Internal Guide) for providing me with valuable advice and endless

supply of new ideas and support for this project.

I would like to thank Er. R. Kumar for providing practical exposure for the project and his
valuable guidance during the project work.

Mohammad Shadab
B.Tech(C.S.)

2
 PREFACE

Since time immemorial, a man has tried hard to bring the world as close to himself
as possible. His thirst for information is hard to quench so he has continuously tried
to develop new technologies, which have helped to reach the objective.
The world we see today is a result of the continuous research in the field of
communication, which started with the invention of telephone by Grahm Bell to the
current avtar as we see in the form INTERNET and mobile phones. All these
technologies have come to existence because man continued its endeavor towards
the

objective.

This project report of mine, STUDY OF TRENDS TECHNOLOGIES IN

COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING has been a small effort in reviewing the
trends technologies prevailing. For this purpose, no organization other than BAHRAT
SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED could have been a better choice.

Mohammad Shadab
B.Tech(C.S.)

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Table of contents

1.Acknowledgement
2.Preface
3.Tabl of contents
4.Introduction
5.making a telephone call
6.About the exchange
a.computer unit
b.power plant
c.central air conditioner
d.main distribution frame
7.V-SAT network
a.Design aspects
b.Operational factors
8.Types of access V-SAT networks
a.fixed assignment time division multiple access
(F-TDMA)
b.Random access
c.Code division multiple access (CDMA)
9.The Internet
a.Introduction
b.Internet connectivity
c.OSI model
d.Communication b\w the layers
e.File transfer the internet
f.National internet backbone
10.Wireless in local loop
a.Technical aspects
b. Advantages

11.3-G Mobile Communication

12.Global system for mobile communication (GSM)

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An Introduction:-

Today, BSNL is the No. 1 telecommunication company and the largest public sector
undertaking of India and its responsibilities includes improvement of the already
impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of telecom services in all villages
and instilling confidence among its customers.

Apart from vast network expansions, especial emphasis has given for introducing
latest technologies and new services like I-NET, INTERNET, ISDN (INTEGRATED
SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK), IN (INTELLIGENT NETWORK), GSM and WLL
(WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP) services etc. Now BSNL has also entered in mobile
communication. BSNL has all the new services send technological advantages, which
are available with any well, developed Telecom network anywhere else in the
country.
Full credit for all above achievement goes to the officers and staff of the BSNL. The
administration is fully aware of the challenges lying ahead and quite committed to
provide the latest and best telecom services by their continued support and active
co-operation.

BSNL Services:-

When it comes connecting the four corners of the country , and much beyond , one
solitary name lies embedded at the pinnacle- BSNL. A company that has gone past
the number games and the quest to attain the position of the leader. It is working
round the clock to take India in to the future by providing excellent telecom services
for people of India.
Driven by the very best of telecom technology from global leaders, it connects each
inch of India to the infinite corners of the globe, to enable you to step in to
tomorrow.
The telecom services have been recognized the world over as an important tool for
socio-economic development for a nation and hence telecom infrastructure is treated
a crucial factor to realize the socio-economic objectives in India. Accordingly the
Department of Telecom has been formulating developmental policies for the
accelerated growth of the telecommunication services in various cities. The
department is also responsible for frequency management in the field of radio
connection in close coordination with the international bodies.

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MAKING A TELEPHONE CALL

A telephone call starts when the caller lifts the handsets of the base. Once the dial
tone is heard, the caller uses a rotary or a push button dial mounted either on the
handset or on the base to enter a sequence of digits, the telephone number of called
party. The switching equipment from the exchange removes the dial tone from the
line after the first digit is received and after receiving the last digit, determines the
called party is in the same exchange or a different ones. If the called is in the same
exchange, burst of ringing current is applied to the called party’s line. Each
telephone contains a ringer that responds to specific electric frequency. When the
called party answers the telephone by pocking up the handset, steady start to flow
in the called party’s line and is detected by the exchange. The exchange than stops
applying ringing and sets up the connection between the caller and the called party.
If the called party is in different exchange from the caller, the caller exchange set up
the connection over the telephone network to the called party’s exchange. The
called party then handles the process of ringing, detecting an answer, and notifying
the calling and billing machinery when the call is completed. When conversation is
over, one or both parties hang up by replacing their handset on the base, stopping
the flow of current. The exchange when initiates the process of taking down the
connection, including notifying billing equipment of the duration of the call if
appropriate.

ABOUT THE EXCHANGE

All telephone subscribers are served by automatic exchanges, which perform the
functions the human operator. The number being dialed is stored and then passed
to the exchange’s central computer, which in turns operates the switching to
complete the call or routes it a higher level switch for further processing. Today’s
automatic exchanges uses a pair of computers, one running the program that
provides services and the second monitoring the operation of the first, ready to take
over in a few seconds in the event of equipment failure.

Various exchanges present in BSNL are:

E-10B
OCB283
EWSD

All exchange has some purposes and some basic structural units, which are:

1. subscribers connection unit

2. switching network (CX)
3. control unit
4. OMC

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For smooth working of an exchange following unit are very important:-

1. Computer Unit: - it deals with additional services of the exchange to the

customers with the help of computers.

2. Power Plant:- to feed proper power supply to exchange

3. AC Plant: - to maintain the continuous temperature + or – 2 degree Celsius to the

digital switch (exchange).

4. MDF: - to connect switch (exchange) with the external environment (subscriber)

i.e. it is the interface between subscribers and exchange.

Computer unit

As the name specified it is the main part of the exchange that deals with the all
services provided by the exchange to the customers with the help of computer. It
also provides the updated data to all other part of the exchange.

The customers are using the services of the exchange by using the internet also gets
connected to the main server present this room via an internet room.

It mainly consists of the servers that are providing the different services. The main
servers of this room are:-

IVRS is used for the change number services provided by the exchange.

CERS are provided by the exchange to avoid the problems that the users are facing
the repairing of telephone. In this system when the user enters it’s complained it
gets directly entered to the server and user is allotted with an id number.

LOCAL DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is another services provided by the exchange, by using

this; subscribers calls the particular number and gets the directory enquiry. The
server present in the main computer room provides this service.

INTERNET DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is the latest service by the exchange. In this type
of service makes it enquiry using the internet, which gets connected to the main
server at the internet room in the exchange and further to the main server in the
computer room.

POWERPLANT

As we know that, the power is the main source or any organization. It is the case of
E-10B exchange. That is the first requirement of any organization is the input.
The main source of this exchange is AC supply. However, as soon as the power

7
supply is gone off, then what is source? No one think on this that the telephone is
always plays its role in the human life. Even if the power supply gone off. Thus there
must be adjustment source of power.
The main parts of the power room are:

Batteries: - these are the instant sources of the power as soon as power is gone off.

UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply):- the UPS must give supply to the computer. As
we know there is some equipment which can withstand any type of power supply,
but there are also some instruments which cannot withstand with this type of power
supply, even a microsecond delay will cause the loss of data.

Charging- Discharging Unit: - the batteries we are using in the power room need
timely charging. As soon as the AC power supply is on, we make use of the charging
unit present in the power room. The slowly charging of the batteries is known as the
trickle charging. But sometimes we need the BOOSTER charging. In this type of
charging awe take of the batteries from the load and charge separately, until it gets
fully charged.
The main work of the discharging unit is to control the discharging of the batteries.

Inverter and Converter Unit: - the main use of this system is to change AC mains to
DC and vice versa as required by the parts of exchange.

Engine Room:-we know that the batteries are the instant source of supply but we
cannot use it for much larger time, thus for this, we have an engine to generate the
power supply. They are of 885 KVA. Thus, this room controls the supply of the
engine.

CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONER

For the function of electrical equipment, cooling system is basic requirement. The
basic advantages of cooling systems are following-
It provides the thermal stability so that the temperature does not reach the
tolerance limit of electronic equipment
It saves equipment from dust so to avoid malfunction of equipment’s.
It protects equipment from excess humidity which can caused rusting of equipment.

The basic unit of measurement used in the industry is known as “ton of

refrigeration” (TR) which is equivalent to the heat extracted in 24 hours for
converting thousands kg of liquid to ice at zero degree.
The compressor is the heart of the AC system and the costliest. It increases the
pressure and temperature of the refrigerant gas coming from the evaporator coils by
compressing it.
Compressor comes in various types. The most widely used is simple reciprocal type a
cylinder and piston arrangement. For capacity more than 120 TR, centrifugal

8
compressors are used. The condenser liquefies the refrigerant gas by a heat
exchange process. The capillary tube or the expansion valve pressurizes liquid
refrigerant and meters it flows to the evaporator.
The refrigerant then passes trough the evaporator coils, which extract heat out of
the ambience.

MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME

The primary function of MDF is:

The fault of telephone number is removed in the MDF; it is called as Fault Remove
Section.
For removing the fault of telephone number, we use the testing
These testing are T.T.Y. testing, Group testing, etc.
For any type of testing firstly we need the vertical no. or the live tester, printer and
computer test N.E. number of that particular telephone number.
The telephone numbers are also disconnected in the MDF because of some specific
reason.

ORGANISATION OF THE MDF

PARTS OF THE MDF

Horizontal side
Vertical side

HORIZONTAL SIDE:

It is again subdivided in to two parts

Exchange side
Line side

Description of the horizontal side:-

RACK: - On the rack, the tags are situated. One rack is having eight tags. The
courting is done from up (0) to down (7).

TAG: - Each rack consists of eight tags.

1 tag = 4 core
1 core = 4 bunch
1 bunch = 2 line

N.E.:- The word NE stands for the ‘NUMBER OF EQUIPMENT’.

It is a 128 pair cable. The EWSD and MDF connected by NE.

WEDGE:-If we want to disconnect any two numbers then we insert a wedge

between subscriber side and exchange side. Here wedge works as insulator made of
plastic.

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VERTICAL SIDE:

The vertical aside connected to the underground cable. This cable is having 100
pairs.
These pair is distributed when we allot the telephone number to the subscriber.
Vertical side is again subdivided in two parts:

One part is connected with the horizontal side and another with the subscriber line
by using 100 pair underground cable.

This is how the present day telephone system works. Different exchanges have
different architectures of switching call routing and other features.

Now let us see how BSNL has kept up with the changing world and provided the
subscribers with the latest facilities technologies, which include the V-SAT network,
Internet, the WLL (wireless in local loop) and the GSM mobile.

V-SAT NETWORK
What is V-SAT?

It can be defined as a class of very small aperture Intelligent Satellite Earth Station
suitable for easy on-premise installation, usually operating in conjugation with a
large size HUB earth station. Capable of supporting a wide range of two ways
integrated Telecom Services.
It has the following components:
Micro Earth Station
Mini Earth Station
Personal Earth Station
Roof Top Terminal
Customer Premises Terminal

ADVANTAGES OF V-SAT

Can be located in the user premises on roof top or backyard and hence eliminate
last mile problem.
Superior quality satellite based data services.
Quick implementation time.
Reliable communication.
Broadcast feature on satellite communication.
Communication to different areas.
Flexibility for network and changes.
Service in distance insensitive.
Low cost.

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REASON FOR V-SAT EVOLUTION

The main reason for V-SAT evolution is due to advances in following areas:
Packet transmission and switching.
Efficient multiple access protocol.
Powerful microprocessor.
KU and RF electronics.
Antennae miniaturization
Spread spectrum techniques.
Protocol standardization and implementation.
LSI based FEC codec has and modems.
Higher power satellites.

CLASSIFICATION OF V-SATs

V-SAT can be classified as following:

1. Modulation type
2. Application used for.
3. Transmission rate.
4. Cost.

CATEGORIES OF V-SATs

1. Broadcast/ point to multipoint

Types of services
a. Broadcast video
b. Program quality audio.
c. Packetised data.
In this mode of operation V-SATs transmit/receive data through a centralized HUB.
This type of network is called star network.
2. Point to point
Types of services
a. Voice
b. Data
c. Image
In this mode of operation, V-SATs transmit/receive data without the help of hub
station. This type of network is called a mesh network.
3. Two way interactive
Types of services
a. Voice
b. Data
c. Image
In this configuration, V-SATs can communicate both on star as well as mesh
topology.

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DESIGN FACTORS FOR V-SAT SYSTEMS

The capabilities of V-SAT system depend upon the following factors.

I. Satellite characteristics
II. Geographical and environmental factors.
III. Transmission link properties.
IV. Earth station characteristics.
V. Information encoding and modulation.
VI. Total system operation.

When evaluating V-SAT system each of the above attributes should be given
attention. However, few of more important attributes are
Operational aspects
Frequency bands
Satellite access methods

OPERATIONAL ASPECTS

Considering a V-SAT system from its operational aspects, there are five broad
functions that determines how the system works. These are:
Bandwidth allocation
Multiplexing
Network management
Protocol handling
Transmission

TYPE OF ACCESS FOR V-SAT DATA NETWORK

There are three types access available for V-SAT data networks. They are:

1. Fixed assignment time division multiple access (F-TDMA)

2. Random access
a. Pure aloha
b. Slotted aloha
c. Reservation
i. Implicit
ii. Explicit
3. code division multiple access (CDMA)

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FIXED ASSIGNMENT TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (F-TDMA)

In a fixed assignment TDMA, each frame is divided in to slots of fixed time durations
among stations of network. The assignment of stations to slots is permanent similar
to TDMA system carrying digitalized voice except FTDMA does not have
synchronization. Packets are sent asynchronously, with no frame sync signals.

FEATURES

No inter modulation problems.

Transport utilization is better.
Burst from different stations must arrive at satellite exactly in allocated slots.
Throughput is 70% to 80%
Delay – medium is too high.
Complexity-medium.

RANDOM ACCESS

With TDMA schemes, signals are transmitted by earth stations in a burst mode. If no
scheduling is provided b/w the transmitting station, this type of access is called time
random multiple access. This simplest method for the stations to transmit burst
without regard for other station.

Random access id of two types:

Pure aloha
Slotted aloha

PURE ALOHA

Pure aloha, also called unslotted aloha is the simplest form of random access
schema.
In this form of access stations transmit packets\bursts randomly.
Packet from different stations may collide, thereby destroying information content.
Station transmits the packet until they are received correctly.
The aloha channel throughout can be analyzed in terms of traffic offered through
the following relationship:
S=Ge-2g
Maximum throughput is 13% to 18%.
Delay- low
Complexity- very low

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SLOTTED ALOHA

The maximum throughput of an unslotted aloha channel is limited to 18% due to

collision.
To reduce probability of each collision time slots are introduced so that the
transmission could only at the start of the slots.
The above network discipline reduces the rate of collision by half and hence
increases the maximum throughput efficiency of the channel.
In S-Aloha, each station has 2 queues.
a. New packet queue
b. Retransmit packet queue.
Only if the retransmit packet queue is empty, a new packet queue is sent.
The analysis of slotted aloha channel shows that
S = Ge2g
Maximum channel throughput is 36%.
Delay- low.
Complexity- low- medium.

Reservation

The low bandwidth utilization of pure aloha and the slotted aloha has led to many
proposals for increasing utilization by means of slot reservation schemes.
The object of slot reservation schemes is to receive a particular time slot for a given
station. This ensures that no collision takes place.
This scheme has a higher throughput than either S- Aloha or F-TDMA depending on
traffic.
This increase in channel utilization efficiency is obtained at some overhead either in
terms of allocation of bandwidth for reservation purposes and\or increased
complexity of the control mechanism in transmitting stations.
All reservation methods use some form of framing approach and the reservation
scheme can be either implicit or explicit.
The implicit reservation method involves reservation by use. This is done whenever a
station successfully transmit in a slot; all the stations internally assign that slot in
sub-segment frames for exclusive use by the successful station. This is called R-
Aloha. In this there is no way to prevent a station capturing most or all of the slots
in a frame for an indefinite time.
The explicit reservation is a distinct and unique assignment of slots to a user by the
network scheduler.

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CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

With CDMA transmission from earth station are spread over the time frequency
plane by a code transformation. These techniques are referred to as Spread
Spectrum Systems. In addition to their multiple access capabilities, they are useful in
combating jamming, and are for this reason principally used in military systems.

Features

All stations operate on the same transponder frequency using a large bandwidth
than needed for the data rate.
Network needs no time for frequency coordination.
Provide anti jam capabilities or protection against interference.
Provide for a graceful degradation of network performance as the number of
simultaneous users increases.
Low spectral density compared to conventional emissions.
It yields same capacity as FDMA.

Limitations of CDMA

Require large transponder ratio.

Due to imperfect code orthogonalities, expected simultaneous users may be limited.
Requires a highly central earth station called HUB using star configuration.
VSAT technology using SSMA is presently available only for low bit rate application.

VSAT NETWORK IN DOT

Department of telecommunication entered the VSAT era in 1991 by commissioning

its first satellite based low bit rate network known as REMOTE AREA BUSINESS
MESSAGE NETWORK (RABMN).
This has been engineered for users located in remote areas for stable and reliable
data communication.
This service envisages installation of very small aperture terminals (VSAT) to work
with satellite based pocket switched network.

It has 3 main components:-

A large master earth station (hub)

A satellite transponder located in geo stationary orbit
A small micro earth station located at user’s premises

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SERVICES OFFERED BY RABM NETWORK:-

Data communication up to 1200 bps

Fax services.
Access to Public Telex Network
Access to international data network through VSNL gateway.

Tariff and billing:-

A RABMN customer availabling VSAT has to pay the following charges:-

Registration charge Rs. 5000 per terminal
Cost of each VSAT Rs. 5.2 lakhs
Cost of each installation Rs. 15,000 per terminal
License fees Rs. 100 per terminal
Maintenance charges Rs. 25,000 per terminal annually
Satellite access charges Rs. 5000 per month per terminal
Traffic charges Rs. 50 per kilo segment of data

Network users:

Some of the probable users are

Banking network
Civil aviation
Airlines\railways
Public\private sector industries
Meteorological department
Police department

RABMN NETWORK

Introduction

Satellite communication plays a vital role in long distance communication.

Satellite medium offers high bandwidth making it suitable for data communication
and computer networking.
Satellite communication is of distance and cost effective.
Multi access nature of satellites.
Provides two way communications.
Dynamic assignment of channels between geographically dispersed users.
Satellite network provides point to point and point to multipoint communication
needs.

16
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA):-

Bandwidth is split in to narrow frequency bands with multiple users each allocated a
frequency range within the larger bandwidth.

Time division multiple access (TDMA):-

Each terminal is allotted a short time slot in which to transmit on a sequential basis.
This time slot is usually a fraction of a second.

Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Each terminal is allotted a unique encryption code. The transmitted signals are
encoded and only the terminal intended to receive it, can decode it. This is also
known as Spread Spectrum Multiple Access.

Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM):-

In TDM, time slots are allotted to the multiplexed lines even if they have no data
transmit. In STDM, a time slot is allotted to the multiplexed line only if there is data
to be sent. The multiplexed circuit is used more efficiently.

VSAT (very small aperture terminal)

It is also called Micro Earth Station or Personal Earth Station.

Its main features are as follows:-

Independent of terrain can be installed in hilly regions, islands and remote places.
Flexible service carrying data, Telex.
No last mile problems of cable pair\overhead lines.
Interference immunity.
Data security

The main services offered by VSAT are as follows:-

Interactive data communication.

Connection to public telex network.
Connection to Packet Switched Data Network – INET.
Connection to international gateway packet switch.

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The different technologies used in VSAT are-

Satellite based
Spread spectrum
Packet switching

Tariffs:-

Cost of VSAT : about Rs. 7,00,000

Installation cost : Rs. 15,000
Maintenance cost : Rs. 25,000
Satellite access charge : Rs. 5,000 per month

Charges for using VSAT are as follows:

Ø National : Rs. 50 per kilo segment of data

: Rs. 10 per min in addition to vol. of telex
Ø International : Rs.200 per Kilo segment of data
: Rs. 240 per hour duration.

Dialing codes for VSAT are as follows:

Within RABMN:
o 12 digit code
o 4041xxxxxxxx

to other data networks:

o I-NET
o 4043xxxxxxxx
o international networks
o DNICxxxxxxxx

To telex networks
NATIONAL
Q008/area code/telex number

INTERNATIONAL
0009/country code/telex number

TELEX TO RABMIN
09841xxxxx (last 5 digits of telex number)

Specifications for master earth station:

18
There are two types of master earth stations:

Outbound
Inbound

Outbound:

Each VSAT and host computer is allotted an HCL port

NPG polls HCL ports and generates a 153.6 Kbps demand based STDM data stream
Data stream contains variable length packets of data addressed to various VSAT’s
Outmux chips the data @1:16 resulting in 2.4576 MB stream.
BPSK modulator produced 5 MHz of spectrum
Upconvertor converts to 5GHz RF
Mes transmits 153.6KBps STDM/BPSK/SS carriers
NPG provides FEC encoding for outbound data

Inbound:

Inbound signals originates from VSAT’s

VSAT has a unique PN code
Data spread by its PN code and transmitted to satellite in 6 GHz band
MES resolves the signal in 4 GHz band, converts to 70 MHz IF and sends to Demod
section
Demod cards compare the pattern of the to other PN code for its associated VSAT.
When the correct pattern is detected, the original signal is extracted from the IF
signal and transmitted to INMUX
NPG polls INMUX for I\C data packets and transmits the packets to HCL

VSAT specifications

Antennae module

Ø Reflector : 1.2M X 1.8M

Ø Weight : 60 KGs
Ø Tracking : fixed
Ø Amb. Temp : -40 to +50 deg. Cel.
Ø Wind speed : operating 100 kmph

Controller module

Ø Size : 15 cm(h) x 43 cm(w) x 55 cm (d)

Ø Weight : 15 kgs
Ø Power supply : 220V\60Hz, 300 watts
Ø Oper. Temp. : -5 to 50 deg. Cel.
Ø Humidity : up to 95%

19
Controller module :

Ø INPUT\OUTPUT PROCESOR
· Converts raw data to packets
· Customer protocol to network protocol

Ø NETWORK PROCESSOR
TRANS SIDE:
· generates BFEC & FCS
· Retains packets in buffer until ACK’s receives and transmits if required.

RECIEVER SIDE:
· checks BFEC & FCS
· ACK’s the packets and requests retransmission of missing packets

Ø SPACE PROCESSOR
TRANS SIDE
· Encodes the packets with PN sequence to 2.45MBps stream
· BPSK modulation of IF

RECIEVER SIDE
· Demodulates IF signal to 2.45MBps
· Dispreads to 153.6KBps stream
· Checks destination link address in the header
· Discards packets addressed to other links.

Micro earth station transmits 1.2KBps\9.6KBps BPSK/CDMA carrier’s bursts in

absolutely random access mode in the same frequency.

INTERNET

Introduction:

The Internet is not a program, not software, not hardware or a big system. It is a
group of various co-operating computers worldwide interconnected by computer
based on TCP\IP communication protocols. People use it to get information over a
standard communication link. The hundreds or thousands or millions of computer
network are connected to each other for exchanging the information which is based
on the unique identity and set of procedures. Internet is a series of interconnected
networks providing global link to information.

GIAS: BSNL launched the Gateway Internet Access Service (GAIS) through dial
up/leased/ISDN network. Users can access GAIS from 99 cities in India by this
means.

20
INTERNET CONNECTIVITY

INTERNET TECHNOLOGY

The basic function of Internet can be summarized as under-

Interconnecting of computers to form a network.

Interconnecting of computers to form a network of networks.
To establish a communication link between two computers within as network.
To provide alternate communication link among the networks, even if one network is
not working. These are based on TCP/IP communications protocol.

Transfer of a file through Internet:-

Suppose a file is to be transmitted on Internet from one computer to other ones

Break the file in to small packets

Attached destination and source address in o packets
Multiplexed and transmit these packets
At destination de-multiplex the packets
Remove address bits from the packets and assemble the data in to the original file
Make source bits as destination address and send the acknowledgement in to the
source

Therefore, it is clear that network hardware sends the packets to specified

destination and network software reassembles of communications, the computer
network performs the following functions-

Addressing and routing

Fragmentation and error correction
Data error checking
Connectivity control
Multiplexing and de-multiplexing
Data flow control
End users interface etc.
The data handling

A single module cannot handle the entire process. One that adopted as a standard is
an open system interconnection (OSI) model.

21
OSI NETWORKING MODEL: The open systems interconnection model defines all
the methods and protocols needed to connect one computer to any other over a
network.

The OSI model separates the methods and protocols needed for a network
connection in to seven different layers. Each higher layer relies on services provided
by a lower level layer.

The OSI model is sometimes called “the seven layer model”. It was developed by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1983 and is documented as standard
7498.

Layers are:

Application layer
Presentation layer
Session layer
Transport layer
Network layer
Data link layer
Physical layer

PHYSICAL LAYER:

The physical layer defines the properties of the physical medium used to make a
network connection. It includes a network cable that can transmit a stream of bits
between nodes on the physical network. The physical connection can be either point
to point or multipoint, and it can consist of either half duplex (one direction at a
time) or full duplex (both directions simultaneously) transmissions. Moreover, the
bits can be transmitted either in series or in parallel (most network use a serial
stream of bits, but the standard allows for both serial and parallel transmission). The
specification for the physical layer also defines the cable used, the voltages carried
on the cable, the timing of the electrical signals, the distance that can be run, and so
on. For example, a NIC network interface network) is part of the physical layer.

DATA LINK LAYER: the data link layer, layer 2, defines standard that assign
meaning to the bits carried by the physical layer. It establishes a reliable protocol
through the physical layer, so the network layer (layer 3) can transmit its data. The
data link layer typically includes error detection and correction to ensure a reliable
data stream. The data elements carried by the data link layer are called frames.
Examples of frame types include x.25 and 802.x (802.x includes both Ethernet and
Token Ring networks).

22
The data link layer is usually subdivided in to two sub layers, called the Logical link
control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC) sub layers. The LLC sub layer
performs tasks such as call set up and termination and data transfer. The MAC sub
layer handles frame assembly and disassembly, error detection and correction, and
addressing. The two most common MAC protocols are 802.3 Ethernet and 802.5
Token ring .Other MAC protocols include 802.12 100 Base VBG, 802.11 Wireless, and
802.7 Broadband.

Network Layer: The network layer, Layer-3, is where a lot of action goes on for
most networks. The network layer defines how data packets get from one point to
another on network. The Network layer is also known as packet layer, it defines
different packet protocols, such as Internet Protocol (IP) and Internet Protocol
Exchange (IPX). These packet protocols include source and destination routing
information. The routing information in each packet tells the network where to send
the packets to reach its destination and tells the receiving computer from where the
packet originated.

Transport Layer: The Transport Layer, layer-4, manages the flow of information

from one network node to another. It identifies each computer or node on a network
uniquely. It ensures that the packets are decoded in the proper sequence and that
all packets are received. Transport layer protocols include Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX).Each is used in concert with
IP and IPX respectively.

Session layer: The session layer, layer-5, defines the connection from a user to a
network server, or from a peer on a network to another peer. These virtual
connections are referred to as sessions. They include negotiation between the client
and the host, or peer and peer, on matters of flow and control, transaction-
processing, transfer of user information, and authentication to the network.

Presentation Layer: The presentation layer, layer-6, takes the data supplied by

the lower level layer and transform so it can be presented to the system. The
Presentation layer can include data compression and decompression as well as data
encryption and decryption.

Application Layer: The Application layer, layer 7, controls how the operating

system and its application interact with network.
As mentioned earlier, data flows from an application program or the operating
system, and then goes through the protocols and devices that make up the seven
layers of the OSI model one by one until the data arrives at the physical layer and is
transmitted over the network connection. The computer at the receiving end
reverses this process. At each stage of the OSI model, the data is “wrapped” with
new control information related to the work done at the particular layer. This control
information is different for each layer, but it includes headers, trailers pre-ambles,

23
and post-ambles.
Therefore, for example, when the data goes into the networking software and
components making up the OSI model, it starts at the application layer and includes
an application header and application data. Next, at the presentation layer, a
presentation header is wrapped around the data and it is passed to the session
layer, where a session header is wrapped around all the data, and so on, until it
reaches the physical layer. At the receiving computer this process is reversed.

COMMON TERMINOLOGY USED IN INTERNET:

WWW:

World Wide Web (WWW) is a wide area hypermedia information retrieval aiming to
give universal access to a large universe of documents.

HTTP:

Hyper text transmission Protocol (HTTP) is the communication protocol used to

transfer documents from the server to client over the WWW (http:// www).

HTML:

Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a system of marking or tagging the various
parts of web documents to tell the browser software how to display the document
text, link graphics and link media.

ISDN:

Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) is a digital phone connection technology

that provides both voice and data services over the same connection.

ISP:

Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an agency that provides Internet access and other
net related services.

NATIONAL INTERNET BACKBONE (NIB)

Networking is a key component of any Internet Services Provider (ISP) operations.

The networking equipments like access servers, routers and modems are critical to
the successful functioning of ISP.
An ISP node where subscribers enter internet, consists of a set of equipments as
given below.
Access server
Router
Modem bank

24
LAN (Local Area Network) components
Security server
Rack, console & power supply
Network management agent.
Help desk

WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP (WLL) MOBILE

WLL is a communication system that connects customers to the Public Switch

Telephone Network (PSTN) using radio frequency signals as substitutes of
conventional wires for all part of connection between the subscribers and the
telephone exchange. It works on CDMA technique. The local loop is access part of
telecommunication network i.e. the part between PSTN switch and subscribers. WLL
network application involves uses of radio to replace of the wire link between PSTN
switch and subscriber. The radio technology is able to provide same quality of
services as that provided by the wires line. Application of wireless loop technology
has just been started in the worldwide. There is no standard for this so far.
However, a number of national and international air interface standards for digital
cellular mobile telephone system are available.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS:

WLL is based on CDMA technique and is entirely different from GSM. The system for
WLL services can be divided in to following parts:-

BSC (Base Switching Centre):- It provides links between BTS & BSM; it consists of
different processors, in BSNL it is of SUN Polaris of LG Company. In LG 1 BSC can
have 48 BTS? In BSNL we have two types of BSC:-

V-5.2:- This type of BSC cannot switch by itself so it is dependent on local exchange

/ PSTN for switching and keeping records of billing etc. BSNL uses this type of BSC
for rural areas.

CCS-7 / R2:- These types of BSC are totally automatic it doesn’t depend on local
exchange for its functions, it is complete in itself. BSNL uses this type of BSC for
urban areas.

BTS (Base Transreceiver System):- As it is clear from its name it transmits as

well as receive signal, it works as an amplifier (router) to overcome the loss in signal
in transmission.

25
BSM (Base Station Management):- It controls and manages the WLL services. It
can troubleshoot the problem; add new users as well as capable to block service
given to user. It is basically a computer system, which manages the whole process
of WLL service. In BSNL BSM are two UNIX based computer system.

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA):

CONCEPT OF MULTIPLE ACCESSES: - Multiple access system allows a large

number of users to share a common pool of radio telephone circuits, like sharing of
trunked radio facility. Multiple access radio has similarity to the LAN in which the
common channel is available to all users. The circuits are demands assigned i.e.
assigned on demand first-cum-first-served basis. The provision of access to the radio
circuits methods of multiple accesses are:

CDMA: - Where large number of transmission are combined on the same channel at
the same time and separated by the codes.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):- Where individual transmission

separated by each other by the time.

WHAT IS CDMA?

CDMA, a cellular technology originally known as IS-95, competes with GSM

technology for dominance in the cellular world.
There are now different variations, but the original CDMA is known as CdmaOne.

Latest CDMA global subscriber & operators numbers

As of December 2002, there were 120 millions users worldwide, with 55 million of
these in the USA.
See other cellular technology in the world.

We now have CDMA2000 and its variant like 1X EV, 1XEV-DO and MC 3X. The refer
of variant of usage of a 1.25 MHz channel. 3X uses a 5 MHz channel. Wide band
CDMA forms that the basis of UMTS 3G networks, developed originally by
Qualcomm, high capacity and small cell radius, employing spread-spectrum
technology and special coding scheme characterized by CDMA.

The Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA) in 1993 adopted CDMA. May

2001 there were 35 million subscribers on cdmaOne system worldwide. Over 35
countries have either commercial or trial activity ongoing. There were already 43
WLL systems in 22 countries using cdmaOne technology.
Enhancing today’s data capabilities is the 1XRTT CDMA standard this next
evolutionary step for cdmaOne operators will provide data rates up to 300 kbps,
significant capacity increases as well as extended batteries life for handsets.
Worldwide resources are being devoted to roll out third generation CDMA
technology, including multi-carrier (cdmaOne2000 1xMC and HDR in 1.25 MHz

26
bandwidth and 3xMC in 5 MHz bandwidth) and direct spread (WCDMA in 5 MHz
bandwidth).
This first phase of cdmaOne2000 variously called 1XRTT, 3G1X or just plain 1X is
designed to double current voce capacity and support always on data transmission
speed 10 times faster than typically available today, some 153.6 kbps on both the
forward and reverse links.

ADVANTAGES OF WLL:

Country wide induction of WLL underway of areas than are non-feasible for the
normal network
Helping relieves congestion of connections in the normal cable / wire based network
in urban areas
Limited the mobility without any airtime charges
It has improved signal and reducing the interference
Greater capacity than mobile
Provides ease of operation, administration & maintenance at lower cost.
The telecommunication is the biggest factor in influencing the speed of life in the
modern age. Today we can get connection with any corner of world through the
push button of computer; with the small mobile phone we can send not only the
messages but also the secret document. As we know that there is positive view
behind any mention that it should be helpful in the development of society. But
humans have diverted mentality some of them of positive view and some of them of
negative view. Where use any invention for the welfare of society but some uses for
the satisfaction their disturbed mentality and to earn more and more money whether
it may be harmful for the society. They infringe the norms of society and their
behavior is condemned as antisocial, immoral and sinful.

CELLULAR MOBILE SERVICES:

Cellular is one of the fastest growing and most demanding telecommunication

applications. Today, it represents a continuously increasing percentage of all new
telephone subscriptions around the world. Currently there are more than 45 million
subscribers in worldwide and nearly 50% of those subscribers are located in USA. It
is forecasted that cellular system using a digital technology will become the universal
method of telecommunications. By the year 2005, forecasters predict that there will
be more than 100 million cellular subscribers worldwide.

27
11- 3 G MOBILE COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

 Wireless Generations
 What is IMT-2000
 What IMT-2000 offers
 Key features and objectives
 Spectrum for IMT-2000
 Technologies for IMT-2000
 Migration paths
 Future T

WIRELESS GENERATIONS
1 G -analog (cellular revolution) only mobile voice services
2 G - digital (breaking digital barrier) -mostly for voice services & data delivery possible
3 G - Voice & data (breaking data barrier) Mainly for data services where voice services will
also be possible
Beyond 3G Wide band OFDM ?But surely higher data rates

11.1LIMITATIONS OF 2ND GENERATION SYSTEMS

 No Global standards
 No common frequency band
 Low information bit rates
 Low voice quality
 No support of Video
 Various categories of systems to meet specific requirements

28
 11.2THIRD GENERATION (3 G ) STANDARD
 International mobile telecom 2000. imt-2000
 ITU’s vision for third generation mobile system
 a future standard in which a single inexpensive mobile terminal can truly provide
communications any time and any where
 Provisioning of these services over wide range of user densities and coverage areas.(in-
building , urban , sub-urban, global)
 Efficient use of radio spectrum consistent with providing service at acceptable costly.
 IMT-2000 shall cover application areas presently provided by seperately systems i.e
cellular, cordless and paging etc.
 A high degree of commonality of design worldwide.
 A modular structure which will allow the system to grow in size and complexity.
 Single unified standard (data & multimedia services)
 Anywhere, anytime communication
 Across networks, across technologies, seamless operation using a small pocket terminal
worldwide.
 High speed access 144kb/s, 384 kb/s & 2mb/s fast wireless access to internet
 Full motion videophone
 Terrestrial & satellite components
 Enhanced voice quality, ubiquitous coverage and enable operators to provide service at
reasonable cost
 Increased network efficiency and capacity
 New voice and data services and capabilities
 An orderly evolution path from 2G to 3G systems to protect investments.

11.2.1IMT TECHNOLOGIES

ITU has finally narrowed down technology options to the following five:
1. IMT -DS (Direct Spread) : W-CDMA UTRA FDD
2. IMT -MC (Multi Carrier) : CDMA 2000
3. IMT-TC ( Time Code) : TD -SCDMA UTRA TDD
4. IMT -SC ( Single Carrier ) : UWC - 136
5. IMT-FT (Frequency Time) : DECT

IMT-2000 TERRESTRIAL
RADIO INTERFACES

IMT-DS IMT-MC IMT-TC IMT-SC IMT-FT

29

WCDMA CDMA2000 CDMA-TDD UWC-136 FDMA/TDMA

1X/3X DECT
CDMA TDMA FDMA
11.2.2IMT-2000 HARMONIZATION IS ON-GOING

IMT standards development involves extensive collaboration between many different

organizations
 Today’s operators need seamless 2G 3G
 Many Focus groups have been established by industry
 2 G operators GSM ; CDG ,UWCC, DECT forum
 3 G Groups UMTS Forum , OHG
 Focus group for IP-based 3G architecture (3G. IP)
 SDOs created 3G PP (Partnership Projects)SDO Standards Development
Organizations

11.3MIGRATION PATH
 While a multiplicity of 2G standards have been developed and deployed, the ITU wanted
to avoid a similar situation to develop for 3G.
 Hence, the ITU Radio communication Sector (ITU-R) has elaborated on a framework for
a global set of 3G standards, which will facilitate global roaming by operating in a
common core spectrum and providing migration path from all the major existing 2G
technologies. 
 The major 2G Radio access networks are based on either CDMA One or GSM
technologies and different migration path is proposed for each of these technologies.

IMT-2000
CPABLE SYSTEMS

GSM GPRS EDGE

PDC
W CDMA

CdmaOne Cdma 2000

TDMA TDMA/ TDMA/

IS-136 GPRS EDGE

TODAY 2G 2000 EVOLVED 2G 3G

19.2 Kbps 64-115 Kbps 115-384 Kbps 0.384-2 Mbps

30
 Evolution from GSM to 3G

3G

EDGE
GPRS
2.5G

HSCSD

GSM
2G

11.3.1GSM EVOLUTION

2G 2.5G 3G

GSM GPRS EDGE UMTS

GSM GPRS EDGE UMTS

200 KHz carrier 200 KHz carrier 200 KHz carrier 5 MHz carrier
8 full-rate time slots 115 Kbps peak data rates Data rates up to 384 Kbps 2 Mbps peak data rates
16 half-rate time slots 8-PSK modulation New IMT-2000 2 GHz spectrum
Higher symbol rate

HSCSD

HSCSD
Circuit-switched data
64 Kbps peak data rates

11.4EDGE (ENHANCED DATA FOR GSM EVOLUTION)

 Next step towards 3G for GSM/GPRS Networks
 Increased data rated up to 384 Kbps by bundling up to 8 channels of 48 Kbps/channel
 GPRS is based on modulation technique known as GMSK
 EDGE is based on a new modulation scheme that allows a much higher bit rate across the
air-interface called 8PSK modulation.

31
 Evolution To W-CDMA
New
Terminal

New cell sites New

(in some cases) W-CDMA
BTS
BTS
BTS
Equipment
& Software
01010
New Software
New
Terminal New Software
BSC Upgrade 0101 New
SGSN
0
Equipment
3G
BSC
BSC SGSN
Software
Upgrade
01010
W-CDMA
BSC
GPRS
Backbone

MSC New 0101 New

0 3G
Software GGSN modified
router GGSN
Modem
Pool

IP
PSTN Backbone

WWW VPN
Enterprise Network

11.4.1GSM TO UMTS
11.4.2GSM TO GPRS TO EDGE TO 3G

 GSM can be upgraded for higher data rate upto 115 Kbps through deploying GPRS
(General Packet Radio Service) network.This requires addition of two core modules
 SGSN (Serving GPRS Service Node)
 GGSN (Gateway GPRS Service Node)
 GSM radio access network is connected to SGSN through suitable interfaces.
 GPRS phase-II will support higher data rates up to 384 Kbps through incorporating
EDGE
 ( Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution).

32
 GSM GSM GSM PSTN,
BTS BSC MSC ISDN

Gb Service
Creation/
Gs Mgmt.

Iubis Iu-r
GPRS
Integrated
GPRS
Integrated
UMTS UMTS PDN,
UMTS
UMTSCore
Core
Core
Core
BTS BSC (e.g. Internet)
Iu Other
UMTS Access Network
PLMN
GSM Elements
UMTS Elements

11.4.3GSM TO 3G

 Further, to support data rates up to 2 Mbps, Third Generation radio access network (3G
RAN)
 W-CDMA is deployed. 3G RAN is connected to GSM MSC for circuit oriented services
and to SGSN for packet oriented services (internet access). Therefore the migration path
can be represented as : 
GSM GPRS W-CDMA.

11.5MIGRATION SUMMARIZED
 In terms of migration of major 2G system to 3G capabilities, there would finally be 3
modes of CDMA-based radio interfaces (MC-CDMA, W-CDMA and CDMA-TDD) and
two `TDMA based radio interfaces (UWC-136 and DECT).
 Considerable work is being carried out in respect of W-CDMA and CDMA 2000
worldwide. All European countries are expected to deploy W-CDMA as they have
GSM based networks. While other countries such as Japan, Korea, USA etc. are likely to
use CDMA-2000 or W-CDMA.

33
11.6FUTURE TRENDS (3 G TO 4G ONWARDS)
New data services, interactive TV and evolving Internet behavior will influence
mobile data usage. Long sessions in always-on mode will force a re-think of radio access
technology to achieve the required but not easy to attain capacity (Gbit/s/km) at low cost.
The ideas presented in this article can increase capacity by a factor of 500 with regard to
expected cellular deployments. Coverage will be based on large umbrella cells (3G, WiMAX)
and numerous Pico cells interconnected to provide the user with seamless high data rate
(several Mbs) sessions. Scalable and progressive deployments are possible while protecting
the operator’s long-term investment. The 4G infrastructure operator will mix several
technologies, each of which has its optimal usage. The connection to one of them will result
in a real-time trade-off which will offer the user the best possible service. Some tools that
genuinely improve the user’s multimedia quality of experience (availability, response time,
definition, etc) are also presented in this article.

11.7 4G MOBILE
4G will deliver low cost multi-megabit/s sessions any time, any place, using any
terminal.

11.7.1 Operational Excellence

Voice was the driver for second generation mobile and has been a considerable
success. Today, video and TV services are driving forward third generation (3G) deployment
and in the future, low cost, high speed data will drive forward the fourth generation (4G) as
short-range communication emerges. Service and application ubiquity, with a high degree of
personalization and synchronization between various user appliances, will be another driver.
At the same time, it is probable that the radio
access network will evolve from a central-ized architecture to a distributed one.

11.7.2 Service Evolution

The evolution from 3G to 4G will be driven by services that offer better quality (e.g.
video and sound) thanks to greater bandwidth, more sophistication in the association of a
large quantity of information, and improved personalization. Convergence with other network
(enterprise,fixed) services will come about through the high session data rate. It will require
an always-on connection and a revenue model based on a fixed monthly fee. The impact on
network capacity is expected to be significant. Machine-to-machine transmission will involve
two basic equipment types: sensors (which measure parameters) and tags (which are
generally read/write equipment). It is expected that users will require high data rates, similar
to those on fixed networks, for data and streaming applications. Mobile terminal usage
(laptops, Personal digital assistants, hand-helds) is expected to grow rapidly as they become
more user friendly. Fluid high quality video and network reactivity are important user
requirements. Key infrastructure design requirements include: fast response, high session
rate, high capacity, low user charges, rapid return on investment for operators, investment
that is in line with the growth in demand, and simple autonomous terminals. The
infrastructure will be much more distributed than in current deployments, facilitating the

34
introduction of a new source of local traffic: machine-to-machine. Figure 1 shows one vision
of how services are likely to evolve; most such visions are similar. Dimensioning targets A
simple calculation illustrates the order of magnitude. The design target in terms of radio
performance is to achieve a scalable capacity from 50 to 500 bit/s/Hz/km (including capacity
2

for indoor use), as shown in Figure 2. As a comparison, the expected best performance of 3G
is around 10 bit/s/Hz/km using High Speed Down link Packet Access (HSDPA), Multiple-
2

Input Multiple-Output (MIMO), etc. No current technology is capable of such performance.

Dimensioning objectives Based on various traffic analyses, the Wireless World Initiative
(WWI) has issued target air interface performance figures. A consensus has been reached
around peak rates of 100 Mbit/s in mobile situations and 1 Gbit/s in nomadic and pedestrian
situations, at least as targets. So far, in a 10 MHz spec-trum, a carrier rate of 20 Mbit/s has
been achieved when the user is moving at high speed, and 40 Mbit/s in nomadic use. These
values will double when MIMO is introduced. Clearly, the bit rate should be associated with
an amount of spectrum. For mobile use, a good target is a network performance of 5 bit/s/Hz,
rising to 8 bit/s/Hz in nomadic use.

Figure 1

Figure 2:Dimensioning examples

35
11.7.3 Multi-Technology Approach

Many technologies are competing on the road to 4G, as can be seen in Figure 3. Three
paths are possible, even if they are more or less specialized. The first is the 3G-centric path,
in which Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) will be progressively pushed to the point
at which terminal manufacturers will give up. When this point is reached, another technology
will be needed to realize the requi-red increases in capacity and data rates. The second path is
the radio LAN one. Wide-spread deployment of WiFi is expected to start in 2005 for PCs,
laptops and PDAs. In enterprises, voice may start to be car-ried by Voice over Wireless LAN
(VoWLAN). However, it is not clear what the next successful technology will be. Reaching a
consensus on a 200 Mbit/s (and more) technology will be a lengthy task, with too many
proprietary solutions on offer. A third path is IEEE 802.16e and 802.20, which are simpler
than 3G for the equivalent performance. A core network evolution towards a broadband Next
Generation Network (NGN) will facilitate the introduction of new access network
technologies through standard access gateways, based on ETSI-TISPAN, ITU-T, 3GPP,
China Communication Standards Association (CCSA) and other standards. How can an
operator provide a large number of users with high session data rates using its existing
infrastructure? At least two technologies are needed. The first (called “parent coverage”) is
dedicated to large coverage and real-time services. Legacy technologies, such as 2G/3G and
their evolutions will be complemented by WiFi and WiMAX. A second set of technologies is
needed to increase capacity, and can be designed without any constraints on coverage
continuity. This is known as picocell coverage. Only the use of both technologies can achieve
both targets (Figure 4). Handover between parent coverage and pico cell coverage is different
from a classical roaming process, but similar to classical handover. Parent coverage can also
be used as a back-up when service delivery in the pico cell becomes too difficult.

36
11.8 Key 4G Technologies
Some of the key technologies required for 4G are briefly described below:

11.8.1OFDMA

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) not only provides clear advantages for
physical layer performance, but also a framework for improving layer 2 performance by
proposing an additional degree of freedom (Pico cell). A good example of a pico cell is a
WiFi coverage. By extension, a pico cell has a radius around 50 m and the associated base
station is similar to a WiFi access point. It can be deployed indoors or outdoors.

37
 Figure 4:Coverage performance trends

Using ODFM, it is possible to exploit the time domain, the space domain, the
frequency domain and even the code domain to optimize radio channel usage. It ensures very
robust transmission in multi-path environments with reduced receiver com-plexity. As shown
in Figure 5, the signal is split into orthogonal sub carriers, on each of which the signal is
“narrow band” (a few kHz) and therefore immune to multi-path effects, provided a guard
interval is inserted between each OFDM symbol. OFDM also provides a frequency diversity
gain, improving the physical layer performance. It is also compatible with other enhancement
technologies, such as smart antennas and MIMO. OFDM modulation can also be employed
as a multiple access technology (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access; OFDMA).
In this case, each OFDM symbol can transmit information to/from several users using a
different set of subcarriers (subchannels). This not only provides additional flexibility for
resource allocation (increasing the capacity), but also enables cross-layer optimization of
radio link usage.

11.8.2Software Defined Radio

Software Defined Radio (SDR) benefits from today’s high processing power to
develop multi-band, multi-standard base stations and terminals. Although in future the
terminals will adapt the air interface to the available radio access technology, at present this is
done by the infra-structure. Several infrastructure gains are expected from SDR. For example,
to increase network capacity at a specific time (e.g. during
a sports event), an operator will reconfigure its net-work adding several modems at a given
Base Transceiver Station (BTS). SDR makes this reconfiguration easy. In the context of 4G
systems, SDR will become an enabler for the aggregation of multi-standard pico/micro cells.

38
For a manufacturer, this can be a powerful aid to providing multi-standard, multi-band
equipment with reduced development effort and costs through simultaneous multi-channel
processing.
11.8.3Multiple-Input Multiple-Output

MIMO uses signal multiplexing between multiple transmitting antennas (space

multiplex) and time or frequency. It is well suited to OFDM, as it is possible to process
independent time symbols as soon as the OFDM waveform is correctly designed for the
channel. This aspect of OFDM greatly simplifies processing. The signal transmitted by m
antennas is received by n antennas. Processing of the received signals may deliver several
performance improvements: range, quality of received signal and spectrum efficiency. In
principle, MIMO is more efficient when many multiple path signals are received. The
performance in cellular deployments is still subject to research and simulations. However, it
is generally admitted that the gain in spectrum efficiency is directly related to the minimum
number of antennas in the link.

11.8.4Software Defined Radio

Software Defined Radio (SDR) benefits from today’s high processing power to
develop multi-band, multi-standard base stations and terminals. Although in future the
terminals will adapt the air interface to the available radio access technology, at present this is
done by the infra-structure. Several infrastructure gains are expected from SDR. For example,
to increase network capacity at a specific time (e.g. during
a sports event), an operator will reconfigure its net-work adding several modems at a given
Base Transceiver Station (BTS). SDR makes this reconfiguration easy. In the context of 4G
systems, SDR will become an enabler for the aggregation of multi-standard pico/micro cells.
For a manufacturer, this can be a powerful aid to providing multi-standard, multi-band
equipment with reduced development effort and costs through simultaneous multi-channel
processing.

11.8.5Multiple-Input Multiple-Output

MIMO uses signal multiplexing between multiple transmitting antennas (space

multiplex) and time or frequency. It is well suited to OFDM, as it is possible to process
independent time symbols as soon as the OFDM waveform is correctly designed for the
channel. This aspect of OFDM greatly simplifies processing. The signal transmitted by m
antennas is received by n antennas. Processing of the received signals may deliver several
performance improvements: range, quality of received signal and spectrum efficiency. In
principle, MIMO is more efficient when many multiple path signals are received. The
performance in cellular deployments is still subject to research and simulations . However, it
is generally admitted that the gain in spectrum efficiency is directly related to the minimum
number of antennas in the link.

11.8.6Interlayer Optimization

The most obvious interaction is the one between MIMO and the MAC layer. Other
interactions have been identified

39
11.8.7Handover and Mobility

Handover technologies based on mobile IP technology have been considered for data
and voice. Mobile IP techniques are slow but can be accelerated with classical methods
(hierarchical, fast mobile IP). These methods are applicable to data and probably also voice.
In single-frequency networks, it is necessary to reconsider the handover methods. Several
techniques can be used when the carrier to interference ratio is negative (e.g. VSF-OFDM, bit
repetition), but the drawback of these techniques is capacity. In OFDM, the same alternative
exists as in CDMA, which is to use macro-diversity. In the case of OFDM, MIMO allows
macro-diversity processing with performance gains. However, the implementation of macro-
diversity implies that MIMO processing is centralized and transmissions are synchronous.
This is not as complex as in CDMA, but such a technique should only be used in situations
where spectrum is very scarce.

Figure 5:OFDM principles

11.8.8Caching and Pico Cells

Memory in the network and terminals facilitates service delivery. In cellular systems,
this extends the capabilities of the MAC scheduler, as it facilitates the delivery of real-time
services. Resources can be assigned to data only when the radio conditions are favorable.
This method can double the capacity of a classical cellular system. In Pico cellular coverage,
high data rate (non-real-time) services can be delivered even when reception/transmission is
interrupted for a few seconds. Consequently, the coverage zone within which data can be
received/transmitted can be designed with no constraints other than limiting interference.
Data delivery is preferred in places where the bit rate is a maximum. Between these areas, the
coverage is not used most of the time, creating an apparent discontinuity. In these areas,
content is sent to the terminal cache at the high data rate and read at the service rate.
Coverages are “discontinuous”. The advantage of coverage, especially when designed with
caching technology, is high spectrum efficiency, high scalability (from 50 to 500 bit/s/Hz),
high capacity and lower cost. A specific architecture is needed to intro-duce cache memory in
the net-work. An example is shown in Figure 8. At the entrance of the access network, lines

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of cache at the destination of a terminal are built and stored. When a terminal enters an area
in which a transfer is possible, it simply asks for the line of cache following the last received.
Between the terminal and the cache. A simple, robust and reliable protocol is used between
the terminal and the cache for every service delivered in this type of coverage.

11.8.9Multimedia Service Delivery, Service Adaptation and Robust

Transmission

Audio and video coding are scalable. For instance, a video flow can be split into three
flows which can be transported independently: one base layer (30 kbit/s), which is a robust
flow but of limited quality (e.g. 5 images/s), and two enhancement flows (50 kbs and 200
kbs). The first flow provides availability, the other two quality and definition. In a streaming
situation, the terminal will have three caches. In Pico cellular coverage, the parent coverage
establishes the service dialog and service start-up (with the base layer). As soon as the
terminal enters pico cell coverage, the terminal caches are filled, starting with the base cache.
Video (and audio) transmissions are cur-rently transmitted without error and without packet
loss. However, it is possible to allow error rates of about 10 -5 /10 –6 and a packet loss around
10 –2 /10 -3 . Coded images still contain enough redundancy for error correction. It is possible to

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gain about 10 dB in transmission with a reasonable increase in complexity. Using the
described technologies, multimedia transmission can provide a good quality user experience.

11.8.10 Coverage

Coverage is achieved by adding new technologies (possibly in overlay mode) and

progressively enhancing density. Take a WiMAX deployment, for example: first the parent
coverage is deployed; it is then made denser by adding discontinuous Pico cells, after which
the Pico cell is made denser but still discontinuously. Finally the pico cell cover-age is made
continuous either by using MIMO or by deploying another Pico cell coverage in a different
frequency band .Parent coverage performance may vary from 1 to 20 bit/s/Hz/km?, while
Pico cell technology can achieve from 100 to 500 bit/s/Hz/km?, depending on the complexity
of the terminal hardware and software. These performances only refer to outdoor coverage;
not all the issues associated with indoor coverage have yet been resolved. However, indoor
coverage can be obtained by:
• Direct penetration; this is only possible in low frequency bands (significantly below 1 GHz)
and requires an excess of power, which may raise significant interference issues.
• Indoor short range radio connected to the fixed network.
• Connection via a relay to a Pico cellular access point.

11.8.11 Integration in a Broadband NGN

The focus is now on deploying an architecture realizing convergence between the fixed and
mobile networks (ITU-T Broad-band NGN and ETSI- TISPAN). This generic architecture
integrates all service enablers (e.g. IMS, network selection, middle ware for applications
providers), and offers a unique inter-face to application service providers.

GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM)

The GSM Association is a unique organization, with a truly global reach, offering a
full range of business and technical services to its members. Now as the wireless
family unfolds the association is deriving forward its vision of seamless, limitless,
world of wireless communication.
Throughout the evolution of cellular telecommunications, various systems have been
developed without the benefit of standardized specifications. This presented many
problems directly related to compatibility, especially with the development of digital
radio technology. The GSM standard is intended to address these problems.
Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for
digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group
established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard that
would formulae the specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system
operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many country outside of Europe will join
the GSM partnership.

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Conclusion
The provision of megabit/s data rates to thousands of radio and mobile terminals per square
kilometer presents several challenges. Some key technologies permit the progressive
introduction of such networks without jeopardizing existing investment. Disruptive
technologies are needed to achieve high capacity at low cost, but it can still be done in a
progressive manner. The key enablers are:
• Sufficient spectrum, with associated sharing mechanisms.
• Coverage with two technologies: parent (2G, 3G, WiMAX) for real-time delivery,
and discontinuous Pico cell for high data rate delivery.
• Caching technology in the network and terminals.
• OFDM and MIMO.
• IP mobility.
• Multi-technology distributed architecture.
• Fixed-mobile convergence (for indoor service).
• Network selection mechanisms.
Many other features, such as robust transmission and cross-layer optimization, will
contribute to optimizing the performance, which can reach between 100 and 500 bit/s/Hz/km
The distributed, full IP architecture can be deployed using two main products: base stations
and the associated controllers. Terminal complexity depends on the number of technologies
they can work with. The minimum number of technologies is two: one for the radio coverage
and one for short range use (e.g. PANs). However, the presence of legacy networks will
increase this to six or seven.
At last, I would like to say thanks again all staff of the unit who helped
me through my training period.

THANKS!

Mohammad Shadab
Final Year
Computer Science & Engg.
HIET, Ghaziabad

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