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Reverse logistics and closed-loop supply chain of Waste Electrical and


Electronic Equipment (WEEE)/E-waste: A comprehensive literature review

Article  in  Resources Conservation and Recycling · May 2018


DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.05.026

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation & Recycling


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Reverse logistics and closed-loop supply chain of Waste Electrical and T


Electronic Equipment (WEEE)/E-waste: A comprehensive literature review
⁎ ⁎
Md Tasbirul Islam , Nazmul Huda
School of Engineering, Macquarie University, NSW 2109, Australia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Reverse logistics (RL) and the closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) are integral parts of the holistic waste man-
Reverse logistics (RL) agement process. One of the important end-of-life (EOL) products considered in the RL/CLSC is Waste Electrical
Closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)/E-waste. Numerous research papers were published in the RL and CLSC
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment disciplines focusing WEEE separately. However, there is no single review article found on the product-specific
(WEEE)
issues. To bridge this gap, a total of 157 papers published between 1999 and May 2017 were selected, cate-
E-waste management
Literature review
gorized, analyzed using content analysis method. The method involves four steps: material collection, de-
Sustainability scriptive analysis, category selection and material evaluation. For the systematic literature review, the steps
Circular economy were followed and four main types of research in the field of RL and CLSC of E-waste, namely designing and
planning of reverse distribution, decision making and performance evaluation, conceptual framework, and
qualitative studies were identified and reviewed. Research gaps in literature were diagnosed to suggest future
research opportunities. The review first of its kind that may provide a useful reference for academicians, re-
searchers and industry practitioners for a better understanding of WEEE focused RL/CLSC activities and re-
search.

1. Introduction develop a sustainable reverse supply chain (RSC) besides the conven-
tional forward logistics (FL) system. According to Stevens (1989), a
Due to growing environmental regulations, potential recovery of forward supply chain (FSC) is’ ’a system consisting of material sup-
valuable material resources for the secondary market, and sustainable pliers, production facilities, distribution services, and customers who
business practices, over the last twenty years, the concept of reverse are all linked together via the downstream feed-forward flow of mate-
logistics (RL) has been accepted and widely practiced in manufacturing rials (deliveries) and the upstream feedback flow of information (or-
industries all over the world. The definition of RL according to Stock ders)’’. On the other hand, when the FSC and RSC systems are con-
(1992) refers to “… the term often used for the role of logistics in re- sidered in an integrated manner, the concept of the closed-loop supply
cycling, waste disposal and management of hazardous materials; a chain (CLSC) evolved. It considers efficient product return management
broader perspective includes all issues relating to logistics activities and conducts value recovery activities so that secondary materials can
carried out in source reduction, recycling, substitution, reuse of mate- be used as input for ‘’new’’ customer product. Rather considering legal,
rials and disposal”. This definition links directly RL activities in a waste social responsibilities, or even operational and technical details of the
management scenario that provides a more holistic approach to re- FSC and RSC, the CLSC focuses explicitly on business perspectives of the
source conservation and recycling of end-of-life (EOL) products. As supply chains. According to Guide and Van Wassenhove (2009), ‘’CLSC
waste generation by various industries is increasing at a skyrocketing management is the design, control, and operation of a system to max-
pace, many governments across the globe compel the producer/man- imize value creation over the entire life cycle of a product with dynamic
ufacturer to implement the extended producer responsibility (EPR) recovery of value from different types and volumes of returns over
principle. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation time’’. From the sustainability viewpoint in all three dimensions – so-
and Development (OECD), ‘’EPR is a policy approach under which cial, economic and environmental - in conjunction with the circular
producers are given a significant responsibility – financial and/or economy, RL/CLSC is an emerging area of research that attracts both
physical – for the treatment or disposal of post-consumer products’’ academic and industry practitioners. According to Geissdoerfer et al.
(OECD, 2017). With this instrument, manufacturers now have to (2017), ‘’ A circular economy is a regenerative system in which resource


Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: md-tasbirul.islam@hdr.mq.edu.au (M.T. Islam), nazmul.huda@mq.edu.au (N. Huda).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.05.026
Received 20 November 2017; Received in revised form 21 March 2018; Accepted 24 May 2018
0921-3449/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

Fig. 1. Generic diagram of CLSC including forward and reverse flow, adapted from Chopra and Meindl (2007).

input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimized by In principle, complex processes of RL and CLSC start with the dis-
slowing, closing, and narrowing the material and energy loops. This can posal of EOL electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). However, in
be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, WEEE’s return management, multiple factors along with a higher de-
remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling’’ and sustainability is de- gree of uncertainties such as quality, quantity and time are involved
fined as the balanced integration of economic performance, social in- (Chen and He, 2010). First, the huge amount of generation is coming
clusiveness, and environmental resilience, to the benefit of current and from three distinct sources: households, government and institutions,
future generations. Based on the above definition of RL/CLSC, the and businesses (Li et al., 2006). Households dispose of a range of
generic diagram can be illustrated as in Fig. 1. equipment starting from large household equipment like refrigerators,
Among the various EOL products identified in RL and CLSC re- washing machines to small consumer electronics, mobile phone;
search, E-waste is found as a significant one. The question is how dif- whereas information and communication technology (ICT) equipment
ferent is the RL and CLSC systems from a generic form when WEEE is is largely discarded by organizations. On the other hand, for the same
considered. A lot of previously published papers have not clearly spe- equipment, average lifespan varies significantly. Second, the method of
cified the difference which is a drawback of some of the earlier studies. E-waste collection from the sources varies substantially in terms of
E-waste possesses some special characteristics and features that collection points (e.g. municipality collection points, retailers, product
make its RL and CLSC systems unique from general RL and CLSC sys- manufacturers, EEE repairs, third party recycling service provider
tems. WEEE is one of the fastest-growing streams at present due to a companies etc.) involved in a EOL-WEEE recovery process (Iacovidou
shorter product lifecycle (PLC) and rapidly changing customer attitudes et al., 2017). For instance, households can discard their E-waste in a
towards disposing of them (Islam et al., 2016; Nnorom and Osibanjo, number of ways: 1) at the municipal collection points, 2) leave it to
2008). According to “Global E-waste Monitor Report 2017” published their kerbside, 3) drop it off at special events, 4) return back to re-
by United Nations University (UNU), in the year 2016, 44.7 million tailers/ point of purchase, and 5) return back to manufacturers/re-
tonnes (Mt) of e-waste was generated in the world and only 20% was cyclers appointed by manufacturer. For business and other organiza-
recycled through proper channels (Baldé et al., 2017). This generation tions, leasing became increasingly popular and in this process, leasing
volume is significant compared to other EOL items. For example, every companies are responsible for EOL dispositions which further involve
year, only 8 to 9 million tonnes of end-of-life vehicle (ELV) is generated RL service providers for transportation, local recyclers and small busi-
(Eurostat, 2018) which is 5 times less than the WEEE generation. nesses that deal with reuse of EEE items. Disposing E-waste to perma-
Globally, to tackle the emerging waste stream under comprehensive nent drop-off locations is also practiced by institutions. Third, collected
WEEE management policies, several countries implemented regulations quantities then transported to treatment facilities where WEEE goes
towards minimizing the negative environmental impact and prioritizing through testing, inspection, and sorting and dissembled according to
valuable resource recovery. To bind all the stakeholders legally in specific product categories before transferred for processing. An opti-
managing E-waste, European Union (EU) is at the forefront. On 13th mized network design plays a crucial role in efficient and successful RL
August, 2012, the EU WEEE DIRECTIVE 2012/19/EU came into force processes. For example, in Switzerland, three take-back systems,
by which member countries in the EU are obliged to follow the recovery SWICO, SENS, Swiss Lighting Recycling Foundation (SLRS) together
and recycling target implementing EPR policy. According to the Di- established 6000 collection points by which 95% of the E-waste is
rective, E-waste is divided into ten different categories (until 15 August collected and recycled (SWICO, 2017). Fourth, depending upon the
2018) (Directive, 2012). Table 1 shows WEEE product categories with material content and value proposition (i.e. quality of waste), five dif-
target recovery and recycling rate. ferent disposition alternatives (e.g. reuse, repair, remanufacture and

49
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

recycling) exist which is often problematic selecting the best available


alternative. Top management of computer hardware industries strug-
Prepared for re-use or gles to evaluate the ultimate fate of EOL-computers (Ravi et al., 2005a,
2005b). Large quantities of E-waste is also disposed of in landfills.
Compared to other EOL products, E-waste has a complex material
structure containing both environmentally hazardous substances (i.e.
recycled (%)
Targets from 15 August 2018

mercury, cadmium, lead, chromium, poly/brominated flame re-


tardants, ozone-depleting chemicals such as CFC etc.) and valuable
critical raw materials (CRM), such as copper and gold (Kumar et al.,
80
70

80

80
55
55
2017). Physical and mechanical processing supply secondary materials
Recovered (%)

recovered from WEEE to the EEE and other industries (Işıldar et al.,
2017). Thus, RL and CLSC of E-waste are very unique in terms of as-
sociated collection and EOL options involved. Fig. 2 shows the CLSC
diagram of E-waste.
85
80

85
75
75
-

The number of international peer-reviewed articles published on


RL/CLSC issues focusing on WEEE is increasing considerably. However,
no single review has yet been conducted to summarize all the relevant
Small IT and telecommunication equipment

articles with a product-specific focus. To the best of the authors’


Screens, monitors, equip. with surface

knowledge, this is the first attempt at reviewing RL/CLSC articles fo-


Temperature exchange equipment

cused on WEEE. As the body of literature is growing considerably, this


review aims to provide a complete picture of the field, by categorizing
Categories from 15 August 2018

the content of the literature and reviewing it into four distinct research
types: designing and planning of reverse distribution, decision making
screens > 100 cm2

and performance evaluation, conceptual framework and qualitative


Small equipment
Large equipment

studies. After reviewing the articles, research gaps were identified and a
number of future research directions have been identified so that future
researchers can work in line with the research gaps in the field. The
Lamps

paper is organized as follows: Section 2 discusses the research metho-


dology of the study. Section 3 provides a detailed analysis of the arti-
1
2

4
5
6

cles. Research gaps are analyzed and future research directions are
addressed in Section 4, and Section 5 reaches a conclusion.
WEEE product categories with targets of EU WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU, adapted from Pérez-Belis et al. (2015)

Prepared for re-use or

2. Research methodology

A literature review plays a critical role in scholarship as well as it


recycled (%)

helps to explore and structure thoroughly a particular research area


Targets from 15 August 2015

(Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; Vom Brocke et al., 2009). With a valid


literature review, knowledge on the concerning area can be further
80
55

70

70
55
55
55
55
55
80

advanced by identifying key conceptual contents that works as a path to


new theory development and new scope of investigation (Machi and
Recovered (%)

McEvoy, 2016; Meredith, 1993). For a systematic literature review, this


study implemented four steps processes as prescribed by Mayring
(2001) under the qualitative content analysis method: material collec-
80
75

80

80
75
75
75
75
75
85

tion, descriptive analysis, category selection and finally, material eva-


luation. Fig. 3 shows four steps process model for content analysis
Recycled (%)
Targets until 14 August 2015

method. An extensive description of the method can be found in


Mayring’s recent publication (Mayring, 2014). The application of the
method for reviewing supply chain management literature can be found
75
50

65

65
50
50
50
50
50
75

in papers by Seuring and Gold (2012) and Seuring et al. (2005). Several
Recovered (%)

of the previous review articles (non EOL product focused) in the RL/
CLSC field (e.g. Seuring and Gold (2012), Gold et al. (2010), Govindan
et al. (2015), Agrawal et al. (2015)) have implemented this metho-
dology.
80
70

75

75
70
70
70
70
70
80
Electronic and consumer equipment

Monitoring and control instruments

2.1. Material collection


Toys, leisure and sports equipment
Electrical and electronic tools

In this literature review material collection and unit of analysis is


Small household appliances
Large household appliances
Categories until 14 August 2018

IT and telecommunications

the first step. A single journal article/conference paper/book chapter


Automatic dispensers

was defined as unit of analysis. In this study, a two-phase process was


Lighting equipment

initiated. In the first phase, keywords such as ‘’reverse logistics’’ and


Medical devices

‘’closed-loop supply chain’’ along with ‘’WEEE or E-waste’’ were used in


equipment

title, abstract and keywords to carry article search. This keywords were
used in the Scopus (www.scopus.com), and Web of Science (WoS) da-
tabases with an option that search only the papers those written in
Table 1

English. After analyzing title and abstract, further search of literature


10
1
2

4
5
6
7
8
9

were inductively connected with the categorization of RL/CLSC i.e.

50
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

Fig. 2. Closed-loop supply chain of E-waste.

Fig. 3. Summary of the steps involved in qualitative content analysis citied in Seuring et al. (2005).

designing and planning of reverse distribution, decision making and 2.2. Descriptive analysis
performance evaluation, conceptual framework and qualitative studies
(e.g. survey, interview etc.). In this case, some of the essential key To understand the broad range of concepts, motivation, modeling
words were utilized, for instance, ‘’open-loop network design’’, closed- approach to a specific problem, papers were arranged from more than
loop network design’’, ‘’third-party reverse logistics provider’’, ‘’vehicle sixty journals. Fig. 2 shows the articles published by numerous outlets.
routing’’, ‘’product recovery’’, ‘’organization and business perspective’’, From Fig. 4, it is found that most of the papers were published in re-
product return’’ and ‘’reverse logistics processes’’; along with the nowned journals such as International Journal of Production Research,
mandatory search term ‘’reverse logistics’’, ‘’closed-loop supply chain’’ Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Waste Management, International
and ‘’WEEE/E-waste’’. Besides, those studies that have considered waste Journal of Production Economics and Production and Operations Manage-
battery and printer cartridges were also included in this study. Total ment.
258 papers were retrieved and all collected papers were taken into Annual distribution of the number of papers published from the year
consideration for a fast check of relevancy and final content for the 1999 to 2017 in both RL and CLSC is shown in Fig. 5. Most of the papers
literature review. Articles those found most relevant to the above were selected from recent publications. 20 papers out of 157 papers
mention categorization were considered for this study. Finally, total were published before the year 2006, whereas rest of the articles (135)
157 papers were selected, reviewed and analyzed in detail. Besides, were selected from the year 2006 and afterward. The highest number of
journal articles, in the final collection 26 conference papers and 3 book papers were published in the year 2010. From this trend, it is clear that
chapters are included. The selection of the papers for this state-of-the- the number of published papers is growing considerably in the last few
art review seems sufficient because of concentration (e.g. RL/CLSC of years due to the increasing interest of WEEE centric RL/CLSC analysis.
WEEE) on particular issues.

51
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

Fig. 4. Number of papers published in journals, conferences and book chapters.

2.3. Category selection whereas other categories possess less percentage which depicts the
necessity for future exploration of these areas under the broad RL/CLSC
The main categorization of the content of this study and research of WEEE research field.
framework is presented in the Fig. 6. As mentioned in the material Open-loop network design (OLND), closed-loop network design
collection section, the literature is classified into 4 major research (CLND), third-party reverse logistics provider (3PRLP) selection and
types/categories. These four categories are (1) Designing and planning vehicle routing (VR) related papers fall broadly under the category of
of reverse distribution (DPRD); (2) Decision making and performance DPRD. The highest number of papers (51 papers) were published in the
evaluation; (3) conceptual framework based studies; (4) Qualitative OLND sub-category. Fig. 8 shows the trend of published papers in the
studies. Distribution of research articles for 4 different categories is DPRD research area. The papers in the main field of research were
shown in Fig. 7. DPRD has the highest percentage (55%) of publications further sub-categorized into specific issues (that evolved during

Fig. 5. Annual distribution of the published papers (157 papers: 1999-2017).

52
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

Fig. 6. Categorization and research framework of the studies.

material collection and category selection stages) which are shown in same keywords used to search the articles were utilized in the google
Fig. 9. scholar database, and two researchers found the similar results in
identifying correct articles and coding their content in a spreadsheet
application. With this reliability was established. Through searching
2.4. Material evaluation and cross-checking the publications independently, sufficiency, as well
as the validity of the correct content of the collected paper, was ac-
The last and final stage of the content analysis process is the ma- cepted.
terial evaluation. Rigor in validity is attained by validation test per-
formed by two researchers using the deductive and inductive ap-
proaches simultaneously. Reliability of the content was measured by 3. In-depth analyses of the literature
both intra-rater reliability and inter-rater reliability. After material
collection, all necessary information extracted from the selected articles 3.1. Analyzing papers on DPRD
were input in spreadsheet software conducted by the researchers by
which repetition error by the researchers was minimized. With the The primary concern of DPRD is to design collection and

Fig. 7. Distribution of research articles for different categories.

53
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

Fig. 8. Number of articles published on DPRD.

Fig. 9. Issues of the main research fields of RL/CLSC of WEEE.

transportation network and vehicle route for EOL product acquisition. channel mainly depends on three major issues: 1) actors involved in the
This specific task also signifies the planning, functions and logistics reverse distribution channel, 2) locations and functions carried out in
capability of stakeholders/actors engaged in the networks and how FSC the channel and 3) relation between FSC and RSC. As mentioned ear-
and RSC could be integrated from CLSC perspective. According to lier, a considerable number of papers have been published with this
Fleischmann et al. (1997), the performance of a reverse distribution issue in four major sub-categories which are 1) Open-loop network

54
Table 2
Summary of the WEEE/E-waste OLND studies
Reference Model focus Objective functions Uncertainties/ constraints Utilized modeling approach Solved by Sustainability Country
considered in the model dimension
considered
M.T. Islam, N. Huda

Shokouhyar and Aalirezaei Facility location - - Mathematical modeling GA Social, Economic Iran
(2017) and Environmental
Qiang and Zhou (2016) Network design and optimization Minimum cost of network Quantity of recycled, reused and MILP Simulation - LINGO Economic China
operation disposed WEEE
Yu and Solvang (2016) Designing and planning of a generic Cost and carbon emission Generation of WEEE, price of Stochastic – mixed-integer Sample average Economic and Norway
multi-source, multi-echelon RL recycled products, price of programming (MIP) approximation method environmental
system recycled materials, different
sources of WEEE and the
environmental influence
Ayvaz et al. (2015) Optimum locations for collecting, Profit maximization Return quantity, sorting ratio Stochastic programming Sample average Economic Turkey
sorting and recycling centers (quality), and transportation approximation method
cost
Elbadrawy et al. (2015) Facility location and material flow Total Cost minimization - Mathematical modeling GA Economic Egypt
Kilic et al. (2015) Facility location and material flow Profit maximization with Returned product quantity Stochastic-MILP - Economic and Turkey
minimum pollution environmental
Chong et al. (2014) Facility location design Profit from reselling of - Mathematical modeling - Economic Malaysia
refurbished computers
Ayvaz and Bolat (2014) Whole network design Cost minimization Returned product quantity and Stochastic programming CPLEX Economic Turkey
quality
Liu et al. (2014) Evaluation of enterprise logistics Cost minimization and profit Quality of recycling products, Multi- objective program WITNESS Economic China
capability standard maximization recovery time using LINDO, Theory of
constraints
Shokohyar and Mansour Designing and optimization of Maximum of profit and social WEEE generation rate MIP and simulation Analytic hierarchy process Social, economic Iran

55
(2013) collection center locations and benefits with minimum (AHP) and Arena software and environmental
recycling plants environmental impact
Yu and Solvang (2013) Whole RL network design Minimization of cost and - Bi-objective MIP Economic and Norway
greenhouse gas emission social
Xie et al. (2013) Optimization of reuse RL network - - - ECA Economic China
Achillas et al. (2012) Network design and optimization Cost and emission - Multi-objectives LP - Economic and Greece
with transportation media focus minimization environmental
Dat et al. (2012) Optimal facility locations and Minimizing total processing - A Mathematical Programming CPLEX Economic Taiwan
material flows cost Language (AMPL)
Assavapokee and Development of RL infrastructure - - MIP and simulation Statistical analyses Economic USA
Wongthatsanekorn
(2012)
Piplani and Saraswat Design and optimization of service Minimization of the total cost Number of returned products, MILP CPLEX Economic Singapore
(2012) network percent of faulty products and
warranty fraction
Cao and Zhang (2011) Optimal flow distribution of WEEE Maximization of total profit - Evolutionary algorithm – The Technique for Order of Economic and China
in an RL network (non-dominated sorting Preference by Similarity to Environmental
genetic algorithm – NSGA) Ideal Solution (TOPSIS)
Wang et al. (2011) Facility location Optimum number of - Multi-objective integer Social and China
locations, capacities of programming (IP) Economic
collection spots and disposal
stations at minimum disutility
of consumer.
Bereketli et al. (2011) WEEE treatment strategy - - Multi-attribute group decision Fuzzy linear programming Social and Turkey
making model technique for Economic
multidimensional analysis of
preference (LINMAP)
Gomes et al. (2011) WEEE recovery network Minimize total network cost - MIP and General Algebraic CPLEX Economic Portugal
Modeling System (GAMS)
(continued on next page)
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75
Table 2 (continued)

Reference Model focus Objective functions Uncertainties/ constraints Utilized modeling approach Solved by Sustainability Country
considered in the model dimension
considered
M.T. Islam, N. Huda

Tuzkaya et al. (2011) Methodological development of RL Alternative locations of Variation in expected return Integrated Analytic network GA Economic Turkey
network design centralized return center and volume of WEEE process (ANP) and fuzzy-
cost minimization TOPSIS
Xianfeng et al. (2010) Decision support for RL network - - LP LINGO, Flexsim Economic China
design
Zhi et al. (2010) Remanufacturing-based RL network Optimal location of collection - Mathematical modeling GA Economic China
design centers, disassembly centers,
returning centers and
identification of optimum
shipment path.
Choi and Fthenakis (2010) Operational modeling of - - Mathematical modeling - Economic USA
Photovoltaic (PV) recycling
network
Gamberini et al. (2010) Resource allocation and Necessary working days and - Lifecycle assessment (LCA) SimaPro 6.0 and Simul8 Economic, Italy
environmental impacts of WEEE minimum number of required modeling and simulation environmental and
transportation network vehicle for operation Technical
Achillas et al. (2010) Optimization of collection points Minimization of cost - MILP CPLEX Economic Greece
and recycling facilities
Kawa and Golinska (2010) Recovery network arrangement - Recovery time and return Graph theory and agent - Economic Poland
(RNA) quantity technology
Hanqing and Ru (2009) Recovery station locations for - - Mathematical modeling Economic China
Third-party RL service provider
Deng and Shao (2009) Multi-product flow-based recycling Minimization of total cost - Analytical modeling MATLAB Economic Taiwan
network

56
Guerra et al. (2009) Vehicle analysis – number of Minimization of intervention - Simulation ARENA Economic Italy
vehicles to be allocated time
Grunow and Gobbi (2009) Optimization of locations of - - MILP CPLEX Economic Denmark
collection stations in an RL network
Wang et al. (2008) Optimization of the treatment and Total cost, distances and - Fuzzy multi- objective IP LINGO Economic China
transfer station locations WEEE amount to be
transferred
Shanshan and Kejing Optimization of WEEE recycling Cost minimization - MILP LINGO Economic China
(2008) network
Cagno et al. (2008) Evaluation of the capacity and cost - - Analytical model - Economic Italy
of the existing RL network
Lee and Dong (2008) Location-allocation of product - - Two-stage heuristic- CPLEX Economic Singapore
recovery network deterministic programming
Queiruga et al. (2008) Performance evaluation of the - - MCDM-PROMETHEE - Economic Spain
recycling plant locations
Rousis et al. (2008) Determination of best WEEE - - MCDM-PROMETHEE DECISION LAB software Economic, social Cyprus
management scenario (i.e recovery and environmental
locations, network design)
Srivastava (2008a, 2008b) Cost-efficient location–allocation of - - - - Economic India
value recovery network (i.e.
collection centers and rework
facilities)
Wang and Yang (2007) Designing Location and Maximum utilization of - MILP CPLEX Economic Taiwan
configuration of recycling network resources and maximization
of revenue
Kara et al. (2007) Cost of RL network - - Simulation Arena software Economic Australia
Chang et al. (2006) Location selection in RL network Minimization of the total cost - MIP LINGO Economic China
Ahluwalia and Nema Multi-objective optimization of RL Minimizing environmental - ILP - Economic and India
(2006) network risk and cost environmental
(continued on next page)
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75
M.T. Islam, N. Huda

Table 2 (continued)

Reference Model focus Objective functions Uncertainties/ constraints Utilized modeling approach Solved by Sustainability Country
considered in the model dimension
considered

Franke et al. (2006) Remanufacturing capacities and - Quality, quantity, reliability of ILP LINGO Economic Germany
production programs optimization capacities, processing times,
demand for remanufactured
products
Nagurney and Toyasaki Development of recycling policy - - - FORTRAN based algorithm - USA
(2005) instruments for multi-tiered
recycling network
Shih (2001) Optimization of infrastructure Minimization of total cost Fixed cost and operation cost, MIP - Economic Taiwan
design and reverse network flow and revenue from selling
(Collection and recovery locations, reclaimed material
resource allocations, material
flows)
Fleischmann et al. (2001) Impact of product recovery on RL - - MILP CPLEX Economic The Netherlands
network and facility location
Sodhi and Reimer (2001) Recycling network modeling - - Non-linear mathematical CPLEX and General algebraic Economic USA
programming modeling system (GAMS)

57
Krikke et al. (1999) Product recovery and Minimization of total - MILP - Economic The Netherlands
remanufacturing operational cost
Nagel and Meyer (1999) Aspects of RL, disassembly and - - LCA Computer programs Economic and Germany
recycling in EOL networks (Fortran, C, C++, environmental
Java)
Shokohyar et al. (2013) Optimization model for eco-leasing Optimal number of leasing Repair and replacement services MIP Simulation (Arena software), Economic and Iran
periods, optimal duration of Optimization (Opt Quest environmental
leasing and optimal EOL software)
options
Arabi et al. (2017) Optimization of warranty and out- Cost minimization - The Stackelberg game theory Backward induction method Economic and Iran
of-warranty period for EEE product environmental
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

design (OLND), 2) Closed-loop network design (CLND), 3) Analyzing model that aimed to optimize the RL network structure and minimize
third-party reverse-logistics provider (3PRLP) selection, and 4) Vehicle the total cost including the collection cost, fixed costs, transportation
routing problem (VRP). In the following sub-sections, the papers are cost, daily operation cost, waste disposal cost. Cost minimization was
reviewed in details. achieved by selecting optimum locations for disassembly/reprocessing
plants in the network. Shih (2001) proposed an optimization model for
3.1.1. Open-loop network design (OLND) infrastructure design and reverse network flow for home appliances and
According to Salema et al. (2007), ‘’An RL network establishes a computers in Taiwan. In the model, the authors considered the total
relationship between the market that releases used products and the cost (e.g. transportation cost, operating cost, fixed cost for new facil-
market for “new” products. When these two markets coincide, we talk ities, final disposal cost and landfill cost) minimization in various as-
of a closed-loop network, otherwise of an open loop’’. OLND focuses on pects of the RL network such as collection and recovery locations, re-
the activities and flows of the reverse channel. Collection, inspection, source allocations and material flows within the network. Chong et al.
sorting, disassembly, reprocessing/recycling, and disposal operations (2014) examined an economically self-sustained RL network design
are the major RL activities, with the flow of returned products from one considering collection centers, processing centers, transportation, sec-
place/process to another (Akçalı et al., 2009). The selected papers ondary market, recycle centers and disposal sites that can cover the
under the heading of OLND in this study are divided into 4 major overall expenses of an RL system.
subcategories that are described in this subsection. The detailed sum- Ayvaz and Bolat (2014) presented a two-stage stochastic RLND
mary of the OLND studies is illustrated in Table 2. model making strategic decisions on RP locations. Wang et al. (2011)
developed a multi-echelon RL network for the purpose of collecting and
3.1.1.1. Location-allocation problem. Shokouhyar and Aalirezaei (2017) processing WEEE. The authors tried to identify the best possible loca-
determined the most appropriate locations of collection centers (CCs) tions of CCs and disposal stations. Source-specific circulation of WEEE
and recycling plants (RPs) in a WEEE RL network in Iran using multi- from collection centers to disposal facilities was also identified. Grunow
objective genetic algorithms (GA). Important decisions on the trade-off and Gobbi (2009) developed an MILP model to evaluate the config-
among social, environmental and economic impacts of the network uration of the existing CC’s locations. The study found that collective
design can be made from this study. Ayvaz et al. (2015) developed a schemes (in Danish Producer Responsibility System) are economically
two-stage stochastic programming model that determined optimal beneficial for logistic activities, better-off in developing a competitive
locations for collecting, sorting and recycling centers (RCs). Besides market and cost-efficient in providing services.
finding the locations, it also determined the amount of WEEE (in To achieve better RSC management with flexibility in its design,
weight) to be transported between nodes in a generic RL network. Kilic Wang and Yang (2007) developed an MILP model that integrated fa-
et al. (2015) developed a stochastic mixed-integer linear programming cility location and configuration problems of WEEE recycling. Max-
(MILP) model that determined the optimum locations of storage sites imizing the overall utilization of the returned products and revenue
and recycling facilities that fulfill the minimum recycling rate generation from recycling were the two major objectives in their RL
prescribed by EU WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU (Directive, 2012). modeling. Guerra et al. (2009) developed a modular simulation model
Shokohyar and Mansour (2013) developed a simulation-based op- for the number of vehicles to be assigned in an RL network considering
timization model to determine the optimal locations for CCs and RPs in minimization of the intervention time at the collection centers.
a network. This research considered three dimensions of the sustain- Ahluwalia and Nema (2006) developed an integrated planning and
ability criteria. Considering a social sustainability indicator, this re- design model using integer linear programming (ILP) to minimize the
search considered employment, damage to the worker, local develop- environmental risk as well as cost from a computer-waste management
ment. Total net profit was considered under an economic sustainability system. With the model, they presented a decision support tool that can
indicator, while the environmental impact was quantified using an Eco- be used to select an optimum configuration of waste management fa-
indicator related to WEEE transportation. Gomes et al. (2011) proposed cilities - segregation, storage, treatment/processing, reuse/recycle and
a generic nationwide WEEE recovery network (RN) model to identify disposal, and allocation of waste in the facilities. Zhi et al. (2010) for-
the best location of CCs and sorting centers (SCs) with short-term mulated a two-stage resource-constrained project-scheduling problem
(tactical - less than a year) network planning. Besides economic cost, (RCPSP) based RL network with a remanufacturing focus. Minimizing
environmental costs attributed to CO2 emissions may influence network costs, quantity of WEEE, and return and disassembly centers were the
decisions - locations and mode of transport. Tuzkaya et al. (2011) de- major objects of the modeling. Authors found that RCPSP is beneficial
veloped a novel methodology for RL network design (RLND) that uti- for WEEE take-back logistics when locations of the collecting centers
lized integrated multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) and GA and disassembly centers are uncertain.
methodology to investigate two strategic-level (long-term) objectives
such as the best possible locations for CCs and cost minimization of the 3.1.1.2. Product recovery (PR). Qiang and Zhou (2016) developed a
RL network. robust RL network-optimization model considering uncertainty of
Xianfeng et al. (2010) proposed a linear-programming (LP) model recovery on the basis of a risk preference coefficient and a penalty
for the recycling network to identify collection and recovery locations, coefficient. Assavapokee and Wongthatsanekorn (2012) created a
resource allocation, and material flows of the network. This simulation- deterministic strategic infrastructural RLND for the state of Texas in
based work identified that the uncertainties of the recycling network the USA, so that product recovery activities can be supported by the
were time, quantity and quality and recycling levels. Hanqing and Ru network for old TVs, CPUs and CRT monitors. Golinska and Kawa
(2009) analyzed a model that was concerned with a self-sustaining (2011) proposed a recovery network arrangement (RNA) model with a
recovery pattern of a 3PRLP focusing on appropriate recovery locations. focus on recycling. The authors solved problems arising in the typical
Wang et al. (2008) developed a fuzzy multi-objective LP model that dynamic configuration of an RL network - goods flow visualization,
optimizes the locations of transfer stations (TSs) and treatment facilities coordination mechanism with FL, minimization of delivery time, stock
(TFs) considering five objective functions. Achillas et al. (2010) pre- and cost.
sented a decision support tool for policy makers to optimize the existing Kawa and Golinska (2010) proposed a model to restructure the
infrastructure of collection points and recycling facilities in an RL configuration of a recycling RN for waste computers in a dynamic
network in Greece. The authors implemented mixed integer linear supply-chain scenario where recycling enterprises are dependent on
programming as their modeling approach which was later solved by each other. Their model provided potential ways in finding cost-effi-
CPLEX solver. cient supply-chain paths of the whole enterprise network, according to
Chang et al. (2006) developed a mixed-integer programming (MIP) their individual appropriate capacities. The leader company in the

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

supply-chain network can provide supply of recycled materials to its Dat et al. (2012) proposed an RL network-optimization model for
customers quickly with competitive price. Cagno et al. (2008) proposed recycling that aimed to minimize the total processing cost of the net-
an analytical model for RN to evaluate the capacity and cost of the work. They found that, in order to reduce the total cost, the transpor-
existing network of refrigerator recycling with an estimation of future tation cost should be minimized. Achillas et al. (2012) presented a
values. Lee and Dong (2008) developed a network-flow-based de- single-period multi-criteria optimization model for multi-type carriers
terministic programming model for the purpose of designing an end-of- of WEEE to allocate the types of carrier to be used in an RL network.
lease computer products RN that consists of both forward and reverse Total logistics costs, consumption of fossil fuel and production of
logistics flow. emissions due to transportation were estimated by the model. Deng and
Srivastava (2008a, 2008b) designed a multi-period value RN of re- Shao (2009) proposed an analytical recycling network configuration
turned white goods such as refrigerators, washing machines. He found model to find the total minimum cost (transportation cost, operating
that for flexible volume acquisition, remanufacturing is not a viable cost and final disposal cost) in the presence of a recycling capacity
economic proposition for India. Fleischmann et al. (2001) developed a constraint of the network, and sales revenue of reclaimed materials
facility location model for PR and remanufacturing by integrating RN derived from the network. The authors found that WEEE compression at
with the existing RL structure in the Netherlands. Fixed costs, trans- pre-processing sites is an important task for the entire recycling process
portation costs, rate of return, recovery processing technology, com- and provided the essential implication of product design for recycling.
bining FL with reverse transportation, regional legislative requirements
and EOL management were considered in the model. Sodhi and Reimer 3.1.1.4. Secondary market. Rousis et al. (2008) developed a decision-
(2001) developed a non-linear mathematical programming model for making model based on the MCDM method using PROMETHEE to
optimizing recycling operations (i.e. disassembly and material-recovery investigate possible alternative scenarios for WEEE management in
decisions of recyclers and processors) in such a way that the net cost for Cyprus. According to the developed model, partial disassembling of
material removal becomes a minimum, thus economic sustainability of WEEE and forwarding the recyclable material fractions to secondary
WEEE recycling can be achieved. Krikke et al. (1999) established a markets and disposing of the residues to landfills was the best scenario
stochastic dynamic-programming (SDP) model to determine an optimal in the existing setting. Franke et al. (2006) developed a generic mobile-
degree of disassembly with optimal recovery and disposal options, so phone remanufacturing plant’s capacity planning and facility adoption
that the recycling cost of PC monitors can be reduced. planning by using a discrete-event capacity and program planning
Piplani and Saraswat (2012) developed a min-max based robust simulation model. In the model, they considered uncertainties in the
optimization model using MILP to determine the suitability of facility remanufacturing process, such as the quantity and condition of mobile
utilization according to product flow and to address the uncertainties of phones, reliability of capacities, processing times, and demand for
the repair and refurbishing network, namely as number of products remanufactured product.
returned, percent of faulty products and warranty fraction of modules. Nagel and Meyer (1999) proposed a new approach that system-
Xie et al. (2013) proposed a model on an RL reuse network based on atically analyzed and modeled EOL networks, focusing on disassembly
the election-campaign algorithm (ECA). Experience from the domestic and recycling of refrigerators in Germany from ecological and eco-
and overseas research about RL management, the authors provided an nomical points of view. Bereketli et al. (2011) developed a fuzzy linear-
optimized model that focus the minimization of disused electronic programming technique for multi-dimensional analysis of a preference
items at regional level in China. Kara et al. (2007) developed a simu- (LINMAP) model to evaluate and select the best WEEE treatment
lation-based RL network model for collecting EOL white goods from the strategy in an RL network. It was found that reuse and recycling were
Sydney Metropolitan Area in Australia. With the study, it was under- the best strategy in the current management practice in Turkey.
stood how the collection system interacted with the current WEEE Choi and Fthenakis (2010) developed an operational mathematical
management structure. model to assess the feasibility of developing a recycling infrastructure
for thin-film solar photovoltaic (PV) waste. The authors intended to
3.1.1.3. Cost. Shanshan and Kejing (2008) developed an integrated propose a generalized framework to overcome the challenges in PV
optimization model for location of the disassembly and bulk recycling waste recycling experiencing mathematical models proposed for other
facilities in a recycling network. In addition, optimized material flows waste products. Nagurney and Toyasaki (2005) presented a multi-tiered
among different actors in the network were determined, where cost network equilibrium model that focused on a policy instrument for
minimization was considered as the objective function. Yu and Solvang recycling. They found that policy instruments that involve original
(2016) proposed a stochastic optimization model to design and plan an RL equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and integrate a classic supply-chain
system considering economic efficiency and environmental impacts on the network with recycling perform best in terms of efficiency and effec-
system. The model provided policy implications for government authority tiveness, as seen in Japan and in European member states. Liu et al.
in allocating subsidies for companies working with WEEE treatment. (2014) developed an evolutionary RL network model that measured the
Elbadrawy et al. (2015) proposed a mathematical model for an RL enterprise’s logistics capability standard as an effective output of the
recycling network that aimed to minimize the total cost of the network, network. In this study, authors formulated the problem in multiple
consisting of collection cost, installation cost of setting up sorting fa- objective programming using LINDO6.1. The results showed that
cilities, repairing. Besides, the costs, the model also considered the maximum utilization of processing centers in the network had impact
processing capacity of the recycling facilities and the optimal trans- on lower operating cost and maximum profit for recycled products
ported weights of WEEE from collection to recycling facilities. Yu and prepared for secondary market.
Solvang (2013) designed an RL network to treat multi-sourced WEEE
considering environmental (in the form of greenhouse gas emission 3.1.1.5. After-sales service. Due to increasing customer awareness and
from transportation) and economic (cost minimization) dimensions. EPR policy, manufacturers are now responsible for product servicing
They found that, even though reuse, repair, remanufacturing and re- after selling their equipment to ensure better economic and
cycling of WEEE significantly increases the profit of the network, gov- environmental performance. Besides the traditional purchase of EEE,
ernment still needs to provide subsidies and incentives to operators leasing and offering product warranty became popular means of
present in the RL network. Cao and Zhang (2011) proposed an in- minimizing waste generation as well as prolongation of EOL phase of
tegrated method based on multi-objective optimization (NSGA II) and a the EEE (Mont, 2000; Shokohyar et al., 2014).
multi-attribute decision-making model analyzing the optimal flow of Shokohyar et al. (2013) presented an integrated MIP and simula-
WEEE in an RL network considering the total profit and accumulated tion-based optimization model to determine the optimal number of
energy consumption in the network. leasing periods, the optimal duration of leasing period and optimal EOL

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

options for the diverse range of components of returned product con- for spent batteries in the steelmaking industry. They found that the
sidering uncertainties of repair and replacement services performed at performance of recycling can be improved by modifying the recovery
the time of leasing periods. The results of the study provide optimal strategies of a network. Jayaraman et al. (1999) proposed a re-
solutions to EEE leasing companies achieving maximum profit, manufacturing-focused CLSC model that focused on the location of re-
minimum environmental impact and selecting best EOL option. manufacturing/distribution facilities, the trans-shipment, production,
Considering producer and customer’s viewpoint towards after sales and stocking of the optimal quantities of remanufactured products, and
service, Arabi et al. (2017) developed a Stackelberg game theory managerial decisions.
finding optimized periods of warranty (for in-use products) and out-of- Gupta and Evans (2009) developed a multi-product multi-objective
warranty (EOL products) that minimize total cost incurred during the goal-programming (GP) model that analyzed the operational level of a
periods. The authors implemented backward induction method solving CLSC using three different techniques - why–what's stopping analysis,
the problem and results of the study showed that offering warranty fundamental objective hierarchy, and means objective network.
period not only optimizes the cost of the producer and consumer but
also helps to extend the product lifecycle towards achieving environ- 3.1.2.2. Cost. Kannan et al. (2010) developed a mathematical model
mental objectives. using MILP considering a multi-echelon, multi-period, multi-product
CLSC network with a focus on cost reduction, for making decisions in
3.1.2. Closed-loop network design (CLND) the material procurement, distribution, recycling and disposal of waste
Network design with CLSC refers to transforming a supply chain batteries. Fernandes et al. (2010) constructed a CLSC network-
into a closed-loop entity by forming a direct and coordinated re- optimization model of spent lead batteries considering production of
lationship between FL activities (i.e. material processing, manu- the batteries, their distribution to customers, and EOL collection in
facturing, and distribution) and tasks associated with RSC (Akçalı et al., Portugal. The costs included in their modeling were cost of opening
2009). Compared to OLND, only a few studies have been found that warehouses, raw materials acquisition from supplier, EOL product
considered a CLSC network focusing on WEEE; they are discussed in acquisition from customers, and transportation resources. Grant and
this part of the paper. A summary of the CLND studies are presented in Banomyong (2010) investigated product-recovery-management related
the Table 3. activities that affected the strategic design and implementation of a
CLSC for single‐use cameras. They found that OEMs could benefit from
3.1.2.1. Location-allocation problem. Chen et al. (2015) developed a the entire supply chain by standardizing high‐quality raw materials,
CLND in which the delivery routes and quantity of different materials using a modular product structure, maintaining control over cost of the
derived from printer cartridges were considered, for achieving a entire process and avoiding third‐party collectors and processors.
maximum recycling rate and profit. Their model provided near- Chouinard et al. (2008) proposed a stochastic programming model
optimal and time-efficient solutions for optimization of the CLSC to design a CLSC network considering location specific network-design
network. Amin and Zhang (2013) proposed a multi-objective three- decisions such as recovery and demand volumes with respect to capa-
stage CLSC model to evaluate and select three major factors in a city constraints and operating costs. Hammond and Beullens (2007)
network that determine the configuration of the network: suppliers of presented a variational inequality approach to strategic modeling of
used products, remanufacturing subcontractors, and refurbishing sites. oligopolistic CLSC considering legislation. The authors suggested that
Qiang et al. (2013) investigated a CLSC network in the USA, con- reverse-chain activities could be stimulated by legislation when some
sidering competition, distribution-channel investment, and un- minimum recovery levels of all new products were included. On con-
certainties in the recycling network (i.e. yield rate and demand) for trary, when there is interdependence of a number of factors: increase in
printer cartridges. In their model, they considered three decentralized collection targets, landfill costs and manufacturer-pay schemes, legis-
decision makers – raw-material suppliers, manufacturers (they collect lation became difficult to implement.
recycled products directly from the demand market), and retail outlets. According to Mata-Lima et al. (2013) the dimensions of the sus-
Alumur et al. (2012) proposed a multi-period profit maximization CLSC tainability triangle comprise social, economic and environmental as-
model aiming to improve the network configuration and capacities of pects linked with technology. Considering these dimensions, papers on
inspection centers and remanufacturing plants by optimizing locations. both OLND and CLND were analyzed for which dimension they cov-
The model made an impact on reducing transportation costs between ered. Fig. 10 shows the coverage of sustainability dimensions in the
facilities. network-design studies. It was found that the economic dimension was
Amin and Zhang (2012) proposed an MILP model based on re- given the highest priority in designing the networks, whereas social and
turn–recovery pairs and PLC to configure a CLSC network that consisted environmental issues are poorly addressed. Only three studies were
of manufacturer, collection, repair, disassembly, recycling, and disposal found that considered economic, social and environmental dimensions
sites for waste mobile phones in Canada. Krikke (2011) proposed a all together.
CLSC network-configuration model with combined disposition and lo- Another important aspect in network design is the consideration of
cation-transport decisions to assess the impact of photocopier machine uncertainty. Fig. 11 shows the percentage of different uncertainty
recovery and remanufacturing on carbon foot printing. The author parameters considered in the network-design studies. The returned
found that a regional CLSC network could perform efficiently and ef- amount (28%) was found to be one of the most used uncertainty
fectively when recycling is included. parameters in designing networks whereas environmental influence,
Easwaran and Üster (2010) presented a multi-product CLND model source and reliability of capacities were considered relatively less (only
that considered hybrid manufacturing/remanufacturing facilities and 3%).
finite-capacity hybrid distribution/collection centers to serve a set of
retail locations. Chandiran and Surya Prakasa Rao (2008) investigated a 3.1.3. Analyzing third-party reverse-logistics provider (3PRLP) selection
centralized CLSC network-design model that had facility location and The concept of 3PRLP was introduced after the successful experi-
network configuration for distribution and collection of spent batteries. ence from third-party logistics (3 PL) in the forward supply chain
Decentralized network, manufacturer's dilemma in managerial control (Mahmoudzadeh et al., 2013). Krumwiede and Sheu (2002) studied
over the collection, disturbance to existing network, time pressure and flexibility of transportation in RL activities. It showed that 3PRLP plays
integral design of both reverse and forward supply chain flow were a significant role by taking back obsolete items from customers/end-
addressed in the study. users in implementing EPR principles. In this study, out of the 157
Schultmann et al. (2003) developed a hybrid CLSC planning and papers (in the main research areas), only 11 papers focused on the
optimization model that deals with location-specific recycling options 3PRLP problem; they are discussed in this subsection of the paper.

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda

Table 3
Summary of WEEE/E-waste closed-loop network-design studies
Reference Model focus Objective functions Uncertainties/constraints Utilized modeling Solved by Sustainability Country
considered in the model approach dimension considered

Chen et al. (2015) Location allocation and Maximization of recycling rate and - IP GA Economic China
product recycling profits
Amin and Zhang (2013) Network configuration Minimization of costs and defect rates, Supplier selection process Multi-objective MILP GAMS, sensitivity analysis, fuzzy Economic Canada
and maximization of weights, and on- and demand sets theory
time delivery
Qiang et al. (2013) Network design - Demand and prices Mathematical Continuous and convex algorithm Economic USA
modeling
Alumur et al. (2012) Network design Profit maximization - MILP - Economic Germany
Amin and Zhang (2012) Network optimization Profit maximization - MILP GAMS, sensitivity analysis Economic Canada
Krikke (2011) Network optimization - - - Streamline LCA Social and The Netherlands
environmental
Easwaran and Üster Network design Minimization of cost and optimum - MILP CPLEX and Benders' decomposition Economic USA

61
(2010) facility location technique
Kannan et al. (2010) Network design with Minimizing total cost - MILP GA and GAMS Economic India
recycling focus
Fernandes et al. (2010) Network design and - - MILP - Economic Portugal
optimization
Grant and Banomyong Product recovery - - - - Economic UK
(2010) management
Gupta and Evans (2009) Operational design of CLSC Minimization of cost and maximization - Non-preemptive GP LINGO Economic USA
network of profits
Chandiran and Surya Network design - - MILP - Economic India
Prakasa Rao (2008)
Chouinard et al. (2008) Recovery network design Minimizing cost - Stochastic Monte Carlo sampling methods, Economic Canada
programming Sample average approximation
(SAA), CPLEX
Hammond and Beullens Strategic planning of - - Extra-gradient non- MATLAB Economic and social UK
(2007) network LP
Schultmann et al. (2003) Network optimization - - Simulation - Economic Germany
Jayaraman et al. (1999) Remanufacturing-focused Minimizes the total cost - MIP GAMS, sensitivity analysis Economic USA
network design
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

Fig. 10. Sustainability dimensions considered in open-loop and closed-loop network-design studies.

Sabtu et al. (2015) presented a study to find influential attributes for the financial incentive for recycling. Atasu et al. (2013) developed a
selecting and evaluating 3PRLP. They found that the organization role mathematical model to investigate the impact of the collection cost
was the most significant attribute that intensified the third party logistic structure on the optimal reverse-channel choice of manufacturers who
provider’s performance. Xuping et al. (2013) investigated the re- have the ability to shape the sales of retailers, and collection quantity
lationship between production enterprises and 3PRLP. They found that (in the case that manufacturers remanufacture their own products).
3PRLP’s environmental protection ability and effort level towards Wei and Zhao (2013) investigated the decisions of reverse-channel
working with asymmetric information under the constraints determines choice in a fuzzy CLSC environment where a manufacturer, a retailer,

Fig. 11. Uncertainty parameters in RL/CLSC WEEE network designs.

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

and a third party collect used products for profit in three different Gamberini et al. (2010) presented a WEEE transportation-optimi-
collection modes. The authors considered the demand, manufacturing zation network model that considered both technical (in terms of sa-
cost and collecting cost are fuzzy rather than stochastic or determi- turation of vehicle capacity, the utilization of vehicle working times)
nistic. Hong and Yeh (2012) developed a retailer-non retailer collection and environmental performance. Manzini et al., 2011 proposed a model
model for profit maximization. In the retailer-based collection model, a that integrated VR and the allocation of customer demand (according to
manufacturer cooperated with a third-party to collect the used product suppliers) under various modes of transportation. Both cost and en-
from customers, and in a non-retailer case, a third-party company is vironmental effects minimization were considered in the model that
commissioned by the manufacturer for collection activities. The re- supported decision making in transport planning. Gallo et al. (2010)
search found that when the return rate, manufacturer’s profits, and proposed a methodology to analyze the processing time at collection
channel members’ total profit were considered, non-retailer based col- centers to treatment centers combining VR. The research identified
lection performs better than the other. However, if the third-party firm efficiency parameters in waste recovery from the customer at the col-
is a not-for-profit organization working for recycling and disposal, then lection center and reprocessing center, for recycling that quantifies the
retailer-based collection outperforms. current trend of WEEE flows. Guerra et al. (2009) described a logical
Sasikumar and Haq (2011) designed an optimized multi-echelon, model of VRP that analyzed the WEEE distribution flow that consisted
multi-product closed-loop distribution supply chain (CLDSC) network of the number of vehicles allocated within a region in Italy and the
integrating the issue of selecting the best 3PRLP in order to achieve minimum intervention time required at the collection centers. The re-
efficiency in cost and an optimum delivery schedule. Results of the search explored different network configurations and scenarios without
study showed that cost reduction from CLDSC could be achieved by imposing high costs, which was achieved by information on the number
optimizing the cost of the forward-distribution channel. Cheng and Lee of vehicles to be adopted in the network.
(2010) developed a decision-making approach for practitioners of RL in Kim et al. (2009) presented a VR model in order to minimize the
industrial marketing on outsourcing of 3PRL for the thin-film-transistor transport distance from WEEE CCs (of local authorities) and distribu-
liquid-crystal display (TFT-LCD) sector in Taiwan. The authors found tion centers of major manufacturers to four regional recycling centers
that information technology (IT) management is an essential activity in located in Korea. Fernández et al. (2006) presented a recycling-focused
outsourcing (in terms of accommodating return) and this task can be RSC model concerned with the optimum amount of waste mobile
performed better by 3PRLP than the manufacturers of TFT-LCDs. phones to be collected to guarantee the supply of waste for recycling
Kannan (2009) proposed a structured model for evaluating and se- companies. In this VR problem, they considered: 1) the locations of the
lecting the best 3PRLP under a fuzzy environment for the battery in- central and transfer stations, 2) the limited capacity in the VR and 3)
dustry by formulating the problem as MCDM which was solved by the the presence of multiple depots in the network. They found that in long-
AHP and fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP). term planning, if a centralized recycling facility is considered in a
Yuksel (2009) developed a WEEE collection-center location model network it will not be profitable.
for 3PRLP considering three factors - cost, accessibility and environ-
ment using the AHP method. The model evaluated the existing locations 3.2. Analyzing the decision-making and performance-evaluation studies
of the centers in Turkey then compared with the best alternatives.
Xanthopoulos and Iakovou (2009) proposed a methodology that aimed A vast area of research in the RL/CLSC of WEEE focuses on decision
to integrate optimal designing of disassembly processes and aggregate making and performance evaluation of the RL/CLSC processes (see
planning of the recovery processes for WEEE. In the study, a simulation Fig. 1) and networks (including transportation), the economic and en-
was implemented for capturing uncertainties in RL operations. The vironmental performance of organizations and businesses and WEEE
overall objective of the methodology was to recover both ecological and management. Product acquisition, collection, inspection and sorting,
economic value from the recovered WEEE items, and thus reduce the and disposition (i.e. recycling, reuse, repair, remanufacturing and dis-
produced quantities of WEEE. This methodology provided effective posal) are the major RL/CLSC processes (Agrawal et al., 2015). The
decision support to mid-level management involved in resource re- papers that considered the issue are given in detail in following sub-
covery. Xu (2008) introduced a WEEE take-back information platform sections. The papers are summarized in Table 4.
based on the Electronic Product Code (EPC) that allowed involvement
of various agents in the RSC for information sharing and to measure the 3.2.1. RL/CLSC process perspectives
responsibility and efficiency of the 3PRLPs in the take-back system. Tari and Alumur (2014) incepted a multi-period multi-objective
mixed-integer programming decision making model for distributing
3.1.4. Vehicle routing problem (VRP) collected WEEE from collection centers to recycling firms, with same
Based on combinatorial optimization and IP, the vehicle routing amount. The three objectives were considered: cost minimization,
problem (VRP) typically seeks the optimum set of routes in a network equity among different firms, providing steady flow of products to each
for vehicle fleets delivering goods or services to a given set of customers firm. Additional focus were given on collection center location and
at minimum cost (Dantzig and Ramser, 1959). In the conventional FSC, capacities of the collection centers in a given planning horizon. Temur
vast number of papers were published, however, in the RL/CLSC lit- et al. (2014) developed an evaluation criteria to measure performance
erature, this topic should be considered as new. In this subsection the of a RL system, considering social acceptability, environmental risks,
papers are summarized. biodiversity conservation, operation and investment costs, energy and
Mar-Ortiz et al. (2013) designed a Greedy Randomized Adaptive transportation infrastructure, legal/political environment, and growth
Searching Procedure (GRASP) algorithm to determine the collection ca- potentials.
pacity and processing time of a fixed and heterogeneous fleet of vehicles Moussiopoulos et al. (2012) proposed a model for evaluating the
with special features that were generally used in the collection of WEEE justification of the present facility locations with future alternatives for
from customers. Mar-Ortiz et al. (2012) developed an algorithm to opti- WEEE collection in Greece. They also estimated transportation costs by
mize emerging waste-white-goods collection systems with three different considering national and local waste management conditions, practices
manufacturing interfaces: network design, vehicle routing and cellular and possibilities. They found that WEEE management system can only
disassembly. Mar-Ortiz et al. (2011) proposed a facility-location oriented be profitable when the quantity recovered is maximum. Ponce-Cueto
collection vehicle routing model to evaluate the overall performance of et al. (2011) developed a model using AHP to make decision on col-
collection routes and to optimize a recovery network (RN) in Spain. The lection center locations for waste batteries. Calculating the distance
authors redesigned the recovery network and reduced the number of ve- between collection points for the model was solved by Visual Basic
hicles and the depot size required in the collection route. computer programming. Theoretically, with the model maximum

63
Table 4
Summary of decision-making and performance-evaluation studies on RL/CLSC – WEEE/E-waste
Reference Model focus Objective functions/factors Uncertainties/ Utilized modeling approach Solved by Sustainability Country
constraints dimension considered
considered in the
M.T. Islam, N. Huda

model

Tari and Alumur Locations and capacities of collection Total cost minimization, equity - Multi-period multi-objective CPLEX and sensitivity analysis Economic and social Turkey
(2014) centers and distribution among RL firms, MILP
steady flow of WEEE
Temur et al. (2014) RL facility location selection - - TOPSIS, Type-2 fuzzy sets PROMETHEE Economic, social and Turkey
environmental
Moussiopoulos et al. Collection facility locations Transportation cost - MILP - Economic Greece
(2012)
Ponce-Cueto et al. Collection point locations Maximum number of waste - AHP Mathematical program Economic Spain
(2011) battery collection developed in Visual Basic
Machado et al. (2010) Location of the collection center, sorting Cost minimization - Assignment model - Economic Portugal
center and Treatment and recovery
center, and flow of WEEE within the
centers
Tonanont et al. (2008) New methodology development for - - DEA, BSC, AHP - USA
performance measurement
Wadhwa et al. (2009) Selecting disposition alternatives - - MCDM and fuzzy-set theory Fuzzy TOPSIS Economic, social and India
environmental
Zhang et al. (2004) Optimization of RL planning and web- - - Pseudo-disassembly tree and - Environmental USA
based EOL disposition decisions the least-squares fit (LSF)
method
Jayaraman (2006) Decision making in product recovery and - - LP GAMS Economic USA
reuse

64
Ferrer and Ketzenberg Value of information in remanufacturing Lead time and remanufacturing Performance of Markov chain decision process Method of Economic USA
(2004) cost recovery process (stochastic dynamic Gaussian elimination
programming)
Krikke et al. (2003) Optimization of network design with Location allocation and product Rate of return, MILP CPLEX Economic and The Netherlands
repairing focus design recovery feasibility environmental
and
recovery targets
Ravi et al. (2005a, RL implementation Productivity improvement - Interpretive structural Matriced’ Impacts Croise's Economic, social and USA
2005b) modeling (ISM) Multiplication Appliquée a UN environmental
Classement (MICMAC)
Liu et al. (2010) Evaluation of the RL capabilities Flexibility, openness and - Multi-step fuzzy analytical Index set of evaluation - China
extensibility method
Shih et al. (2012) Recycling focused forecasting model Product return - ANP and sensitivity analysis - Economic and social Taiwan
Subramanian et al. Manufacturer’s component commonality Remanufacturing profits - Mathematical modeling - Economic USA
(2013) decision
Nenes and Nikolaidis Remanufacturing-focused product Product return and profitability - Multi-period MILP LINGO Economic Greece
(2012) recovery optimization
Li et al. (2009) Optimum pricing of remanufactured Profit optimization - Two-step stochastic dynamic Analytical solution Economic China
products programming methodology
Galbreth and Remanufacturing-focused multi- Profit maximization - MINLP Mathematica 7.0 Economic USA
Blackburn (2010) commodity network flow model
Keh et al. (2012) Performance evaluation of integrated RL - - Case study - Economic, social and France
network environmental
Maslennikova and Xerox’s performance measurement Product recovery and productivity - Case study - Economic UK
Foley (2000) improvement
Linton and Johnston IT-based RL decision support system - - Algebraic equation Simulation, Sensitivity Economic USA
(2000) analysis
Sharma et al. (2007) RL and asset management decisions Profit maximization - Multi-period MILP Xpress-MP Economic and USA
environmental
(continued on next page)
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75
M.T. Islam, N. Huda

Table 4 (continued)

Reference Model focus Objective functions/factors Uncertainties/ Utilized modeling approach Solved by Sustainability Country
constraints dimension considered
considered in the
model

Potter et al. (2011) Closed-loop distribution supply chain Minimization of cost and - Fuzzy multi-criteria decision- LINGO Economic UK
network design and optimization maximization of return rate making (FMCDM) and MILP
Dhib et al. (2016) Sustainable performance in WEEE Compromise among the actors - - - Economic, social and Tunisia
management environmental
Guide and Pentico Remanufacturing-focused financial- Profit maximization - Closed-loop hierarchical - Economic USA
(2003) incentives based product return planning model
Wee Kwan Tan et al. IT-based off-shore product return - - - - Economic Singapore
(2003) optimization
Guide et al. (2008) Remanufacturing decisions on returned Profit maximization and facility - Analytical modeling - Economic USA
products utilization
Janse et al. (2010) Impact of RL practice in business Flow of returned products and - Diagnostic model - Economic and social The Netherlands
performance time
Mukhopadhyay and Optimization of procurement and Optimal acquisition of returned Quality and demand Two-stage stochastic Economic Republic of

65
Ma (2009) production decisions products and order of new programming South Korea
products in CLSC
Tan and Kumar (2008) Development of decision making model Profit maximization - LP - Economic Singapore
Wee Kwan Tan and Development of decision making model Profit maximization - System dynamic, simulation Vensim Economic Singapore
Kumar (2006)
Ravi et al. (2008) Managerial decision making in RL project - - MCDM ANP and zero one goal India
selection programming (ZOGP)
Mazhar et al. (2007) Lifecycle estimation for product reuse - - Life cycle data analysis, - - Australia
Weibull and artificial neural
networks
Chung et al. (2014) Modular product design for the life cycle - - Architecture and supply chain - Economic and Taiwan
(DFLC) evaluation method (ASCEM), environmental
Modular Design Approach
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75
M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

number of batteries can be collected from the network in Spain. linear programming (MINLP) model considering multi-commodity
Machado et al. (2010) developed an assignment model to evaluate network flow with economies of scale and product obsolescence when
the minimum transportation cost considering distances from sorting off-shore remanufacturing was considered (in case of an electronic
centers to treatment and recovery centers, and flow of WEEE within the manufacturing company).
centers. Result of the study found that utilization of the model effec- Keh et al. (2012) investigated the performance of IBM Montpellier
tively increase the performance of WEEE management than the existing on three main objectives: 1) economic opportunities via reselling and
RL structure in Portugal. Tonanont et al. (2008) developed a mea- reusing of parts and components, 2) dealing the issues of waste man-
surement framework analyzing the performance of reverse channels agement and legislation compliance and 3) meeting social challenge by
considering four perspectives - customer satisfaction, sorting and preserving local jobs. All three dimensions of sustainability were
storing, asset recovery and transportation. They used Balanced Scor- highlighted in the research from large multi-national company’s per-
ecard (BSC), AHP and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). spective under the case of CLSC. Maslennikova and Foley (2000) in-
Wadhwa et al. (2009) developed a group decision support tool by vestigated the performance and productivity of Xerox in three areas -
using MCDM and fuzzy-set theory to rank reprocessing alternatives to environmental performance, customer satisfaction, and improved
design effective and efficient flexible return policy considering cost, company performance. The authors found that by incorporating design-
time, legislative factors, environmental impact, quality and secondary for-the-environment (DfE) principles into company’s strategic en-
market. The authors ranked the alternatives as Reselling > vironmental goal, it reduce resource and energy consumption from
Repairing > Cannibalization > Remanufacturing > Refurbishing. factories as well as boost revenue generation. The principles also pushes
Zhang et al. (2004) developed a conceptual web based information product redesigning that eventually enhanced PR. Linton and Johnston
system that was able to provide decision support for reverse manu- (2000) developed a decision support system (DSS) for Nortel Networks
facturing and product environmental impact assessment; and evaluate in order to improve its remanufacturing operations for circuit assem-
operations for recycling and remanufacturing process. blies. The modeling of the system consisted of algebraic equation and
Jayaraman (2006) presented an analytical approach to production simulation that offered an integration of RL operation with information
planning and control for CLSC, focusing on product recovery and reuse. technology to better plan outbound and inbound product flows.
The model attempts to develop formal systems in an intermediate to Sharma et al. (2007) developed a MILP model from the perspective
long-term planning environment that concerned remanufacturing ag- of an electronic equipment leasing company to assist better leasing,
gregate production planning, inventory control, and other tactical de- logistics and asset management decisions including EOL disposal op-
cision-making. Ferrer and Ketzenberg (2004) developed a SDP using tions. The primary objective of the study was to maximize the dis-
Markov chain decision process to evaluate the value of information counted net profit of the system by gaining periodic revenue from
(remanufacturing cost, process capabilities, facility performance) on leasing assets. Potter et al. (2011) proposed a set of measures for au-
remanufacturing of products such as copier machines and medical diting purposes to provide a clear picture of CLSC performance by in-
equipment. vestigating parameters such as, level of product stocks, effect of in-
Krikke et al. (2003) developed a quantitative decision model using accurate forecasting at organization level and acquisition of high
MILP for a CLSC design problem for refrigerators to identify optimal quantities of products before launching from integrated distribution
locations (centralized vs decentralized) of the repair network, product management of mobile phone. The article also identified links between
design for optimization of environmental impact and total cost asso- both faulty and non-faulty PRs in design, sourcing, manufacturing and
ciated in the repair network. Ravi et al. (2005a, 2005b) proposed a forecasting related to forward supply chain as well as the performance
holistic framework based on ANP approach for selecting alternatives for in the integrated condition. Dhib et al. (2016) presented a compro-
RL operations for EOL computers. In the model, the authors presented mising strategy by using entropic analyze, ambiguity notions and co-
determinants, dimensions, and enablers of the RL with alternatives in a operative theory in order to evaluate the sustainable performance and
hierarchical form. Considering the dimensions, four perspectives were decision-making of WEEE management in Tunisia.
derived by BSC analysis: customer, internal business, innovation and Guide and Pentico (2003) presented a closed-loop hierarchical planning
learning, and finance. model that analyzed financial incentives to control PRs from managerial
perspective. The developed model intended to provide decision support in
3.2.2. Organizational and business perspectives product acquisition, operational planning and control, as well as demand
Liu et al. (2010) developed a WEEE RL performance evaluation management and product pricing for in a remanufacturing of mobile phone.
model based on multi-step fuzzy analytical method to observe the im- Wee Kwan Tan et al. (2003) evaluated the performance of a US-based
pact of flexibility, openness and extensibility on RL capability at orga- computer manufacturing company which had RL operations in the Asia‐-
nization level. Shih et al. (2012) presented a forecasting model that Pacific region. Authors found that repair, refurbishment, recovery and re-
applied ANP process and sensitivity analysis to predict the sales volume turn management were the major operational RL activities of the company
of printers in Taiwan, so that recycling and treatment fees as incentives and the critical implementation of IT based system to oversee off-shore PRs
attained from the government can be adjusted for recycling industries. was the major performance determinant.
The authors found percentage error that evolved using ANP was small Guide et al. (2008) developed an analytical model for disposition
when it was compared with other statistical techniques. Subramanian decision driven PR considering time value of returned product, the
et al. (2013) investigated manufacturer’s component commonality de- condition of the product and the impact of congestion at the printer
cision of remanufacturing in manufacturing and sales of new products remanufacturing facility. They found that high decay rate coupled with
in a CLSC environment. high facility utilization eventually increase the profit of the re-
Nenes and Nikolaidis (2012) developed a multi-period MILP model manufacturer. Janse et al. (2010) developed a diagnostic tool that was
to manage used mobile phones return from the remanufacturing com- theoretically and empirically grounded to assess the practice and po-
pany’s perspective by incorporating multiple suppliers and several tential improvement of RL activities of a consumer electronic company,
quality levels of returned items for environmentally friendly and eco- from business perspective. The authors identified that strategic part-
nomically viable reuse activities in Greece, under CLSC aspect. Li et al. nerships, performance visibility, top management awareness, strategic
(2009) developed a two-step SDP optimization model to access the focus on PRs, reclaiming value from returns, and prompt supply of re-
optimal collection price of used-products considering risk attitude of manufactured products to market were the major areas that a company
remanufacturer, and to estimate optimal selling price for quantity of should concern for performance improvement. Mukhopadhyay and Ma
remanufactured products as profit of a remanufacturing enterprise in (2009) developed a two stage stochastic programming model to de-
China. Galbreth and Blackburn (2010) developed a mixed integer non- termine and evaluate optimal quantity of used products to acquire, and

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

production decisions (i.e. buying new parts from external suppliers) for new discipline that focuses on application of computing technologies
a remanufacturing firm. with a wide range of engineering discipline. It represents a set of
Tan and Kumar (2008) developed a decision making model using LP foundational concepts and techniques that facilitate the industrial in-
for manufacturers of computer to access the viability of RL operation formation integration process capable of integrating complex informa-
under profit maximization condition in Singapore. They found that RL tion structure of an engineering system with emerging enabling tech-
is profitable when return volume of waste computer is high and returns nology such as Business Process Management (BPM), Service-oriented
are reused, repaired instead of disposal. Wee Kwan Tan and Kumar Architecture (SOA) etc. (Da Xu, 2014).
(2006) developed a decision making model using system dynamics and
simulation for manufacturers of computer to maximize profit that can 3.3.2. Remanufacturing-focused
be achieved from RL operations. The authors found part replacements El korchi and Millet (2011) introduced a framework that allowed
from hardware suppliers are more profitable than refurbished computer generation of alternative structures that have less environmental impact
parts. Regardless of return volumes (during processing), viability of the and higher economic benefits in RL, with a remanufacturing focus. The
operations can significantly be affected by transportation delay and authors found that the location of treatment facilities was the key
supplier delay. Ravi et al. (2008) proposed hybrid managerial decision- performance indicator of a remanufacturing system when integrated-
making activity model using ANP and zero one goal programming product forward logistics and reverse-logistics channel-design decisions
(ZOGP) for selecting feasible RL projects for EOL computers according need to be made. Van Wassenhove and Zikopoulos (2010) developed a
to the available resources of a company. conceptual mathematical model to estimate the grading errors occur-
ring because of overestimation of the quality of a returned product that
3.2.3. Product lifecycle perspective affects the optimal procurement decisions of a remanufacturer. Robotis
Mazhar et al. (2007) presented an integrated approach to estimate et al. (2005) studied the characteristics of remanufacturing as a tool to
useful remaining life of electrical and electronic components for their develop a secondary market from a reseller’s perspective by developing
reuse using life cycle data analysis, Weibull and artificial neural net- a conceptual mathematical model. For mobile phones, the authors
works. With the developed approach, effective life cycle time can be found that, based on the technology and competition in a market,
estimated by experimental observation of motor speed, winding tem- adding value by remanufacturing and making the used products more
perature and power of a washing machine’s electric motor. The authors attractive to customers can increase resellers’ profits significantly. This
claimed that the result provided a decision making tool for achieving way resellers could manage their inventory to serve a secondary market
process and equipment down-time in a CLSC environment focusing on and take important procurement decisions.
reuse. Chung et al. (2014) analyzed life-cycle costs (LCCs) and life-cycle
energy consumption (LCEC) using architecture and supply chain eva- 3.3.3. Recycling-focused
luation method to provide the most beneficial modular structure pro- Li et al. (2010) presented a descriptive multi-level management
duct design decisions from lifecycle perspective within CLSC environ- model to establish an RL coordination mechanism among Chinese re-
ment. cycling companies in order to internalize the externalities of recycling,
such as air and land pollution, which were often not taken into con-
3.3. Analyzing conceptual framework studies sideration by the policy makers. With the management model, the role
and responsibilities of the government departments and manufacturers
According to Miles and Huberman (1994), conceptual framework is were highlighted, achieving larger profit from material recovery by
a visual or written product, one that “explains, either graphically or in WEEE recycling. Walther et al. (2008) developed a conceptual mathe-
narrative form, the main things to be studied—the key factors, con- matical model using LP. Furthermore, the concept of a negotiation
cepts, or variables—and the presumed relationships among them”. Due approach was implemented into the programming via Lagrangian re-
to the complexity of EOL product characteristics and the involvement of laxation and sub-gradient optimization. In the model, a coordination
many different actors in RL/CLSC, new research areas were interlinked mechanism was established between one primary recycling company
by researchers from various disciplines. These studies generally try to and a group of other recyclers in a recycling network who must meet
construct and suggest a new modeling approach, solution methodology, the obligations of environmental legislation.
analyzing approach or evaluation methodology based on a specific
problem (Govindan and Soleimani, 2017). For instance, Camgöz-Akdag 3.3.4. Organizational perspective
and Aksoy (2014) proposed a conceptual model for WEEE management Lei and Qu (2011) analyzed obstacles, necessity, risks and func-
considering green-supply-chain management. The findings showed that tional modules of an information-sharing platform in a virtual sym-
limited information from the manufacturing firms, finding available biotic network that allowed WEEE reverse-logistics stakeholders (i.e.
data about the outcomes of the system, and the reluctance of firms to member enterprises) to realize effective communication among the
share information were found to be major difficulties in implementing a members. They found that, if information flow is utilized effectively, an
legislation-driven RL system. Some of the studies that used a conceptual enterprise’s profit, environment benefits and social efficiency could be
framework are described in this section. attained. Atasu and Souza (2013) presented a conceptual deterministic-
monopoly demand-model in order to understand the trade-offs in pro-
3.3.1. RL/CLSC system and/or process focused studies duct recovery that affect a company’s choice (i.e. optimal quality and
Pimentel et al. (2013) proposed a conceptual model for developing pricing choices when compared with the benchmark scenario without
an RL system in Brazil. Funding, system cost and development re- PR). The authors found that, depending on the form of PR, product
quirements for the WEEE recycler’s certification were the major com- quality choice can be better or decline, while product take-back legis-
ponents of the model. From an Asian perspective, Chong et al. (2014) lation can induce an enhancement in quality choice by firms. In addi-
developed a conceptual mathematical model to assess the amount of tion, it was found that EOL product can be collected either by a retailer
profit from reselling refurbished computers and components to cover collection channel or by the original OEMs. Savaskan and Van
the overall expenses of an EOL computer RL system in Malaysia. Shi Wassenhove (2006) developed a model that focused on the interaction
et al. (2012) developed a model based on a framework of industrial of the manufacturer’s choice of collecting small consumer items such as
information integration engineering (IIIE) that focused on application waste single-use cameras and mobile phones, and strategic product
of enterprise systems or e-business systems in the RL process of used pricing decisions when retailing is competitive.
batteries, investigating the information flows that can be implemented At present, electronics manufacturers are attempting to create an
in designing an RL system. The IIIE was developed back in 2008 as a image of corporate citizenship that reflects their effort to deliver

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

environment-friendly products to customers. Guide and Wassenhove VW had a significant contribution to repair service when considering
(2001) developed a conceptual analytical framework to analyze the transportation, labor costs and service times.
profitability of reuse activities and PR management of the firms that
influence the operational requirement of business decisions (i.e. ac- 3.4. Analyzing the qualitative studies
quisition price and the nominal quality of the returned product) in the
product-acquisition process. The authors found that product acquisition Due to a growing environmental concern evolved in customers,
was the control lever of an EOL PR system, and in reuse activities industry practitioners and government agencies in product disposal and
profitability was a real concern for the firm. subsequent operations (i.e. in the RL and CLSC processes), there is a
Geyer and Doctori Blass (2010) developed a conceptual and de- necessity to identify how customers behave to specific actions taken at
scriptive model that summarized the exiting business model of mobile regional level across the globe. Customers play significant role in RL
collection, reuse and recycling in the USA. They found that the in- dispositions (Shumon et al., 2014). The topic regarding the level of
centives given to the manufacturers and refurbishers were not aligned awareness towards WEEE and the behavior to dispose of it appro-
with the environmental-performance-examining reuse case. priately by customers received attention among researchers in shaping
RL/CLSC processes. Overall, in this study qualitative refers to the stu-
3.3.5. Formal and informal sector dies conducted via in-depth interviews and surveys, where the re-
Ghisolfi et al. (2017) developed a model on social inclusion of in- spondents were customers, companies, and other stakeholders/actors
formal waste pickers into the environmental policy in the RSC in Brazil. associated in the WEEE RL/CLSC activities. This specific study type can
The authors found that, for developing such a system, environmental lead to new theory development via practical understanding and
policy should be restructured according to the country-specific WEEE knowledge (Govindan et al., 2015).
management agenda, with a high collection rate of used products, ro- Jafari et al. (2017) the investigated factors affecting a resident’s
bust infrastructure, technology, supply of skilled labor and increase behavior in returning WEEE and participating in RL activities in Iran.
demand for recycled products. Liu et al. (2016) proposed a quality- The authors conducted a questionnaire survey followed by a statistical
based price competition model for PR in a dual-channel environment analysis with logistic regression using Minitab and SPSSS. In the re-
(informal and formal sector recycling). During product acquisition, search, a consumer’s incentive dependency towards WEEE recycling
quality is the single most important factor in determining the acquisi- was characterized, and it was found that household income, household
tion price of returned product for both sectors. In addition, they found size, education and marital status were important factors in planning
that the acquisition price is an important factor in a competitive re- formal RL efforts taken by the government. Besides, government’s
cycling market. When the government subsidy is low, the informal support in incentives and awareness building programs was found to be
sector is at the forefront in collecting WEEE, while the formal sector has crucial for the success of shaping attitudes towards WEEE recycling.
limited penetration in the market for PR. They suggested that the Public perception is an important factor in developing an RL model. For
controlling authority should re-adjust the subsidy level for the informal example, Cao et al. (2016) estimated the generation of WEEE, as well as
sector and that the sector should only be considered for refurbishing public perception and opinion on WEEE management, via material flow
activities. analysis (MFA). In regions where WEEE-related data are incomplete,
conducting a survey was found to be essential to overcome the limita-
3.3.6. Product return tion. The researchers employed a public survey of 1215 respondents to
Srivastava (2008a, 2008b) proposed a model considering the stra- model an RSC for Zhejiang Province in China. They found that in the
tegic, operational and customer-service constraints of product returns province people are more inclined to recycle their WEEE items through
in the Indian context. Zikopoulos and Tagaras (2007) developed a informal WEEE recyclers.
mathematical model considering RSC that consisted of two collection Recycling was previously analyzed from manufacturers’ and sup-
sites and one refurbishing site that confronted a stochastic demand for pliers’ point of view, however Gonul Kochan et al. (2016) reported that
refurbished products in a single-period setting. With the model, the the customer perspective in recycling was analyzed for the first time in
authors investigated the impact of uncertainty in an inventory man- their research that implies a holistic approach to develop a RL model.
agement scenario, when the returned product’s (e.g. computers, prin- To assess recycling behavior in line with the Theory of Reasoned Action
ters and mobile phones) quality affected the system profitability. With a (TRA), the authors surveyed 327 university students. Structural-equa-
conceptual framework based on the Maximum Expected Utility (MEU) tion modeling was utilized for analysis and they found that attitudes
principle, Parlikad and McFarlane (2007) showed that the availability and moral norms act as driving forces in WEEE recycling. Perceived
of product-specific information has a positive impact on PR. The au- convenience was also considered as an important factor that creates
thors also found that Radio-frequency identification (RFID) was an ef- more involvement in the process.
ficient product identification technology that provided efficiency in PR Dixit and Badgaiyan (2016) found that perceived behavioral con-
decisions. trol, subjective norms, moral norms and willingness to sacrifice unused
items act as antecedents to the return behavior of customers returning
3.3.7. Global reverse supply chain and climate change their waste mobile phones. For analysis, the authors constructed a
Developing countries have already received an opportunity to get structural-equation model where the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
carbon credit from developed countries under the Clean Development was implemented. The authors urged that government and non-gov-
Mechanism (CDM). Research conducted by Caiado et al. (2017) found ernment organizations (NGOs) have a great impact in changing the
that WEEE is one of the growing waste streams in developing countries, social views and attitudes of customers, which may have a positive
and with the novel concept of RL carbon credit, developing countries impact on WEEE RL processes. Disposal behavior can positively influ-
could develop WEEE recycling and disposal infrastructure. Xu et al. ence the increased level of return, which can be capitalized on by RL
(2017) designed a conceptual global reverse-supply-chain (GRSC) managers in acquiring more WEEE from customers.
model using MILP for WEEE recovery and recycling under various un- Demajorovic et al. (2016) conducted an exploratory qualitative re-
certainties (transportation costs and currency exchange rates) and search to identify major challenges and barriers to implementing an RL
carbon emission constraints, considering transboundary movement of model for computers and mobile phones in Brazil. The technological
WEEE from Greece to China. Landers et al. (2000) developed a con- gap in recycling industries, continental dimensions (as a developing
ceptual framework of a virtual-warehousing (VW) model for real-time country), taxation challenges and conflicts between waste picker or-
global visibility of logistics assets such as inventory and vehicles. With a ganizations and the industry were found as the major challenges in
case study of a mobile phone company’s effort the authors found that developing a sustainable RL system. Dixit and Vaish (2013) examined

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

the impact of demographic variables, namely age, gender, income and 4. Analysis of research gap and future research directions
place of residence, on post-consumption disposal choices of urban In-
dian consumers for their mobile wastes in identifying the antecedents of Several issues were identified as potential research avenues for the
consumer behavior that act to develop an effective RL system. future. The above description and detailed analysis of the articles cre-
Hanafi et al. (2013) identified three performance indicators of a ated a comprehensive knowledge base on the overall RL/CLSC of WEEE
waste mobile-phone collection pilot project in Indonesia, namely par- sector. After careful consideration, research gaps were identified and
ticipation rate, return rate, and cost. The authors found that, even future research directions are given as below:
though a formal recycling channel was created in the city of Jakarta,
customers still felt reluctant to participate in the program because of • Even though both RL and CLSC research focusing on WEEE is in-
the high presence of informal-sector WEEE recycling. The performance creasing over the years, there is a lack in progress of the CLSC
of the WEEE project in the developing country’s context can be boosted network design. A more integrated approach, considering both the
through increasing publicity and building partnerships among elec- FL and RL of WEEE is required. Although a few studies were con-
tronic retailer, government and telecommunication companies. ducted in the CLSC area, most of them were based on a generic
Agarwal et al. (2012) studied the customer return behavior of WEEE framework, and often the authors of the articles urged for more
items at different financial incentive levels and attempted to in- empirical research based on real-world scenarios.
corporate the latest practices into their research. Initial data collection • Among the main research fields in the studies, the designing and
was done by a sample survey. By developing an optimization model planning of reverse distribution is the most researched topic, as it
using particle-swarm optimization (PSO) algorithms and the simulation contains some of the critical topics such as open-loop and closed-
package ARENA, they identified that product and component reliability loop network design. Future researchers should consider conducting
were critical in developing a customer incentives policy. qualitative research in the field. Qualitative, especially survey-
Based on survey questionnaires for Taiwan's electronics industry based, research provides an in-depth understanding of the practical
Chiou et al. (2012), identified factors of RL implementation - environ- problems that lead to theory development (Govindan et al., 2015).
mental regulations and directives, consumer's environmental aware- In addition, there is a serious lack of specifying the source of WEEE
ness, competition among stakeholders. The factors were ranked using generation, which should be included in designing the RL network.
the FAHP method with a focus on environmental management. Kissling Generally, WEEE generation is characterized by three types of
et al. (2012) illustrated a definition of a typological operating model of sources – households, government organizations and institutions,
reuse focusing on two WEEE items, namely Information and Commu- and the business sector. Source specific WEEE RL network design
nication Technologies (ICT) equipment and whitegoods, considering could provide valuable policy implications for responsible autho-
four dimensions of reuse structure: supply chain, offer, customers and rities managing their RL network with better economic and en-
finance. The authors developed the model to understand the complex vironmental performance. This was also evident from Fig. 11 when
structure and dynamics of the reuse sector in Latin America, Africa, considering source as one of the uncertainties in network designing.
North America and Europe, thus providing a concise description of • In the OLND, recycling is the most important disposition considered
reuse activities and outcomes in the continents. by the articles, however, there is a scope for future researchers to
Lee et al. (2007) investigated the perception gap of RL service consider recycling in CLSC networks (using coordinated approach
quality for the mobile-phone industry in Taiwan using a PZB model, with other firms using secondary raw materials), where economic
which generally identifies the gaps between the service-quality ex- efficiency, environmental cost and environmental impacts need to
pectation of customers and an organization’s performance on service be included in the objective functions of RL modeling. Furthermore,
quality. Accurate pricing, motivation towards high recycling, free-of- there is a need for investigation of other alternatives – reuse and
charge product upgrading within warranty period, convenient location repair in the network. No single research was found that considered
for product return and exchange, free repairing, and finally post-repair recycling, remanufacturing, reuse and repair in an integrated
notice were found to be crucial for a mobile-phone RL service model. manner. On the other hand, MILP was the most utilized modeling
Hung Lau and Wang (2009) investigated whether the Chinese electro- approach, with alternatively stochastic and fuzzy programming
nics industry is performing RL activities according to the current RL approaches. However, in future, when MILP/MIP is being utilized,
theories and models, mainly with the focus of promotion of corporate strategic management, environment legislation, customer service,
image, fulfillment of obligation for environment protection, and im- and asset management can be included as modeling objectives for
provement of customer service. The authors found that low public RL network design. In real-world scenarios, a number of complex
awareness on environmental protection, underdevelopment of re- and uncertain variables may arise in computation. When the
cycling technologies and lack of enforceable regulations were the cri- number of variables and constraints increases in modeling, meta-
tical barriers for RL implementation. heuristic algorithms like GA or heuristic integer programming, for
Queiruga et al. (2008) evaluated the appropriateness of the WEEE instance a scatter search, can be implemented (Amin and Zhang,
recycling sites in Spain using a discrete MCDM method- PROMETHEE 2012). In collaborative planning, application of GP in CLSC network
(Preference Ranking Organization METHod for Enrichment Evalua- modeling could be an interesting research (Gupta and Evans, 2009).
tions). The factors that were considered for selecting plant site locations In addition, for better computational performance in algorithm-
were economic objectives (e.g. land cost, personnel costs, energy price), based research, heuristic, meta-heuristic, approximations and a
Infrastructural objectives (e.g. facility access, agglomeration effects, sampling-based solution approach can be employed for a large
proximity to inhabited areas, absence of other WEEE recycling plants number of scenario-based problems. EOL product management from
and availability of labor) and legal objectives (e.g. availability of a local the RL/CLSC perspective is scarce in the literature. In developing
waste-processing program and environmental grant). Autry et al. models, decomposition and heuristic approaches can be im-
(2001) investigated RL performance and satisfaction from a catalog plemented for this particular field. To improve the reusability and
retailing perspective which were influenced by sales volume, firm size, recyclability of WEEE, the eco-design concept has the potential to
customers’ satisfaction and disposition. The performance had an impact integrate into RL/CLSC network design. Additionally, simulation-
on the sales volume, while industry effects (e.g. market structure) sig- based collection processes in an RL network should be considered
nificantly impacted satisfaction. On the other hand, the location of the for research in the area of DPRD studies.
responsibility for disposition had no significant impact on performance • There is a clear deficit of implementing a multi-level and/or multi-
and satisfaction. objective and/or multi-period modeling approach in RL networks.
Tactical objectives such as return forecasting, product return

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

handling and aggregate production planning; and operational level framework under which several RL processes such as product ac-
objectives, for instance vehicle planning and scheduling, optimal quisition, repair, reuse and remanufacturing need to be performed
disassembly sequences of remanufacturing processes, should be in- by 3PRLP. Furthermore, the impact of legislative initiatives on the
cluded more in modeling open-loop RL networks. Multi-period performance of 3PRLP considering all sustainability dimensions
nondeterministic modeling in WEEE product recovery networks needs further investigation. In addition, the negative impact of
needs further investigation. Likewise, inventory management of 3PRLP inclusion by OEMs and the interaction of small companies in
CLSC networks along with strategic safety stocks of RL considering a sustainable CLSC system should be investigated, rather than only
remanufacturing in particular, is another research direction. Multi- RL operation. The collaboration between small and large companies
objective programming considering risks and resource savings in RL management, in other words outsourcing, should be a future
should be included in RL network modeling. research topic. As limited research was conducted in vehicle
• In terms of uncertainty, the cost of remanufacturing/recycling, the routing, one of the research directions could be to observe the im-
price of remanufactured product, revenue, volume of return pact of disassembly systems in vehicle routing. The environmental
(quantity), time of returns, quality, capacity of facilities (e.g. treat- performance of vehicle routing, for instance reduction of CO2
ment, recycling, remanufacturing), WEEE generation rate (location emission with distances during transportation and collection, was a
specific), the market need/demand for recycled products should be less-researched topic. Classical vehicle routing problems can use
introduced in RL network models. In particular, the product return Tabu search and scatter search with sensitivity analysis for holistic
rate in multi-period CLSC networks with an interaction of demand analysis of a specific problem. Routing design is often concerned
could be an interesting topic of research in future. In addition, the with the length and number of tours, and can be solved by im-
price of remanufactured product based on market demand is an- plementing GRASP and MIP or even a global information system
other research area in WEEE CLSC network design. Considering (GIS) system.
demand as probabilistic function can be included in modeling. • In the category of decision making and performance evaluation, the
Sensitivity analysis can be included in studies that deal with rela- product lifecycle perspective received less attention among the re-
tively low-volume products in terms of return (e.g. products with searchers. RL processes such as disassembly and inspection demand
longer lifecycle). For products with a shorter lifecycle, fuzzy-set environmentally and economically optimum product design, by
theories can be implemented. Uncertainty in the WEEE recycling which both time and cost in the overall RL system could be saved
network such as quantity in conjunction with transportation cost is a and/or minimized. As seen earlier, most of the articles were con-
potential area of research. In addition, during development of RL cerned with the economic aspects of the RL and CLSC of WEEE.
network infrastructure, strategic planning tools, such as balanced However, when considering environmental aspects, there is a need
scorecard, and simulation tools can be implemented when such to consider the use of two specific modeling techniques: LCA and
uncertainties arise. Environmental influence and supplier selection MFA. A limited number of papers considered these approaches, and
are two less considered uncertainty parameters (shown in Fig. 11) in future researchers should consider them. From the circular-economy
network modeling that could be an interesting topic for future re- and efficient-resource-utilization perspectives, which top manage-
search. ment of recycling and remanufacturing firms struggle to consider,
• From Fig. 10, it is clear that sustainability dimensions – social, using these tools (LCA and MFA) could tremendously assist in
economic and environmental - were considered by very few articles minimizing the total cost and maximizing the environmental per-
(only 3 papers), whereas economic issues (e.g. cost, price, revenue formance of the RL and CLSC process. These tools are also able to
etc.) were the most prominent dimensions (considered by 75% of provide valuable information on the available critical raw materials
the papers). In further research, WEEE RL/CLSC network design that can be recovered, and potential mitigation of greenhouse gas/
should introduce all the three dimensions, in particular the social CO2 emission (as a measure of environmental performance) for ef-
impact to understand the overall intrinsic benefits of the network in ficient and effective RL operations. Moreover, the impact of un-
a particular region and/or country. certainty parameters, such as the capacity level in facilities, cost and
• It will be interesting if another new dimension – technology under collection rate, on the lifecycle performance in a CLSC environment
the sustainability context - is considered. This could provide a more could be the most promising research direction for the future.
holistic insight of the RL/CLSC system itself as well as achieving an Another interesting future research topic could be implementing
overall goal of sustainable development. From technical standpoint, game theory to investigate interactions in decision making among
specifically, the impact of RFID and ICT-based network support different players within the RL or CLSC for WEEE.
systems implementing the concept of internet of things (IoT), for • In the conceptual-framework based studies, relatively less attention
inventory management and product-recovery information manage- was given to RL processes - reuse and repair. The impact of these
ment system development, could be a new area of research in this two alternatives on overall RL management organized by manu-
context. This might provide better information flow among all ac- facturers could be interesting future research direction. For the case
tors. In all supply chain network of E-waste management, IoT has a of recycling, there is a need for open-sourced online-based market
crucial role in resource savings at low cost (Nobre and Tavares, information system that can determine the recycling fees of a pro-
2017). As social sustainability saw less research, new parameters duct in an RL system where WEEE would be collected by OEMs or by
under this criteria, such as public health and safety, can be included recycling firms. In addition, research could be considering the im-
in developing the RL network model using a game-theory method pact of regulatory instruments such as EPR, with the interaction of
where the preferences and participation of customers and govern- the formal and informal sectors on WEEE collection and recycling.
ment as actors can be included in models. Another important per- • Disposal rate (frequency), type of WEEE items disposed, average
spective that needs further research is customer participation in lifetime of disposed product, storage time, customer awareness,
determining recycling fees and quantity generation in an RL system, willingness to pay (WTP), top-management attitude (from com-
creating a competitive EEE market. pany’s perspective) are some of the critical issues that need to be
• Further research should be carried out in the area of 3PRLP selection addressed at a regional level to develop sustainable RL/CLSC sys-
and VRP. In the first area, large-scale empirical studies with multi- tems. In such a context, qualitative studies could be a successful
WEEE product scenarios should be initiated. On the other hand, in research methodology which needs further implementation.
3PRLP studies, reverse channel choice by small and large companies • There is a lack of product/case-specific WEEE RL network modeling
according to profits and cost were the highest priority in the past. initiatives among the studies. Future research should consider more
However, there is a lack of study in developing a comprehensive product-oriented studies such as for waste batteries, IT equipment

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M.T. Islam, N. Huda Resources, Conservation & Recycling 137 (2018) 48–75

(e.g. laptop computers, printers, cell phones, telephones, personal University Research Training Program (iMQRTP)” for conducting this
digital assistant products (PDAs), ipads, and tablets), small con- research.
sumer electronics (e.g. portable music-players, toys) and white-
goods. Computer waste recycling, reuse and remanufacturing (in an Appendix A
integrated manner) based RL/CLSC networks should have particular
attention. List of AbbreviationsANPAnalytic network processBSCBalanced
• Future researchers should envision utilizing the concept of circular ScorecardCLSCClosed-loop supply chainCRMCritical raw materials-
economy in developing infrastructure and formulating sustainable CLNDClosed-loop network designCCsCollection centersCLDSCClosed-
RL/CLSC activities at national level. Current body of literature often loop distribution supply chainCDMClean Development Mechanism-
fails to collaborate these issues. As the WEEE generation is growing DPRLDesigning and planning of reverse distributionDEAData
exponentially to almost every country in the world, the integrated Envelopment AnalysisDfEDesign-for-the-environmentDSSDecision sup-
understanding of sustainability, circular economy and CLSC from port systemEOLEnd-of-lifeEPRExtended producer responsibilityE-
supply-chain management perspective is an important research wasteElectronic wasteECAElection campaign algorithmEPCElectronic
avenue to explore. Product CodeFLForward logisticsFSCForward supply chainFAHPFuzzy
• There are also potential ways of improving this review article itself. analytic hierarchy processGAGenetic algorithmGAMSGeneral Algebraic
Taking a higher number of research articles from grey sources, such Modeling SystemGRASPGreedy Randomized Adaptive Searching
as company reports, annual reports, white papers and online sources ProcedureGPGoal-programmingGRSCGlobal reverse supply
could enrich the content. Another improvement could be categor- chainILPInteger linear programmingIPInteger programming-
ization of contents by geographical locations, qualitative vs. quan- ITInformation technologyICTInformation and Communication
titative approaches and different modeling approaches and solution TechnologiesLPLinear programmingLINMAPLinear programming tech-
methodologies. nique for multi-dimensional analysis of preferenceLCALifecycle
assessmentLCCsLifecycle costsLCECLifecycle energy consumption-
5. Conclusion MILPMixed-integer linear programmingMCDMMulti-Criteria Decision
MakingMIPMixed integer programmingMINLPMixed integer non-
This paper presents a comprehensive literature review of recent linear programmingMEUMaximum expected utilityprogramming-
papers published at different scientific journals in RL/CLSC issues that MICMACMatriced’ Impacts Croise's Multiplication Appliquée a UN
considered WEEE or E-waste as an EOL product. A total of 157 papers ClassementNSGANon-dominated Sorting Genetic AlgorithmNL
published in the international peer-reviewed journals, conference pro- PANon-linear programming algorithmOECDOrganisation for Economic
ceedings, and book chapters during the period 1999-2017 are selected, Co-operation and DevelopmentOLNDOpen-loop network designOEMs-
categorized, analyzed and reviewed. After reviewing, several research Original equipment manufacturersPLCProduct lifecyclePSO
gaps were identified with important implications for future research. Particle swarm optimizationRLReverse logisticsRSCReverse
The authors think that this review provides a holistic overview of the supply chainRPRecycling plantRCsRecycling centersRNRecovery
whole system perspective on the research field, and identifying key networkRLNDReverse logistics network designRNARecovery network
future research directions would be useful for researchers. The cate- arrangementRCPSPResource constrained project scheduling
gorizations and citied references may be utilized as a broad frame of problemRFIDRadio-frequency identificationSCsSorting centersSAA-
references to advance concepts and models for the future research. Sample average approximationSDPStochastic dynamic programm
Empirical research focusing on CLSC network design considering ing3PRLPThird-party reverse logistics providerTRATheory of Reasoned
real-world scenarios is a suggested future research opportunity. To ActionTSsTransfer stationsTFsTreatment facilitiesTOPSISThe
understand the dynamics of source specific (i.e. households, organiza- Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal SolutionTFT-
tions and businesses) WEEE generation and its management, qualita- LCDThin-film-transistor liquid- crystal displayVRVehicle routing-
tive, especially survey-based research is recommended. All the dis- VRPVehicle routing problemVWVirtual warehousingWEEEWaste elec-
position alternatives (i.e. recycling, remanufacturing, reuse and repair) trical and electronic equipmentZOGPZero-one goal programming
should be considered in an integrated manner in designing CLSC net-
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