Glazing Design and Selection Guide - Draft

GLAZING DESIGN
and
SELECTION GUIDE
Prepared by:
USAID ECO-III Project Office

AADI Building,
Hauz Khas, New Delhi – 110016
India
Draft document:
September 28, 2007
Design and Specification Tips

for
ECBC Compliant Glazing Systems
Energy Conservation and Commercialization Project - III (ECO-III)
CONTENTS
Contents ............................................................................................................................................................................... 1
1 PREFACE............................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 WHY WE ARE EMPHASIZING ON ENVELOPE .............................................................. 4
1.2 INTENDED AUDIENCE................................................................................................................ 4
1.3 HOW TO USE THIS Glazing Design and Selection Guide.................................................... 4
2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................... 5
3 BASIC ISSUES IN WINDOW SELECTION AND DESIGN ................................................................ 6
3.1 IMPORTANCE OF WINDOWS ........................................................................................................ 6
3.1.1 THE EFFECT OF GLAZING ON LIGHTING ENERGY USE................................ 6
3.2 HUMAN FACTORS ISSUES ............................................................................................................... 6
3.2.1 DAYLIGHT............................................................................................................................... 6
3.2.2 GLARE ....................................................................................................................................... 6
3.2.3 VIEW .......................................................................................................................................... 7
3.2.4 THERMAL COMFORT ......................................................................................................... 7
3.3 TECHNICAL ISSUES............................................................................................................................ 7
3.3.1 ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE............................................................................................. 7
3.3.2 STRUCTURAL ISSUES .......................................................................................................... 8
3.3.3 FIRE PROTECTION.............................................................................................................. 8
3.4 ENERGY-RELATED PROPERTIES OF WINDOWS................................................................. 8
3.4.1 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS AND GLAZING PROPERTIES RELATED
TO RADIANT ENERGY TRANSFER .............................................................................. 9
3.4.2 DETERMINING ENERGY-RELATED PROPERTIES OF WINDOWS.............. 10
4 TYPES OF GLAZING, FRAMES & TECHNIQUES............................................................................. 12
4.1 TECHNOLOGIES TO ACHIEVE ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS.............................. 12
4.2 GLAZING IN FENESTRATION PRODUCTS ........................................................................... 12
4.2.1 Clear Glass ................................................................................................................................ 13
4.2.2 Tinted Glass.............................................................................................................................. 13
4.2.3 Reflective Coatings and Films ............................................................................................... 14
4.2.4 Applied Films ........................................................................................................................... 14
4.2.5 Low-E Coated Glass ............................................................................................................... 15
4.2.6 Low-E coatings in energy efficient windows ...................................................................... 16
Technical Resources Series

4.2.7 Soft Coat – applied by sputtering.......................................................................................... 17
4.2.8 Hard Coat – applied by pyrolytic deposition ...................................................................... 18
4.2.9 Gas filled units in energy efficient windows........................................................................ 19
4.2.10 General Factors for Gas filling area...................................................................................... 19
4.3 NEXT GENERATION TECHNOLOGY...................................................................................... 21
4.3.1 Electrochromics....................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.2 Hydrides .................................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.3 Liquid Crystals.......................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.4 Suspended Particle Displays .................................................................................................. 21
4.3.5 Photochromics ......................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.6 Thermotropics.......................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.7 Vacuum IG units ..................................................................................................................... 22
4.3.8 Aerogel ...................................................................................................................................... 22
4.4 EDGE SEAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY .......................................................................................... 22
4.5 FENESTRATION FRAME IMPROVEMENTS IN ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS 23
4.5.1 Aluminium ................................................................................................................................ 23
4.5.2 STEEL....................................................................................................................................... 23
4.5.3 Wood ......................................................................................................................................... 24
4.5.4 Vinyl Frames............................................................................................................................. 24
4.5.5 Fiberglass and Engineered Thermoplastics ......................................................................... 24
4.5.6 Wood Composites ................................................................................................................... 24
4.5.7 Hybrid and Composite Frames ............................................................................................. 24
4.5.8 Air leakage improvements in energy efficient windows .................................................... 25
4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 25
5 A METHOD OF DECISION MAKING ............................................................................................... 27
5.1 DECISIONS WITHIN THE DESIGN PROCESS ....................................................................... 27
5.2 CRITERIA USED IN DECISION MAKING................................................................................ 28
5.2.1 EFFECT OF ORIENTATION ON PEAK DEMAND................................................ 29
5.3 IMPACT OF CLIMATE ON WINDOW DESIGN DECISIONS ..................................... 30
5.3.1 WINDOW DESIGN FOR OFFICE IN A HOT CLIMATE ....................................... 30
6 FENESTRATIONS PROVISIONS IN ECBC –QUICK GUIDE FOR ARCHITECTS,
SPECIFIERS & MANUFACTURER .......................................................................................................................... 33
6.1 OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................... 33
6.2 WHICH BUILDINGS ARE INCLUDED?..................................................................................... 33
6.3 WHAT REQUIREMENTS ARE INCLUDED? ............................................................................ 33
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6.4 WHAT PRODUCTS ARE INCLUDED? ........................................................................................ 34
6.5 HOW ARE RATINGS PRESENTED IN THE CODE? ............................................................. 34
6.6 HOW ARE PRODUCT RATINGS DETERMINED? ................................................................. 34
6.7 HOW ARE RATINGS SPECIFIED? ............................................................................................... 34
6.8 ARE EXCEPTIONS ALLOWED? ................................................................................................... 35
6.9 WHY SHOULD A MANUFACTURER BECOME INFORMED?........................................... 35
6.10 HOW DOES WHOLE BUILDING PERFORMANCE METHOD APPLY? ........................ 35
6.11 WHAT ABOUT TRADEOFFS? ........................................................................................................ 35
7 APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................................... 37
7.1 ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS: INDIA: 2007
FENESTRATION COMPLIANCE PORTION ............................................................................ 37
(Subtitles’ numbers are similar as in ECBC).................................................................................................. 37
3.1.4.1 Building Envelope................................................................................................................................. 37
3.4 Compliance Documents.................................................................................................................. 37
3.4.1 General............................................................................................................................................ 37
4.2 Mandatory Requirements................................................................................................................ 37
4.2.1 Fenestration ................................................................................................................................... 37
4.2.1.1 U-factors...................................................................................................................................... 37
4.2.1.2 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) ..................................................................................... 38
4.2.1.3 Air Leakage ................................................................................................................................. 38
4.3.3 Vertical Fenestration..................................................................................................................... 38
4.3.3.1 Minimum Visible Transmission (VLT) of Glazing for Vertical Fenestration.................. 39
4.3.4 Skylights .......................................................................................................................................... 39
12.1 Procedure for Determining Fenestration Product U-Factor and Solar ................................ 42
12.2.2 Unrated Sloped Glazing and Skylights .................................................................................... 43
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1 PREFACE
1.1 WHY WE ARE EMPHASIZING ON ENVELOPE

Building design is a complex process. Designers face immense pressure to reduce the Building’s Heating
Ventilation & Air - Conditioning load. Therefore glazing selection becomes a critical element but
unfortunately very little material available in India. So we are preparing this document for the designers to
help them to design energy efficient buildings.
1.2 INTENDED AUDIENCE

The Glazing Design and Selection Guide is primarily for Building Envelope designers, but it will also be a
useful reference for HVAC consultants, Civil Engineers, contractors, and others in the building industry who
wants to understand some of the technical issues regarding high-performance envelope design from an
integrated buildings systems perspective – Architects, Builders, Developers, HVAC consultants, Civil
Engineers and Contractors etc.
1.3 HOW TO USE THIS Glazing Design and Selection Guide

The Guide is not proposed to be "the last word" on the technical aspects neither of glazing design nor, for
that matter, a design guide proper. Through out the Guide, it helps audience to get a reasonable idea of all
facets related to windows. It is intended to be used more as something one would read in sequence from
beginning to end to know the potential of windows or glazing in Energy Conservation.
There are four chapters in this guide putting their commitment to guide people to follow energy conservation
measures in building design process. Some of the chapters i.e. Basic Issues in Windows Selection and
Design with thermal and optical properties of windows, impact of glazing selection on day lightings and other technical issues
gives a complete sense of energy use in building in pure technical terms. Window Glazing & Frame
provides you an edge to select the energy efficient windows and glazing systems. Last but not the least The
Decision Making Process for Window Design provide substantial information about selection or decision
making process differentiated by climatic challenges available in Indian context.
The nitty-gritty engineering aspects are added in each and every chapter of the guide. This is where the
audience will find virtually all the practical suggestions for possible incorporation in an energy efficient design.
Content has been added in starting to provide better understanding of the structure of energy efficient
approach of envelope design.
The hard work and leadership that ECO-III team put and produced a solid foundation on which to build this
Glazing Design and Selection Guide to guide the audience to go after energy saving path.
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2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The ‘Glazing Design and Selection Guide’ is developed by USAID ECO-III Project to accelerate the
awareness on High Performance Windows among the professional of building construction industry. A
considerable emphasis is placed on different glazing types and its selection. The material is excerpted from
“Windows Systems for High Performance Buildings” publisher: w.w. Norton & Company NY, 2004. Individuals like
Bipin Shah of Winbuild, Inc. and Anand Jain of Saint-Gobain have also made substantial contributions to the
document.
USAID’s ECO-III Project Office

AADI Building
Hauz Khas, New Delhi – 110016
India
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3 BASIC ISSUES IN WINDOW
SELECTION AND DESIGN
3.1 IMPORTANCE OF WINDOWS

Windows are one of the most significant elements in the design of any building.
Whether present as relatively small punched openings in the facade or as a
completely glazed curtain wall, windows are usually a dominant feature of a
building's appearance. Although appearance is important in architectural design, the
traditional purpose of windows was to provide light, view, and fresh air for the
occupants. There is a growing recognition, however, that while light and air can be
provided by other means, the benefits of windows are highly valued and contribute
to the satisfaction, health, and productivity of building occupants.
3.1.1 THE EFFECT OF GLAZING ON LIGHTING ENERGY USE

Typically, the natural light is a desirable amenity but the electric lights
continue to burn, resulting in no energy savings (Figure). Daylight is
brought into the building by side lighting with windows or top lighting
with skylights, roof monitors, or clerestory windows.
In order to reduce lighting energy use, the lighting system must be
designed to respond to daylight from windows and skylights. This is
referred to as an integrated daylight/ electric light system. For higher-end
applications, there are commercially available systems that enable a
person to dim the electric lights with a remote controller. Portions of the electric lighting are switched off or
dimmed automatically in response to a photo sensor in the same way that a thermostat regulates temperature.
3.2 HUMAN FACTORS ISSUES

3.2.1 DAYLIGHT
Daylighting plays an important role in the workplace. Changing direction, intensity, and even color of daylight
are stimulating and connect people to the time of day and the natural world. Windows, of course, permit
daylight to enter a space. The design of a window and choice of glazing can dramatically affect the quantity
and quality of daylight in a space and how it is experienced.
3.2.2 GLARE
Too much daylight can produce excessive glare, which is particularly undesirable in computer work
environments. Glare results when the source of the light is too intense for the naked eye to handle. Direct
glare is caused when a person views the source of illumination. Indirect glare results from light being reflected
off surfaces.
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3.2.3 VIEW
View is the most subjective of the attributes in this analysis. Nevertheless, it deserves attention since it is a
desirable characteristic in workplaces and is clearly influenced by window design and selection. Research has
shown that window size, shape, proportion, and view content greatly influence human perceptions such as
spaciousness as well as the attractiveness and acceptability of the window.
3.2.4 THERMAL COMFORT

Thermal comfort is determined by air temperature, relative humidity, and air movement; mean radiant
temperature, the presence of direct solar radiation (insolation), and occupants' clothing and activity levels.
Windows affect human comfort in several ways. During cold periods, exterior temperatures drive interior
glass surface temperatures down below the room air temperature; how low the glass temperature drops
depends on the window's insulating quality.
3.3 TECHNICAL ISSUES

In addition to energy and human factor concerns, windows are influenced by other requirements that at times
limit the ability to achieve energy efficiencies within acceptable cost parameters. These technical issues
include acoustical performance, structural design, water and weather tightness, and fire protection.
3.3.1 ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE
Design Strategy for Maximizing Acoustical Performance Architects and engineers of buildings
where noise is a problem must use a systematic approach to select appropriate fenestration products. The
approach described below has been used successfully by many designers:
o Determine the extent of the problem: Determining the frequency and
amplitude of the sounds incident on a building requires a survey of the building
site as a function of season and time of day.
o Identify products that can provide the required attenuation: Many
manufacturers offer acoustically improved versions of their standard products.
The inclusion of features like laminated glass and secondary gaskets or
weatherstrips may be adequate to address acoustic needs for low- and mid-
range noise. Triple-pane windows and double-envelope facade systems can be
designed to have good acoustic performance.
o Determine structural and operational adequacy: The weight of acoustic
glazing must also be considered. Highly customized, acoustically enhanced
windows and doors may contain glazing options that reduce the products'
ability to survive sustained winds; this is most likely in a dual window configura-
tion where the exterior glazing is monolithic rather than an IGU. For operable
windows, the added glass weight may dictate the need to use heavy-duty operating mechanisms.
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3.3.2 STRUCTURAL ISSUES
The primary structural requirement of fenestration products and systems in commercial buildings is a capacity
to withstand wind and other structural loads. This section highlights issues, which must be considered in the
design of a fenestration product to meet its structural requirements. The energy implications of these issues
are summarized briefly in this section1.
Types of Loads
o Resisting Loads: Structural loads imposed on fenestration products are met by a variety of means
including glass and frame materials as well as connections. How these loads are met in the design and
construction of a building and its window systems impacts thermal performance, as given below:
o Framing Material: Typically, fenestration products in commercial buildings have the strength and
stiffness necessary to resist large structural loads. However, they are much more conductive materials
than wood or plastic.
o Span of Framing Elements: The implication of larger framing areas is that the window properties
are more dependent on the frame properties than the glass properties-generally leading to increased
U-factors (more heat is lost through frames) and lower solar heat gain coefficients.
3.3.3 FIRE PROTECTION
Key Concepts of Fire Protection and Fenestration Design

o Door and window frames are available with fire ratings ranging from 20 minutes to three hours. Fire-
resistant glazing materials include: wire glass, ceramic products, glass ceramics combined with
insulating glass, and multiple transparent glass layers with an intumescent material. The whole
window unit-glazing, frame, and sealants-must meet the required fire rating.
o Materials and components needed for a fire-rated fenestration product may not be available in all
sizes, so designers should verify the availability of materials before finalizing a design. Impact safety
ratings should also be considered when choosing materials. In addition, the location of building
sprinklers should be taken into account because hot glass may shatter when struck by sprinkler water.
Fire Protection and Energy Efficiency

Designers can incorporate insulating glass into a fire-rated window by using a glass light with a fire-rated, fire-
resistant material on one side of the IGU and a tempered or annealed light on the other side. Fire-rated
glazing material can also be used in combination with some low-emissivity glass, solar control coatings,
applied films, and laminated glass constructions to meet energy-performance requirements. Fire-rated glazing
systems can also meet sound reduction, blast resistance, and hurricane resistance requirements.
3.4 ENERGY-RELATED PROPERTIES OF WINDOWS

This section serves as an introduction to the energy performance of window units. First, there is a brief
introduction to the basic mechanisms of heat transfer and the key properties of glazing that affect energy
performance: transmittance, reflectance, absorptance, and emittance. Then the commonly used energy-related
1 For additional information on structural issues in windows, several references are available (AAMA TIR AID-DO, TIR
AII-96, and GDSG-97)
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properties of windows are identified-insulating value (U-factor), ability to control heat gain from solar
radiation (SHGC and SC), visible light transmittance (VT), and ability to control air leakage.
3.4.1 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS AND GLAZING PROPERTIES RELATED

TO RADIANT ENERGY TRANSFER
Most window and facade assemblies consist of glazing and frame components. Glazing may be a single pane
of glass (or plastic) or multiple panes with air spaces in between. These multiple layer units, referred to as
insulating glazing units (IGU), include spacers around the edge and sometimes low-conductance gases in the
spaces between glazings. Coatings and tints affect the performance of the glazing. The IGU is placed within a
frame of aluminum, steel, wood, plastic, or some hybrid or composite material. Some curtain wall systems
using structural sealants and other special fittings have no exterior frame.
Heat flows through a window assembly in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction
is heat traveling through a solid, liquid or gas. Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of gases or
liquids, like warm air rising from a candle flame. Radiation is the movement of energy through space without
relying on conduction through the air or by movement of the air, the way you feel the heat of a fire.
The basic properties of glazing that affect radiant energy transfer-transmittance, reflectance, absorptance, and
emittance are described below.
Transmittance: It refers to the percentage of radiation that can pass through glazing. Transmittance can
be defined for different types of light or energy, e.g., visible transmittance, UV transmittance, or total
solar energy transmittance.
o Transmission of visible light determines the effectiveness of a type of glass in providing daylight and
a clear view through the window. For example, tinted glass has a lower visible transmittance than
clear glass. While the human eye is sensitive to light at wavelengths from about 0.4 to 0.7 microns, its
peak sensitivity is at 0.55, with lower sensitivity at the red and blue ends of the spectrum. This is
referred to as the photopic sensitivity of the eye.
Absorptance: Energy that is not transmitted through the glass or reflected off its surfaces is absorbed.
Once glass has absorbed any radiant energy, the energy is transformed into heat, raising the glass
temperature.
o Typical ’’ inch clear glass absorbs only about 7 percent of sunlight at a normal angle of incidence
(also a 30-degree angle of incidence). The absorptance of glass is increased by glass additives that
absorb solar energy. If they absorb visible light, the glass appears dark. If they absorb ultraviolet
radiation or near-infrared, there will be little or no change in visual appearance. Tints are generally
gray, bronze, or blue-green and were traditionally used to lower the SHGC and to control glare.
Since they block some of the sun's energy, they reduce the cooling load placed on the building and its
air-conditioning equipment.
Emittance: When solar energy is absorbed by glass, it is either convected away by moving air or
reradiated by the glass surface. This ability of a material to radiate energy is called its emissivity.
o Window glass, along with all other objects, typically emits, or radiates, heat in the form of long-wave
far-infrared energy. The wavelength of the long-wave far-infrared energy varies with the temperature
of the surface. This emission of radiant heat is one of the important heat transfer pathways for a
window. Thus, reducing the window's emission of heat can greatly improve its insulating properties.
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3.4.2 DETERMINING ENERGY-RELATED PROPERTIES OF WINDOWS
This commentary on energy efficiency is pertinent to understanding the requirements of the Energy
Conservation Building Code of India – 2007 (ECBC). It explains the terminology used in the ECBC and
highlights current technology and materials used in the fenestration products covered by the Code.
U-factor: When there is a temperature difference between inside and outside, heat is lost or gained through
the window frame and glazing by the combined effects of conduction, convection, and long-wave radiation.
The U-factor of a window assembly represents its overall heat transfer rate or insulating value. Figure 1: Heat
transfer through fenestration
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient:
Regardless of outside temperature,
heat can be gained through
windows by direct or indirect solar
radiation. The ability to control this
heat gain through windows is
characterized in terms of the solar
heat gain coefficient (SHGC) or
shading coefficient (SC) of the
window.
o Determining Solar Heat
Gain: There are two metrics
for quantifying the solar
radiation passing through a window: solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) and shading coefficient (SC).
In both cases, the solar heat gain is the combination of directly transmitted radiation and the inward-
flowing portion of absorbed radiation. However, SHGC and SC have a different basis for
comparison.
Shading Coefficient: the SC value is strongly influenced by the type of glass selected. The shading
coefficient can also include the effects of any integral part of the window system that reduces the flow of
solar heat, such as multiple glazing layers, reflective coatings, or blinds between layers of glass.
Visible Transmittance: it (VT) also referred to as visible light transmittance (VLT), is an optical
property that indicates the amount of visible light transmitted through the glass. It affects energy by
providing daylight that creates the opportunity to reduce electric lighting and its associated cooling loads.
Air Leakage (infiltration): Heat loss and gain also occur by air leakage through cracks around sashes and
frames of the window assembly. Whenever there is a pressure difference between the inside and outside
(driven by wind or temperature difference), air will flow through cracks between window assembly
components. Infiltration leads to increased heating or cooling loads when the outdoor air entering the
building needs to be heated or cooled.
o This effect is often quantified in terms of the amount of air (cubic feet or cubic meters per minute)
passing through a unit area of window (square foot or square meter) under given pressure
conditions.
o The use of fixed windows helps to reduce air leakage because these windows are easier to seal and
keep tight. Operable windows, which are also more susceptible to air leakage, are not necessary for
ventilation in most commercial buildings but are desired by occupants for control.
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Solar Radiation Control: The second major energy-performance characteristic of windows is the ability
to control solar heat gain through the glazing. Solar heat gain through windows is a significant factor in
determining the cooling load of many commercial buildings. The origin of solar heat gain is the direct and
diffuse radiation coming from the sun and the sky (or reflected from the ground and other surfaces).
Some radiation is directly transmitted through the glazing to the building interior, and some may be
absorbed in the glazing and indirectly admitted to the inside. Some radiation absorbed by the frame will
also contribute to overall window solar heat gain factor. Other thermal (non-solar) heat transfer effects
are included in the U-factor of the window.
Light-to-Solar-Gain (LSG) Ratio: windows that reduced solar gain (with tints and coatings) also
reduced visible transmittance. However, new high-performance tinted glass and low-solar-gain low-E
coatings have made it possible to reduce solar heat gain with little reduction in visible transmittance.
Because the concept of separating solar gain control and light control is so important, measures have
been developed to reflect this. The term lum inou s effic ac y (k), which is VT/SC.
Table: Sum ma ry of Pro pe rtie s of Typi cal Win dows

Number U-factor SHGC VT LSG
Window of Frame
Glazing Overall COG* Overall COG Overall COG Overall COG
Clear 1 Aluminum 1.25 1.09 0.72 0.82 0.71 0.88 0.99 1.08
Bronze tint 2 Alum-TB 0.60 0.48 0.42 0.49 0.38 0.48 0.90 0.98
Reflective 2 Alum-TB 0.54 0.40 0.17 0.17 0.10 0.13 0.59 0.76
Low-E bronze tint 2 Alum-TB 0.49 0.33 0.39 0.44 0.36 0.44 0.92 1.01
Selective low-E tint 2 Alum-TB 0.46 0.29 0.27 0.29 0.43 0.53 1.59 1.83
Clear with selective low-
2 Alum-TB 0.46 0.29 0.34 0.38 0.57 0.71 1.68 1.87
E
Clear with 1 low-E layer 3 Insulated 0.20 0.15 0.22 0.26 0.37 0.46 1.68 1.78
I
Clear with 2 low-E 4 Insulated 0.14 0.13 0.20 0.24 0.34 0.42 1.70 1.73
layers
*COG- Center of Glass
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4 TYPES OF GLAZING, FRAMES &
TECHNIQUES2
4.1 TECHNOLOGIES TO ACHIEVE ENERGY EFFICIENT

WINDOWS
A fenestration product (window, glazed door or skylight) is comprised of three areas, the vision area, the
glazing, and the opaque area or the frame. In a window glazing is generally 90-95% of the total area and
therefore the most important part to address for achieving energy efficiency. However, the frame becomes
important to optimize the overall energy efficiency of the window. Information on options available to
improve the energy efficiency of windows:
Glass options to improve energy efficiency.
Applied films to improve energy efficiency
Low-E coatings for energy efficient windows
Gas filling of insulating glass units for energy efficient windows
Warm edge insulating glass units for energy efficient windows
Frame designs for energy efficient windows
Reducing the air leakage of windows to improve energy efficiency
4.2 GLAZING IN FENESTRATION PRODUCTS

Each of the many glazing options available provides different responses to incident solar radiation and
provides different advantages and disadvantages in its use.
2 References
Residential Windows – Carmody, J., Selkowicz, S., Arasteh, D. and Heschong,L. – New York: W.W.
Norton, 2000.
Window Systems for High-Performance Buildings - Carmody, J., Selkowicz, Lee, E., Arasteh, D. and Willmert, T.
- New York: W.W. Norton, 2004.
THERM 5.2 / WINDOW 5.2 - NFRC Simulation Manual, July 2006, by Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory
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4.2.1 CLEAR GLASS
Traditionally, fenestration products have been made of clear glass. Most residential-grade clear glass today is
produced with the float technique in which the glass is “floated” over a bed of molten tin. This provides
extremely flat surfaces, uniform thicknesses, and few if any visual distortions. The glass has a slight greenish
cast, due to iron impurities, but this is generally not noticeable except from the edge. An even higher-quality
glass with reduced iron content eliminates the greenness and also provides a higher solar energy
transmittance. This is commonly called “water-white glass.”
Obscure glasses still transmit most of the light but break up the view in order to provide privacy. This effect
is generally achieved either with decorative embossed patterns or with a frosted surface that scatters the light
rays. Table 1 provides center of glass performance values characteristic of clear glass.
Table 1 – Pe4rformance of Clear Glass
Center of Glass Values
Glass Inside
ID Name # Tilt Thickness U-vale SHGC SC VT Surface
Layers mm W/m2-K Temperature
1 Clear 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.86 0.99 0.90 32.3
2 Clear 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.81 0.94 0.88 34.0
*Environment conditions:
U-value: Tin = 24ºC, T out = 32ºC, V = 3.25 m/s, SHGC: Is = 783 W/m2, T in = 24ºC, T out = 32ºC, V = 2.75 m/s
4.2.2 TINTED GLASS

There are two categories of tinted glazing: the traditional tints that diminish light as well as heat gain, and
spectrally selective tints that reduce heat gain but allow more light to be transmitted to the interior. The
traditional tinted glazing often forces a trade-off between visible light and solar gain. For these bronze and
gray tints, there is a greater reduction in visible light transmittance than there is in solar heat gain coefficient.
This can reduce glare by reducing the apparent brightness of the glass surface, but it also reduces the amount
of beneficial daylight entering the room. Table 2 provides center of glass performance values characteristic
of tinted glass.
Table 2 – Performance of Tinted Glass
Glass Inside
3 Gray 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.70 0.81 0.62 38.3
4 Gray 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.57 0.66 0.44 43.1
5 Bronze 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.72 0.84 0.68 37.3
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6 Bronze 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.61 0.71 0.53 41.5
To address the problem of reducing daylight with traditional tinted glazing, glass manufacturers have
developed new types of tinted glass that are “spectrally selective.” They preferentially transmit the daylight
portion of the solar spectrum but absorb the near-infrared part of sunlight. This is accomplished by adding
special chemicals to the float glass process. Like other tinted glass, they are durable and can be used in both
monolithic and multiple-glazed fenestration product applications. These glazing products have a light blue or
green tint and have visible transmittance values higher than conventional bronze- or gray-tinted glass, but
have lower solar heat gain coefficients. Because they are absorptive, they are best used as the outside glazing
in a double-glazed unit. They can also be combined with Low-E coatings to enhance their performance
further. Table 3 provides center of glass performance values characteristic of spectrally selective tinted glass.
Table 3 – Performance of Spectrally Selective Glass
Glass Inside
W/m2-
Layers mm K Temperature
7 Green 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.69 0.80 0.83 38.50
8 Green 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.58 0.68 0.76 42.50
9 Blue 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.64 0.74 0.71 40.30
10 Blue 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.50 0.59 0.53 45.40
4.2.3 REFLECTIVE COATINGS AND FILMS

As the solar heat gain is lowered in single-pane tinted glazing products, the visible light transmission drops
even faster and there are practical limits on how low the solar heat gain can be reduced using tints. If larger
reductions are desired, a reflective coating can be used to lower the solar heat gain coefficient by increasing
the surface reflectivity of the material. These coatings usually consist of thin metallic layers. The reflective
coatings come in various metallic colors (silver, gold, bronze), and they can be applied to clear or tinted
glazing (the substrate). The solar heat gain of the substrate can be reduced a little or a lot, depending on the
thickness and reflectivity of the coating, and its location on the glass.
As with tinted glazing, the visible light transmittances of reflective glazing are usually reduced substantially
more than the solar heat gain.
4.2.4 APPLIED FILMS

Window film is made of polyester layers that are transformed into a thin transparent plastic film or metallic
laminate that adheres to all types of glass. A wide variety of window film products currently offered in the
IRG 14
marketplace have differing effects on the optical (energy saving) and mechanical properties (security) of the
underlying glazing. Applied window film products can be classified into two main categories: 1) standard film
(tinted and reflective), and 2) spectrally selective film.
Standard Film: Standard products provide customers with a range of low-cost options for reducing their
energy bills by lowering the level of solar heat gain in existing buildings. Applied films also provide non-
energy benefits in the form of reduced glare, increased shatter resistance, and lower levels of ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. However, they may accomplish these gains at the cost of reducing the level of daylight
that enters the building and in some cases causing unwanted reflection.
Spectrally Selective Film: Spectrally selective films can generate significant increases in building energy
efficiency since they block out (absorb or reflect) the infrared portion of sunlight that causes heat gain
while allowing more visible sunlight to enter a building. These films are more expensive than standard
applied film products.
Because both types of products can be applied to the interior of most existing types of glass,
Figure 2: Applied Film to reduce Solar Gain of a window

window film can be an attractive energy efficiency retrofit opportunity since it is less costly than replacing the
entire window.
4.2.5 LOW-E COATED GLASS

The four basic properties of coated glass are solar reflectance, solar absorbance, visible light reflectance, and
long-wave length heat reflectance (low-emissivity coatings). These properties may be present singularly or in
combination. The differences between any two coatings are the amount and type of solar transmission
(ultraviolet, visible or infrared) allowed through the glass. Solar reflective glass may have some type of
metallic coating that reflects a greater portion of the entire solar spectrum. A reflective coating on vision glass
areas reduces the solar heat gain within the building envelope and thereby offers economies in the sizing of
HVAC equipment and reduces energy Consumption.
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Figure 3: LowE Type and Application
Low-emissivity (Low-E) coated glass has various layers of nearly invisible coatings that reflect a significant
part of long-wave infrared energy. These glass coatings may be applied either during the float process
(pyrolytic coatings) or to the finished glass surface (vacuum deposition coatings).
4.2.6 LOW-E COATINGS IN ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS

The technology for producing energy efficient windows relies heavily on the development of low emissivity
(Low-E) coatings for glass. These can also be regarded as ‘spectrally selective’ coatings because their
properties vary depending on the wavelength of the incident radiation. A low emissivity (Low-E) coating
allows the short wave solar radiation to pass through relatively unaffected. The heat radiated from inside the
building is long wave thermal radiation and the Low-E coating selectively reflects the long wave radiation
back into the building.
Low-emittance coatings have a high reflectance in the thermal infrared suppressing infrared radiation transfer
thereby imparting additional thermal insulation. The term Low-E refers to the emissivity ( ) of the coating
and an emissivity of 0.10 means that 90% of the long wave radiation is reflected. A significant degree of solar
control can be built into these coatings through reflectance across the solar spectrum or in the solar infrared
alone. Low-E coatings are applied to surface 2 or 3 of a dual glazed insulating glass unit.
Transmitted Short Wave Solar Radiation
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Reflected Radiation Inward Flowing Absorbed Radiation
Long Wave Thermal Radiation

Outdoor Side
Indoor Side
Figure 4: Low-E coating on Surface 2 of a window

Low-E coatings often have a slight color tint that varies between suppliers and material used for low-
emissivity coating. Glazed units from different sources may therefore look slightly different, especially when
viewed at an angle. By placing the Low-E coating on surface 2, more solar reflectance is achieved then by
placing the Low-E coating on surface 3. These properties are used for designing of the glazing for either the
cooling climate or the heating climate. For cooling dominated climates Low-E is placed on surface number 2,
while it is placed on surface number 3 for heating dominated climates.
All Low-E coatings are thin coatings of metal or metal oxides applied to the glass and as with any advanced
technology, there are several different production methods and the products have different properties. The
two basic methods of producing Low-E coatings are sputtering and pyrolytic deposition. ASTM C 1376 –
Standard Specification for Pyrolytic and Vacuum Deposition Coatings on Flat Glass publishes quality standards for
coated glass.
4.2.7 S OFT COAT – APPLIED BY SPUTTERING

Sputtering uses a vacuum chamber to put several layers of coating onto the basic glass and the total
thickness of the coatings is around ten thousand times thinner than a human hair. Sputtered coatings are
often referred to as ‘soft coats’ and must be protected from humidity and long term atmospheric contact. The
sputtered coatings are very soft but once inside a sealed unit, they will easily last for the life of the unit.
Sputtered products have very low emissivity and are currently the most effective type of coating for reducing
the U-factor of the glass (Uglass). These ’soft coat’ products can have an emissivity ranging from 0.05 to 0.10,
compared to uncoated glass that has a typical emissivity of 0.89. This means that ‘soft coat’ products will
reflect between 90% and 95% of the long wave thermal radiation whereas uncoated glass will only reflect
11% of the radiant energy received by the surface.
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Soft coat Low-E coatings require ‘edge deletion’ to remove the soft coat before they can be processed into
insulating glass units. This requires an additional process and additional equipment which can lead to
increased process costs and process wastage.
Moderate-transmission Low-E
These Low-E glass products are often referred to as sputtered (or soft-coat products) due to the glass coating
process. (Note: Low solar gain Low-E products are also sputtered coatings.) Such coatings reduce heat loss
and let in a reasonable amount of solar gain.
Low-transmission Low-E
These Low-E products are often referred to as sputtered (or soft-coat) due to the glass coating process.
(Note: Moderate solar gain Low-E products are also sputtered coatings.) This type of Low-E product,
sometimes called spectrally selective Low-E glass, reduces heat loss in winter but also reduces heat gain in
summer. Compared to most tinted and reflective glazings, this Low-E glass provides a higher level of visible
light transmission for a given amount of solar heat reduction.
4.2.8 HARD COAT – APPLIED BY PYROLYTIC DEPOSITION

Pyrolytic coating deposits the layers of
metals or metallic oxides directly onto the
glass surface at the end of the production line
while it is still hot. The Low-E coating
is effectively ‘baked on’ to the surface and the
resulting Low-E coating is very hard and
durable. The pyrolytic coatings are often
referred to as ‘hard coats’.
Pyrolytic coatings can be up to 20
times thicker than sputtered coatings (they are
still 500 times thinner than a human hair) and
the baking process makes them much harder
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and resistant to wear. Pyrolytic ‘hard coats’ have a low emissivity but this is higher than those achieved for
soft coats. Hard coat products have emissivities ranging from 0.15 to 0.20 and are thus between 2 to 4
times less effective than soft coats.
The ability to apply ’hard coats’ while the glass is still hot means that hard coated products are cheaper than
soft coated products but this is slightly offset by their poorer energy performance. Table 4 provides center of
glass performance values characteristic of Low-E coated glass.
Table 3 – Performance of Low-E Coated Glass
Glass Inside
11 LowE-Air-Clr_3mm 2 90 3 1.58 0.36 0.42 0.69 29.3
12 LowE-Air-Clr-6mm 2 90 6 1.56 0.36 0.41 0.67 30.8
13 LowE-Air-Clr_3mm 2 90 3 1.54 0.24 0.27 0.49 29.1
14 LowE-Air-Clr-6mm 2 90 6 1.53 0.24 0.27 0.47 30.2
15 LowE-H-Air-Clr_3mm 2 90 3 1.92 0.46 0.53 0.55 33.2
16 LowE-H-Air-Clr-6mm 2 90 6 1.90 0.44 0.51 0.53 35.1
4.2.9 GAS FILLED UNITS IN ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS
One mode of heat transfer in an insulating glass unit (IGU) is by convection and conduction between the
panes of glass. Conventionally an IGU has two glass panes assembled with a spacer bar used as a
separator, leaving a cavity between the glazing which is typically filled with air.
Gas filling replaces the air with an inert gas such as argon or krypton. These inert gases are denser then
air and have lower conductivity hence reducing both the convection currents and the conduction of heat
through the glazing gap.
The fill gas is inserted into the glazing gap through an inlet port and vent in the spacer bar, or by using
special corner pieces or via a fill procedure where the IGU is assembled in an atmosphere of inert gas.
4.2.10 GENERAL FACTORS FOR GAS FILLING AREA

Gas filling is particularly effective when combined with the use of a Low-E coating because lower radiative
heat transfer further reduces the energy transfer by conduction and convection mechanisms through the
insulating glass unit.
Argon and Krypton gases are the most commonly used inert gases in IGUs. Argon is relatively inexpensive,
easily obtainable and easy to use therefore it is the most common and widely used gas for filling. Krypton
gas fill offers better energy performance than argon but due to its cost its use in IGUs has been relatively rare.
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The retention of the inert gas in the insulating glass unit is essential for continued energy efficiency. Currently,
research has shown that for a well manufactured gas filled insulating glass unit, the gas loss rate is likely to be
less than 0.5% per year and in the order of 10% over a 20 year life span of an IGU. Currently an ISO
standard is under development for IGU durability testing, adoption of this standard by the industry will result
in higher quality IGUs in the market place.
The optimum performance of insulating glass units varies with the thickness of the gap between the panes of
glass and increasing the gap beyond the most efficient gap can lead to small decreases in glazing energy
efficiency. It has been determined that the following guidelines produce optimum performance:
Air filled units reach a minimum U-factor for a glazing gap of approximately 14 mm.
Argon filled units reach a minimum U-factor for a glazing gap of approximately 12 mm.
Krypton filled units reach a minimum U-factor for a glazing gap of approximately 8 mm.
Figure: 5 Gap effect on gas filled units.
The Solar Heat Gain Coefficient and Visible Light Transmittance of an IGU are unaffected by the presence
of inert gases. As the gases are inert and nontoxic there are no health and safety issues associated with the use
of gas filling.
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4.3 NEXT GENERATION TECHNOLOGY
The fenestration industry has worked closely with private and government research institutes and with
proponents of increased energy efficiency to develop today’s high performance products. This research into
more efficient products is actively continuing as this publication is written and new products and technologies
will follow these efforts. Some potential, commercially available improvements for the next generation of
products are as follows:
4.3.1 ELECTROCHROMICS
Considered to be the most suitable chromogenic technology for energy control in buildings, electrochromics
are the subject of intensive research. Electrochromic materials undergo a reversible change in optical
properties upon injection of light ions. Typically they consist of two electrodes separated by an ion
conductor. Transparent conductors form the contacts. Currently a company in the USA has already
developed a commercial electrochromic glazing.
4.3.2 HYDRIDES
These materials can be classified as electrochromics, but they are different in several ways from conventional
oxide electrochromics. Originally deposited as a metal, they can be converted to a partially transparent
hydride by injection of hydrogen from the gas or solid phase. Thus, they switch to a reflective state which has
several potential advantages in terms of energy performance and durability.
4.3.3 LIQUID CRYSTALS

This familiar technology was commercialized for window use and later discontinued. Liquid crystal windows
switch quickly from a transparent state to a diffuse white state. The primary function is to provide privacy
and control glare as a substitute for conventional shading devices. In the diffuse state liquid crystals are
primarily forward scattering so there is little control over solar heat gain.
4.3.4 SUSPENDED PARTICLE DISPLAYS

Like electrochromics, SPDs are a promising energy control technology. They are reported to have a number
of advantages over electrochromics.
4.3.5 PHOTOCHROMICS
As the name implies, these materials darken under the direct action of sunlight. They are not considered as
versatile as electrochromics because they cannot be manually controlled and because optimum energy
performance requires consideration of temperature conditions as well as solar radiation. For example, a
photochromic window may darken on a cold sunny day when more solar heat gain is desirable.
4.3.6 THERMOTROPICS
As photochromics respond primarily to light, thermotropics respond primarily to heat. This is not as versatile
a response as that exhibited by electrochromics. Daylight or view may have a higher priority for the occupant,
at least temporarily, than reduction in solar gain.
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4.3.7 VACUUM IG UNITS
Vacuum windows utilize Low-E coatings and an evacuated air space which virtually eliminates Conduction
and convection. The optimum gas filling to use is no gas at all and the vacuum sealed unit represents the
optimum that could be achieved for insulating glass units. Vaccum IG units can be a good substitution for
existing single glazed units.
4.3.8 AEROGEL
Aerogel is a silica-based, open-cell, foam-like material composed of about 4% silica and 96% air; the
microscopic cells trap air, maximizing the insulating value, but still allowing light to pass.
4.4 EDGE SEAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY

The edge effect is relatively independent of the size of the sealed insulating glass unit and it extends at least 65
mm into the bulk of the sealed unit. The importance of the edge effect on U-factor depends on the size of
the window and the relative amount edge of glass area to the total glass area.
The layers of glazing in an insulating glass unit must be held apart
at the appropriate distance by spacers. To achieve better energy
efficiency and thermal comfort, as the industry has switched from
standard double-glazed IGUs to units with Low-E coatings and gas
fills, the effect of this edge loss becomes even more pronounced.
Under winter conditions, the typical aluminium spacer would
increase the U-factor of a Low-E, gas filled unit slightly more than
it would increase the U-factor of a standard double-glazed IGU.
The smaller the glass area, the larger is the effect of the edge on the
overall product properties. Especially, in colder climates, in
addition to the increased heat loss, the colder edge is more prone to
formation of condensation in the interior.
The spacer bar, has traditionally been made of tubular aluminum
alloy sheet metal which contained desiccant that absorbed residual
moisture. The spacer was sealed to the two glass layers with organic
sealants that both provided structural support and acted as the
moisture barrier of the unit. This construction results in greater
heat loss, the ‘edge effect’ and also makes the area more prone to
Figure 6: Edge Seal Energy condensation, which can encourage mould growth (see Figure 5).
Stainless steel spacer bars have a lower conductivity than aluminum
alloy (17 W/mK as opposed to 160 W/mK), While this is an improvement, the term ‘insulating spacer bar’
should only be used to refer to spacers that have reduced (or even zero) metal content. Another approach is
to replace the metal with a design that uses materials that are better insulators. The most commonly used
design incorporates spacer, sealer, and desiccant in a single tape element. The tape includes a solid, extruded
thermoplastic compound that contains a blend of desiccant materials and incorporates a thin, fluted metal
shim of aluminium alloy or stainless steel. Another approach uses an insulating silicone foam spacer that
incorporates a desiccant and has a high-strength adhesive at its edges to bond to glass. The foam is backed
with a secondary sealant. Both extruded vinyl and pultruded fiberglass spacers have also been used in place of
metal designs. Spacers constructed of dual aluminium alloy tubular shapes joined by a polyurethane thermal
barrier and a backing sealant is also used to improve edge performance.
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4.5 FENESTRATION FRAME
IMPROVEMENTS IN ENERGY
EFFICIENT WINDOWS
Treating the fenestration as a system means using the U-factor of
the complete window and not simply the U-factor of the center of
glass area (Ucog). The frame contributes to the system U-factor
because it also transmits heat through the conventional
mechanisms of radiation, convection and conduction. The U-factor
of the frame is calculated using 2-D finite element analysis tools such
as THERM.
The heat loss through a fenestration product frame can be quite
significant: in a typical 1.2 m by 0.9 m double-hung wood frame
product, the frame and sash can occupy approximately 30 percent of
the product area. In a frame with a cross section made of one
uniform, solid material, the U-factor is based on the conduction of
heat through the material. However, hollow frames and composite
frames with various reinforcing or cladding materials are more
Figure 7: Frame Heat Transfer through complex. Here, conduction through materials must be combined
Conduction Convection and Radiation with convection of the air next to the glazing and radiant exchange
between the various surfaces. Furthermore, frames rarely include the
same cross section around the perimeter of a fenestration product. For example, a horizontal slider might
have seven different frame cross sections, each with its own rate of heat flow.
Minimizing the Uframe is a key objective for profile designers in any material. The material used to
manufacture the frame governs the physical characteristics of the fenestration product, such as frame
thickness, weight, and durability. It also has a major impact on the thermal characteristics of the product.
Increasingly, manufacturers are producing hybrid or composite sash and frames, in which multiple materials
are selected and combined to best meet the overall required performance parameters.
4.5.1 ALUMINIUM
Aluminium has good machineability and strength, however, the disadvantage of aluminium as a frame
material is its high thermal conductance. It readily conducts heat, greatly raising the overall U-factor of a
fenestration unit.
In cold climates, a simple aluminium frame can easily become cold enough to condense moisture or frost on
the inside surfaces of fenestration product frames. Even more than the problem of heat loss, the
condensation problem spurred development of a more insulating aluminium frame. In hot climates the frame
can get hot enough to cause thermal comfort issues.
The most common solution to the heat conduction problem of aluminium frames is to provide a “thermal
barrier” by splitting the frame components into interior and exterior pieces and using a less conductive
material to join them. The precise location of the thermal barrier in the frame relative to the glazing has a
large effect on the overall Uframe. Designers need to consider not only the shape and size of the thermal
barrier but also the location.
4.5.2 STEEL
Steel has poor machineability and finish, but is less thermally conductive then aluminium. Steel window
systems are primarily used in replica refurbishment and while the high thermal conductivity of steel gives a
IRG 23
high Uframe, the overall energy efficiency of steel framed windows can be improved by the slim sight-
lines and high solar gain of the overall window.
4.5.3 WOOD
Wood is favored in some applications because of its appearance and traditional place in house design. From a
thermal point of view, wood-framed products perform well. The thicker the wood frame, the more insulation
it provides. Wood-framed fenestration products typically exhibit low heat loss rates.
A variation of the wooden product is to clad the exterior face of the frame with either vinyl or aluminium,
creating a permanent weather-resistant surface. Clad frames thus have lower maintenance requirements, while
retaining the attractive wood finish on the interior.
However, metal cladding, metal hardware, or the metal reinforcing often used at corner joints can degrade the
thermal performance of wood frames. If the metal extends through the fenestration product from the cold
side to the warm side of the frame, it creates a thermal short circuit, conducting heat more quickly through
that section of the frame.
4.5.4 VINYL FRAMES

Vinyl, also known as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), is a versatile material with good insulating value. The thermal
performance of vinyl frames is roughly comparable to wood. Large hollow chambers within the frame can
allow unwanted heat transfer through convection currents. Creating smaller cells within the frame reduces
this convection exchange, as does adding an insulating material. For obtaining increased structural strength,
vinyl frames are often reinforced with metal extrusions for use in high rise buildings where structural strength
is a requirement.
4.5.5 FIBERGLASS AND ENGINEERED THERMOPLASTICS

In addition to vinyl fenestration products two other polymer-based technologies have become available,
fiberglass and thermoplastics. Frames can be made of glass-fiber-reinforced polyester, or fiberglass, which is
pultruded into lineal forms and then assembled into fenestration products. These frames are dimensionally
stable and have good insulating value especially when incorporating air cavities (similar to vinyl).
4.5.6 WOOD COMPOSITES

Most people are familiar with composite wood products, such as particle board and laminated, oriented
strand lumber, in which wood particles and resins are compressed to form a strong composite material. The
wood fenestration industry has now taken this a step further by creating a new generation of wood/polymer
composites that are extruded into a series of lineal shapes for frame and sash members. These composites are
stable, and have the same or better structural and thermal properties as conventional wood, with better
moisture resistance and more decay resistance. They can be textured and stained or painted much like wood.
They were initially used in critical elements, such as sills and thresholds in sliding patio doors, but are now
being used for entire units. This approach has the added environmental advantage of reusing a volume of
sawdust and wood scrap that would otherwise be discarded.
4.5.7 HYBRID AND COMPOSITE FRAMES

Manufacturers are increasingly turning to hybrid frame designs that use two or more of the frame materials
described above to produce a complete fenestration systems. The wood industry has long built vinyl and
aluminium-clad products to reduce exterior maintenance needs. Vinyl manufacturers and others offer interior
IRG 24
wood veneers to produce the finish and appearance that many homeowners desire. Split-sash designs may
have an interior wood element bonded to an exterior fiberglass element.
4.5.8 AIR LEAKAGE IMPROVEMENTS IN ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS
Air leakage is the unwanted movement of air through the window system. Air leakage must be differentiated
from planned air movement through user controlled ventilation. Controlled ventilation is necessary for the
prevention of condensation, the removal of odors and general air quality inside the building. Fenestration
energy rating does not include any consideration of controlled ventilation.
Air leakage into the building is termed ‘air infiltration’ (see figure 8) and air leakage out of the building
is termed ‘air exfiltration’. Air infiltration allows warm or cold air to move into the building and energy
is required to cool or heat the air to room temperature. Air exfiltration allows warm or cold air to move out
of the building and energy is required to cool or heat the replacement air. In either case the air movement
causes more energy to be used as a result of the window properties.
Air leakage occurs primarily through joints in the window frame, poorly sealed gaps between opening
lights and outer frames and to a much lesser extent through gaps between the glass and the surrounding
frame. Improvements in frame design, manufacturing tolerances and sealing have resulted in the reduction or
elimination of gaps at the frame joints.
Air infiltration
Indoor Side
Out Door Side
Figure 8: Air Infiltration

Air exfiltration
The availability and widespread use of flexible and compressible weatherseals (modern windows often use
both an inner and an outer weatherseal) has resulted in improved sealing between the opening lights and the
outer frame. Current materials are both flexible enough to seal any gaps but also resilient enough to avoid
developing a significant compression set when left closed for a long time. Similarly, the availability and
widespread use of flexible glazing gaskets has further improved sealing of the insulating glass unit.Modern
windows can often achieve an effective air leakage rate of approximately zero in normal use.
4.6 Conclusion
Modern society has recently recognized an energy supply crisis that has the potential to compel radical and
detrimental changes to all facets of our global society. In planning to meet this challenge, countries have
developed plans and codes to regulate the use of scarce energy resources. These plans often include reliance
on science and technology to increase the performance of building components. Strangely enough, some of
these technologies were developed centuries ago but had fallen out of use in today’s marketplace. Combining
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older proven practices with new techniques and advanced materials has led to a new wave of energy
conservation practices. This publication has explored the basics of these practices. For more in-depth
information the reader is referred to the following publications:
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5 A METHOD OF DECISION MAKING
5.1 DECISIONS WITHIN THE DESIGN PROCESS

An architect makes decisions at several scales in the building design process. The larger scale issues of
placement on the site, building configuration, and overall layout come first. Even in these early stages,
the orientation, size, and shape of individual spaces and whether they have windows are being
established. The refinement of individual spaces and systems follows, which involves window size and
shape as well as the use of shading devices and daylight control systems. Finally, glazing and frame type
are specified with the desired properties.
o As a designer proceeds from larger to smaller scale decisions, however, discoveries are made at the
later stage that may raise questions about earlier assumptions. In fact, this dialogue between scales is
a normal part of the design process that ensures building design and performance goals are achieved.
The challenge is that decisions made at different scales are interdependent so it becomes difficult to
draw simple conclusions based on rules of thumb.
o What's worse is that experienced designers may use old rules of thumb that are no longer applicable
given new window technologies. For example, many designers assume that window orientation
affects energy use a great deal in commercial buildings. This is certainly true in some cases when
using conventionally performing windows with no shading. However, there can be little difference in
energy performance between orientations if windows are properly shaded or if high-performance
windows are used.
o The impacts of all these design parameters working in an integrated fashion can be analyzed with
computer simulations at the scale of a perimeter zone. The building is made up of these perimeter
zones combined with other internal zones. The ratio of perimeter to internal zones is not of concern
in this analysis, nor is the exact distribution of perimeter zones facing different orientations. These
impacts must be modeled at the scale of the whole building. However, the lessons from analyzing the
individual perimeter zones can be applied to issues of site and whole building design.
o While the process outlined in Figure below suggests moving from larger to smaller scale decisions,
designers can enter at any level to make a decision within a given context. For example, the site may
dictate that windows can only be oriented to the west, so the designer can assess the optimal window
area and other choices within the context of west-facing windows. In another case, costs or
aesthetics may rule out external shading devices, so the designer can determine the best glazing type
for the unshaded condition
IRG 27
.
5.2 CRITERIA USED IN DECISION MAKING

o Architects often utilize windows as a key part of the aesthetic expression of a building. The color,
transparency, reflectance, and other visual qualities of glass are highly valued as a material in
architecture.
o Unfortunately, above six graphical attributes can not easily be converted to a common measure that
is meaningful. It is misleading to combine the points into a single number for each window-positive
and negative attributes would cancel each other out and very different windows may end up with
IRG 28
similar total performance. For this reason, window performance is left in this matrix format so
designers can perceive strengths and weaknesses of different options and make their own trade-offs.
5.2.1 EFFECT OF ORIENTATION ON PEAK DEMAND
Peak electricity demand follows patterns similar to annual energy use, which was discussed in the previous
section. In hot climates, solar heat gains drive demand, which is largely proportional to window area. Window
SHGC, U-factor, and shading, if present, impact exactly how the effectively the window addresses the gains.
EFFECT OF ORIENTATION ON ALL ATTRIBUTES COMBINED
The relative performance of all six attributes for all orientations is shown on a 0 to 10 scale. The window area
for all cases in is moderate (WWR=0.30). The impact of orientation on each of the individual performance
measures is summarized below.
Energy: With Windows, north-facing orientations use less energy than other orientations. With low-
SHGC Windows, orientation has little effect at moderate areas (WWR=O.30), more with greater areas.
Exterior shading diminishes energy use variation between orientations for Windows. Shading has very
little impact on energy use with Windows at moderate window areas.
Peak Demand: For windows, north-facing orientations perform better than others. There is less impact
on peak demand between different orientations with Windows at a moderate window area (WWR=0.30),
but it increases with greater area. In most cases, exterior shading reduces peak demand between
orientations. Windows perform best overall, with the moderate window area maintaining the peak
demand index within the higher range (6-10).
Daylight: Due to direct sun, south-facing zones have greater interior daylight illuminance levels on
average than other orientations. North-facing orientations have the least. The impact of orientation on
daylight greater with high-VT windows and least with low-VT windows. In reality, north-facing zones will
probably capture more useful daylight than other orientations since there is less need to deploy interior
shades to control glare and direct sun. Exterior shading reduces daylight but the index remains in the
middle range (4-6) for most cases.
Glare: For a moderate window area, discomfort glare for north- and south-facing orientations is not
problematic. East and west orientations are much worse, given the low sun angles they experience.
Exterior shading can reduce glare problems to some extent.
View: View is unaffected by orientation alone. Shading elements, such as overhangs and vertical fins, do
reduce view, and these devices are informed by orientation. Glazing also impacts view. Window with low
VT will follow lowest index. All view indices are in the middle range because of the moderate window
area.
Thermal Comfort: For double and triple-glazed windows, north-facing zones are less comfortable than
other orientations, but differences are small. Exterior shading has little effect. The north orientation is
clearly superior to the others for clear single glazed Window; however differences significantly decline
with exterior shading.
These results reveal that unshaded north-facing perimeter zones yield lower energy use and peak demand
without compromising other performance measures when compared to other unshaded orientations in a hot
climate. These differences in orientation can be reduced or eliminated with the proper combination of
window type, area, and shading devices. Windows perform best in all cases and are relatively unaffected by
orientation. With proper design and window selection, a space may be oriented in any direction without
significant energy penalty.
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5.3 IMPACT OF CLIMATE ON WINDOW DESIGN DECISIONS
Because of climatic differences, the impact of windows on energy use and peak demand in perimeter spaces
can vary considerably with location. In colder climate, the windows are in south-facing office perimeter zones
with day lighting controls and no shading.
o One obvious difference between climates is that heating energy use matters a great deal more in
colder cities. In all climates, electricity for cooling and lighting is a more dominant energy use in
perimeter office spaces than gas for heating.
o In spite of the differences in results between climates, the ranking of windows remains generally the
same between window types across all window areas for unshaded windows. With exterior shades,
the ranking is nearly the same but there are variations due to the fact that solar angles vary by
latitude.
o Clear, single and double-glazed windows always perform the worst, as expected, in all cities. The
conventional bronze tints and reflective coatings in the middle group are an improvement. The high-
performance group tends to have the lowest electricity and heating use in all climates.
5.3.1 WINDOW DESIGN FOR OFFICE IN A HOT CLIMATE

This information can be placed into a larger decision-making framework that includes appearance, cost,
technical requirements, and environmental issues. In a predominantly hot climate, window design and
selection must address solar heat gain control and control of plentiful intense daylight.
GUIDELINES
Summary of Guidelines for Window Orientation: In a hot climate, north-facing windows are
recommended with the unshaded condition to reduce energy, peak demand and glare for Windows
(moderate to high SHGC). With effective exterior shading on Windows, there is no difference between
orientations. Orientation has little effect on low-SHGC Windows with or without shading. It provides
guidelines for window orientation, thier window type, size and shading within each orientation: north,
south, and east/west.
Summary of Guidelines for North-facing Perimeter Zones

o Daylighting Controls: Recommended. Daylighting controls reduce total annual energy use with
all window types, although there is less impact with Window, has a low visible transmittance (VT).
Peak demand also declines with day lighting controls but it typically is small on the north in any case.
o Window Area: No recommendation, not a major factor in most cases. When daylighting
controls are used, window area is not a significant factor in energy use or peak demand on the north
(except with single glazing). Greater window area provides more daylight and view but increases glare
problems.
o Shading: No shading recommended. Shading has no significant effect on north-facing perimeter
zones with moderate window areas. Exterior shading can improve glare with larger areas, and interior
shades may be desirable to control infrequent glare in any case.
IRG 30
o Window Type: Select windows with low SHGC and relatively high VT. Windows with a high
SHGC (above 0.40 for the whole unit). When day lighting controls are used, a combination of a low
SHGC (below 0.40 for whole unit) and a high VT (above 0.35 for whole unit) perform best.
Summary of Guidelines for South-facing Perimeter Zones
o Daylighting Controls: Recommended. Daylighting controls reduce total annual energy use and
peak demand with all window types, although there is less impact with windows that have a low
visible transmittance (VT).
o Window Area: Moderate window area recommended (WWR=0.30 or less). Energy use and
peak demand rise with window area in an unshaded condition. Greater glazing area provides more
daylight and view but increases glare problems.
o Shading for Moderate Window Area: Recommended for some window types. Interior and
exterior shading devices significantly reduce energy and peak demand for Windows.
o Shading for Large Window Area: Recommended in all cases. Interior and exterior shading
devices reduce energy and peak demand in all cases. Deep overhangs with fins outperform interior
shades and shallow overhangs. High-rise obstructions are equivalent to shading with shallow
overhangs.
o Window Type: Always select windows with low SHCC.A void windows with a high SHGC
(above 0.40 for the whole unit). Windows with both a low SHGC and a reasonably high VT (above
0.35 for whole unit) are recommended if daylight and view are desired.
Summary of Guidelines for East or West-facing Perimeter Zones
IRG 31
o Daylighting Controls: Recommended. Daylighting controls reduce total annual energy use and
peak demand with all window types, although there is less impact with windows that have a low
visible transmittance (VT).
o Window Area: Small window area recommended (WWR=O.15 or less). Energy use and peak
demand rise with window area in an unshaded condition. Greater glazing area provides more daylight
and view but increases glare problems.
o Shading for Moderate Window Area: Recommended for some window types. Interior and
exterior shading devices significantly reduce energy and peak demand for Windows.
o Shading for Large Window Area: Recommended in all cases. Interior and exterior shading
devices reduce energy and peak demand in all cases. Deep overhangs with vertical fins outperform
interior shades and vertical fins alone. Highrise obstructions offset the need for shading for all
window types.
o Window Type: Always select windows with low SHGC. A void window with a high SHGC
(above 0.40 for the whole unit). Windows with both a low SHGC and a reasonably high VT (above
0.35 for whole unit) are recommended if daylight and view are desired.
IRG 32
6 FENESTRATIONS PROVISIONS IN
ECBC –QUICK GUIDE FOR
ARCHITECTS, SPECIFIERS &
MANUFACTURER
6.1 OVERVIEW
The Energy Conservation Code contains provisions for regulating the energy efficiency of fenestration
products used in new construction and retrograde construction for all buildings in India. The purpose of the
included regulations is to increase the energy efficiency of buildings and decrease the demands for energy
within the country. This Guide will help the architect and specifier understand the requirements of the Code
for fenestration products.
6.2 WHICH BUILDINGS ARE INCLUDED?

The Code is mandatory for commercial buildings or building complexes that have a connected load of 500
kW or greater or a contract demand of 600 kVA or greater. The Code is also applicable to all buildings with a
conditioned floor area of 1,000 m2 (10,000 ft2) or greater. The Code is recommended for all other buildings.
The provisions of the Code are mandatory and apply to:
o Building envelopes except for unconditioned spaces
o Mechanical systems and equipment
o Service hot water heating
o Interior and exterior lighting
o Electrical power and motors
Exceptions are made for:
o Buildings that do not use either electricity or fossil fuel
o Buildings and equipment used primarily for manufacturing processes
o Multi-family buildings of three or fewer stories and single family residences
6.3 WHAT REQUIREMENTS ARE INCLUDED?

This Quick Guide to the Code covers all fenestration products in the building envelope used in commercial
construction and optional residential construction. The regulatory provisions address the following criteria:
o U-factor (Resistance to Thermal Transmission)
o SHGC (Resistance to Solar Heat Gain)
o VLT (Transmission of Visible Light)
o Air Leakage (Resistance to Air Infiltration)
IRG 33
6.4 WHAT PRODUCTS ARE INCLUDED?
This portion of the Code includes windows, doors, skylights and sloped glazing. The use of these products is
limited as follows:
o The use of windows of all types is restricted to 60% of the gross wall area of the building.
o Doors with 50% or greater glazing are considered fenestration products.
o Skylights are restricted to 5% of the gross roof area.
6.5 HOW ARE RATINGS PRESENTED IN THE CODE?

The requirements for products covered in the Code may be determined either by prescriptive requirements
for individual products or by the Whole Building Performance Method, which allows tradeoffs of the
requirements for individual product categories.
o Section 4 of the Code stipulates the prescriptive requirements for fenestration products.
o Rating requirements for U-factor and SHGC are specified for the following climate zones:
Composite
Hot and Dry
Warm and Humid
Moderate
Cold
o Skylights are further subdivided for products with and without curbs and by the Skylight Roof Ratio.
o Adjustment factors are allowed for overhangs and fins in two zones north and south of latitude 15O
and by building orientation of the fenestration product.
o Visible Light Transmission ratings are based on the Window Wall Ratio with five categories.
o Air leakage provisions are strictly prescriptive and specified for swinging entrance doors and
revolving doors and all other fenestration areas.
o Appendix B of the Code provides the means for determining requirements by the Whole Building
Performance Method.
6.6 HOW ARE PRODUCT RATINGS DETERMINED?

o Ratings are simulated according to the provisions of ISO 15099 using the Area Weighted Method.
o Simulations must be performed by an accredited independent laboratory.
o Unrated products must use the default values for U-factor, SHGC and VLT found in Section 12 of
the Code.
6.7 HOW ARE RATINGS SPECIFIED?

o Administrative requirements relating to permit requirements, enforcement, interpretations, claims of
exemption, approved calculation methods and rights of appeal are specified by the authority having
jurisdiction.
o Plans and specifications must show all pertinent data and features of the building to allow authorities
having jurisdiction to verify building compliance. The plans and specifications must include:
Insulation materials and their R-values
Fenestration U-factors
Solar Heat Gain Coefficients (SHGC)
Visible Light Transmittance (VLT)
Air Leakage
IRG 34
Location of fins and overhangs
Building sealant details
o The authority having jurisdiction may require supplemental information necessary to verify
compliance.
6.8 ARE EXCEPTIONS ALLOWED?

Exceptions are provided within the Code as follows:
o Replacement of glass in existing sash or frames provided the U-factor and SHGC of the replacement
glazing are equal or lower.
o Modifications to roof/ceiling, wall, or floor cavities, which are insulated to their full depth.
o Modifications to walls and floors without cavities and where no cavities are created.
o Default tables in Section 12 may be used for unrated products.
6.9 WHY SHOULD A MANUFACTURER BECOME INFORMED?

Implementation of the Code will require that architects and specifiers assess the energy performance of
fenestration products used in the building envelope in order to show compliance with the energy
conservation requirements of the Code. Manufacturers of products included in the code will be required to
supply the rated performance of their products in order to facilitate their inclusion in the project plans and
specifications. The rated performance values will allow the project architect the option of using either the
prescriptive path or the whole building performance path to show compliance of the energy performance of
the building to the authority having jurisdiction. It is, therefore, beneficial to the marketing of your products
to understand how these ratings are determined and how you can facilitate the specification of your products
by the architect.
6.10 HOW DOES WHOLE BUILDING PERFORMANCE METHOD

APPLY?
In order to use this method, the architect or specifier must model the components of the entire building both
for a Code defined standard construction and for the design proposed for the project. The standard design
may not use such devices as shading from fins and overhangs nor may it take advantage of the benefits of
daylighting. Orientation of the fenestration products in the baseline building must be modeled by calculating
the annual energy consumption for the four cardinal directions and averaging the results. The annual energy
consumption of the proposed building must be modeled using the same equations and simulation procedures
as those used for the standard baseline building. Advantages for the use of side fins and overhangs and the
benefits of daylighting may be used for the proposed design. If the annual energy consumption for the
proposed building design and components is less than or equal to that calculated for the standard design
baseline building, the proposed design may be used without recourse to the prescriptive requirements of the
Code.
6.11 WHAT ABOUT TRADEOFFS?

o The Whole Building Performance Method by its very nature allows one component with less than
optimum performance to be used if there is a balancing tradeoff of another component with greater
than targeted energy performance. This is permitted as long as the annual energy usage for the
whole building is less than or equal to that of the standard building.
IRG 35
o The Whole Building Performance Method may be used for permit applications that include less than
the whole building if:
The design parameters for components not part of the permit application are the same for
the standard building and the proposed design.
All future improvements to the building comply with both the mandatory and prescriptive
requirements.
IRG 36
7 APPENDIX A
7.1 ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE

REQUIREMENTS: INDIA: 2007 FENESTRATION
COMPLIANCE PORTION
(Subtitles’ numbers are similar as in ECBC)
3.1.4.1 Building Envelope

Alterations to the building envelope shall comply with the requirements of §4 for fenestration, insulation, and air leakage
applicable to the portions of the buildings and its systems being altered.
Exception to § 3.1.4.1: The following alterations need not comply with these requirements provided such alterations do
not increase the energy usage of the building:
(a) Replacement of glass in an existing sash and frame, provided the U-factor and SHGC of the replacement glazing are
equal to or lower than the existing glazing,
(b) Modifications to roof/ceiling, wall, or floor cavities, which are insulated to full depth with insulation, and
(c) Modifications to walls and floors without cavities and where no new cavities are created.
3.4 COMPLIANCE DOCUMENTS
3.4.1 GENERAL
Plans and specifications shall show all pertinent data and features of the building, equipment, and systems in sufficient
detail to permit the authority having jurisdiction to verify that the building complies with the requirements of this code.
Details shall include, but are not limited to:
(a) Building Envelope: insulation materials and their R-values; fenestration U-factors, solar heat gain coefficients
(SHGC), visible light transmittance (if the trade-off procedure is used), and air leakage; overhangs and sidefins, building
envelope sealing details;
4.2 MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS
4.2.1 FENESTRATION
4.2.1.1 U-FACTORS
U-factors shall be determined for the overall fenestration product (including the sash and frame) in accordance with
ISO-15099, as specified in Appendix 12, by an accredited independent laboratory, and labeled and certified by the
manufacturer or other responsible party. U-factors for sloped glazing and skylights shall be determined at a slope of 20
degrees above the horizontal. For unrated products, use the default table in Appendix 12.
IRG 37
4.2.1.2 S OLAR HEAT GAIN COEFFICIENT (SHGC)
SHGC shall be determined for the overall fenestration product (including the sash and frame) in accordance with ISO-
15099, as specified in Appendix 12, by an accredited independent laboratory, and labeled and certified by the
manufacturer or other responsible party.
Exceptions to § 4.2.1.2:
(a) Shading coefficient (SC) of the center glass alone multiplied by 0.86 is an acceptable alternate for compliance with the
SHGC requirements for the overall fenestration area.
(b) Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) of the glass alone is an acceptable alternate for compliance with the SHGC
requirements for the overall fenestration product.
4.2.1.3 AIR LEAKAGE

Air leakage for glazed swinging entrance doors and revolving doors shall not exceed 5.0 l/sm2. Air leakage for other
fenestration and doors shall not exceed 2.0 l/s-m2.
4.3.3 VERTICAL FENESTRATION

Vertical fenestration shall comply with the maximum area weighted U-factor and maximum area weighted SHGC
requirements of Table 4.3.3-1. Vertical fenestration area is limited to a maximum of 60% of the gross wall area for the
prescriptive requirement.
2
Table 4.3.3-1 Vertical Fenestration U-factor and SHGC Requirements (U-factor in W/m -°C)
WWR 40% 40%<WWR 40%
Climate Maximum U-factor Maximum SHGC Maximum SHGC
Composite 3.30 0.25 0.20
Hot and Dry 3.30 0.25 0.20
Warm and Humid 3.30 0.25 0.20
Moderate 6.90 0.40 0.30

Cold 3.30 0.51 0.51
See Appendix 12.2.1 for typical complying vertical fenestration constructions.
Exception to § 4.3.3: Overhangs and/or side fins may be applied in determining the SHGC for the proposed design. An
adjusted SHGC, accounting for overhangs and/or sidefins, is calculated by multiplying the SHGC of the unshaded
fenestration product times a multiplication (M) factor. If this exception is applied, a separate M Factor shall be
determined for each orientation and unique shading condition by equation 13.1.2 and the overhand and side fine
coefficients are available in Table 13.6. (Appendix E).
Table 4.3.3-2 SHGC “M” Factor Adjustments for Overhangs and Fins
0.50 0.75 0.25 0.50 0.75 0.25 0.50 0.75
Project 0.25 1.00 1.00 1.00
Orientation 0.49
- -
+
- - -
+
- - -
+
Location 0.74 0.99 0.49 0.74 0.99 0.49 0.74 0.99
North N E/ .88 .80 .76 .73 .74 .67 .58 .52 .64 .51 .39 .31
latitude W .79 .65 .56 .50 .80 .72 .65 .60 .60 .39 .24 .16
15° or S .79 .64 .52 .43 .79 .69 .60 .56 .60 .33 .10 .02
greater
Less than
15° North NE .83 .74 .69 .66 .73 .65 .57 .50 .59 .44 .32 .23
latitude W .80 .67 .59 .53 .80 .72 .63 .58 .61 .41 .26 .16
S .78 .62 .55 .50 .74 .65 .57 .50 .53 .30 .12 .04
Exception to SHGC Requirements in § 4.3.3: Vertical Fenestration areas located more than 2.2 m (7 ft) above the level
of the floor are exempt from the SHGC requirement in Table 4.3.3-1, if the following conditions are complied with:
IRG 38
(a) Total Effective Aperture: The total Effective Aperture for the elevation is less than 0.25, including all
fenestration areas greater than 1.0 m (3 ft) above the floor level; and,
(b) An interior light shelf is provided at the bottom of this fenestration area, with an interior projection factor not
less than:
i. 1.0 for E-W, SE, SW, NE, and NW orientations
ii. 0.5 for S orientation, and
iii. 0.35 for N orientation when latitude is < 23 degrees
4.3.3.1 MINIMUM VISIBLE TRANSMISSION (VLT) OF GLAZING FOR VERTICAL

FENESTRATION
Vertical fenestration product shall have the minimum Visual Light Transmittance (VLT), defined as function of Window
Wall Ratio (WWR), where Effective Aperture > 0.1, equal to or greater than the Minimum VT requirements of Table
4.3.3.1.
Table 4.3.3.1 Minimum VLT Requirements
Window Wall Ratio Minimum VLT
0 - 0.3 0.27
0.31-0.4 0.20
0.41-0.5 0.16
0.51-0.6 0.13
0.61-0.7 0.11
4.3.4 S KYLIGHTS
Skylights shall comply with the maximum U-factor and maximum SHGC requirements of Table 4.3.4 Skylight area is
limited to a minimum of 5% of the gross roof area for the prescriptive requirement.
Table 4.3.4 Skylight U-Factor and SHGC (U-Factor in W/m2-ºC)
Maximum U-Factor Maximum SHGC
Climate With crub w/o crub 0 2% SRR 0 21-5% SRR
Composite 11.24 7.71 0.40 0.25
Hot and Dry 11.24 7.71 0.40 0.25
Warm and Humid 11.24 7.71 0.40 0.25
Moderate 11.24 7.71 0.61 0.4

Cold 11.24 7.71 0.61 0.4
SRR = Skylight roof ratio which is the ratio of the total skylight area of the roof, measured to the outside of the
frame, to the gross exterior roof.
See § 12.2.2 for typical complying skylight constructions.
Daylighted area: the daylight illuminated floor area under horizontal fenestration (skylight) or adjacent to vertical
fenestration (window), described as follows
(a) Horizontal Fenestration: the area under a skylight, monitor, or sawtooth configuration with an effective
aperture greater than 0.001 (0.1%). The daylighted area is calculated as the horizontal dimension in each
direction equal to the top aperture dimension in that direction plus either the floor-to-ceiling height (H) for
skylights, or 1.5 H for monitors, or H or 2H for the sawtooth configuration, or the distance to the nearest 1000
mm (42 in) or higher opaque partition, or one-half the distance to an adjacent skylight or vertical glazing,
whichever is least, as shown in the plan and section figures below.
IRG 39
(b) Vertical Fenestration: the
floor area adjacent to side
apertures (vertical fenestration
in walls) with an effective
aperture greater than 0.06 (6%).
The daylighted area extends
into the space perpendicular to
the side aperture a distance
either two times the head height
of the side aperture or to the
nearest 1.35 m (54 in) or higher
opaque partition, whichever is
less. In the direction parallel to
the window, the daylighted area
extends a horizontal dimension
equal to the width of the
window plus either 1 m (3.3 ft)
on each side of the aperture, the
distance to an opaque partition,
or one-half the distance to an
adjacent skylight or window,
whichever is least.
Door: all operable opening areas (which are not fenestration) in the building envelope, including swinging and roll-up
doors, fire doors, and access hatches. Doors that are more than one-half glass are considered fenestration. For the
purposes of determining building envelope requirements, the classifications are defined as follows:
IRG 40
(a) Door, non-swinging: roll-up sliding, and all other doors that are not swinging doors.
(b) Door, swinging: all operable opaque panels with hinges on one side and opaque revolving doors.
Door area: total area of the door measured using the rough opening and including the door slab and the frame.
Effective aperture: Visible Light Transmittance x Window-to-wall Ratio. (EA = VLT x WWR)
Effective aperture, horizontal fenestration: a measure of the amount of daylight that enters a space through
horizontal fenestration (skylights). It is the ratio of the skylight area times the visible light transmission divided by the
gross roof area above the daylighted area. See also daylighted area.
Effective aperture, vertical fenestration: a measure of the amount of daylight that enters a space through vertical
fenestration. It is the ratio of the daylight window area times its visible light transmission plus half the vision glass area
times its visible light transmission and the sum is divided by the gross wall area. Daylighted window area is located 2.2 m
(7 ft) or more above the floor and vision window area is located above 1 m (3 ft) but below 2.2 m (7 ft). The window
area, for the purposes of determining effective aperture shall not include windows located in light wells when the angle
of obstruction ( ) of objects obscuring the sky dome is greater than 70o, measured from the horizontal, nor shall it
include window area located below a height of 1 m (3 ft). See also daylighted area.
Fenestration: all areas (including the frames) in the building envelope that let in light, including windows, plastic panels,
clerestories, skylights, glass doors that are more than onehalf glass, and glass block walls.
(a) Skylight: a fenestration surface having a slope of less than 60 degrees from the horizontal plane. Other
fenestration, even if mounted on the roof of a building, is considered vertical fenestration.
(b) Vertical fenestration: all fenestration other than skylights. Trombe wall assemblies, where glazing is installed
within 300 mm (12 in). of a mass wall, are considered walls, not fenestration.
Fenestration area: total area of the fenestration measured using the rough opening and including the glazing, sash, and
frame. For doors where the glazed vision area is less than 50% of the door area, the fenestration area is the glazed vision
area. For all other doors, the fenestration area is the door area.
Multiplication factor (M): indicates the relative reduction in annual solar cooling load from overhangs and/or side fins
with given projection factors, relative to the respective horizontal and vertical fenestration dimensions.
Orientation: the direction an envelope element faces, i.e., the direction of a vector perpendicular to and pointing away
from the surface outside of the element. For vertical fenestration, the two categories are north-oriented and all other.
Projection factor, overhang: the ratio of the horizontal depth of the external shading projection divided by the sum of
the height of the fenestration and the distance from the top of the fenestration to the bottom of the farthest point of the
external shading projection, in consistent units.
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC): the ratio of the solar heat gain entering the space through the fenestration area
to the incident solar radiation. Solar heat gain includes directly transmitted solar heat and absorbed solar radiation, which
is then reradiated, conducted, or convected into the space.
Tinted: (as applied to fenestration) bronze, green, or grey coloring that is integral with the glazing material. Tinting does
not include surface applied films such as reflective coatings, applied either in the field
or during the manufacturing process.
Wall: that portion of the building envelope, including opaque area and fenestration,
that is vertical or tilted at an angle of 60° from horizontal or greater. This includes
above- and below-grade walls, between floor spandrels, peripheral edges of floors, and
foundation walls.
(a) wall, above grade: a wall that is not below grade
(b) wall, below grade: that portion of a wall in the building envelope that is
entirely below the finish grade and in contact with the ground.
IRG 41
12.1 PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING FENESTRATION PRODUCT U-FACTOR AND
S OLAR
Heat Gain Coefficient
§ 4.2.1.1 and § 4.2.1.2 require that U-factors and solar heat gain coefficients (SHGC) be determined for the overall
fenestration product (including the sash and frame) in accordance with ISO 15099. The building envelope trade-off
option in § 4.4 requires the use of visible light transmittance (VLT).
In several cases, ISO 15099 suggests that individual national standards will need to be more specific and in other cases
the ISO document gives users the choice of two options. This section clarifies these specific issues as they are to be
implemented for this code:
(a) § 4.1: For calculating the overall U-factor, ISO 15099 offers a choice between the linear thermal transmittance
(4.1.2) and the area weighted method (4.1.3). The area weighted method (4.1.3) shall be used.
(b) § 4.2.2: Frame and divider SHGC’s shall be calculated in accordance with § 4.2.2. The alternate approach in § 8.6
shall not be used.
(c) § 6.4 refers the issue of material properties to national standards. Material conductivities and emissivities shall be
determined in accordance with Indian standards.
(d) § 7 on shading systems is currently excluded.
(e) § 8.2 address environmental conditions. The following are defined for India:
For U-factor calculations:
Tin = 24 °C 75F
Tout = 32 °C 89F
V = 3.35 m/s 7.5mph
Trm,out=Tout
Trm,in=Tin
Is=0 W/m2 (248 Btu/Hr/Ft2)
For SHGC calculations:
Tin = 24 °C
Tout = 32 °C
V = 2.75 m/s
Trm,out=Tout
Trm,in=Tin
Is=783 W/m2
(f) § 8.3 addresses convective film coefficients on the interior and exterior of the
window product. In § 8.3.1, simulations shall use the heat transfer
coefficient based on the center of glass temperature and the entire window
height; this film coefficient shall be used on all indoor surfaces, including
frame sections. In § 8.3.2, the formula from this section shall be applied to
all outdoor exposed surfaces.
(g) § 8.4.2 presents two possible approaches for incorporating the impacts of
selfviewing surfaces on interior radiative heat transfer calculations. Products
shall use the method in § 8.4.2.1 (Two-Dimensional Element To Element
View Factor Based Radiation Heat Transfer Calculation). The alternate
approach in § 8.4.3 shall not be used.
IRG 42
12.2 Default U-Factors and Solar Heat Gain Coefficients for Unrated Fenestration Products. All fenestration
with U-factors, SHGC, or visible light transmittance determined, certified, and labeled in accordance ISO
15099 shall be assigned those values.
12.2.1 Unrated Vertical Fenestration. Unlabeled vertical fenestration, both operable and fixed, shall be assigned the U-
factors, SHGCs, and visible light transmittances in Table 12.2.1.
Clear Glass Tinted Glass

Frame Type
Glazing U-
Factor U-Factor
Type SHGC VLT SHGC VLT
(W/m2- (W/m2- oC)
oC)
All frame Single

types Glazing 7.1 0.82 0.76 7.1 0.70 0.58
Wood, vinyl,
or fiberglass Double
frame Glazing 3.3 0.59 0.64 3.4 0.42 0.39
Metal and
other frame Double
type Glazing 5.1 0.68 0.66 5.1 0.50 0.40
12.2.2 UNRATED S LOPED GLAZING AND S KYLIGHTS

Unrated sloped glazing and skylights, both operable and fixed, shall be assigned the SHGCs and visible light
transmittances in Table 12.2.1. To determine the default U-factor for unrated sloped glazing and skylights without a
curb, multiply the values in Table 12.2.1 by 1.2. To determine the default U-factor for unrated skylights on a curb,
multiply the values in Table 12.2.1 by 1.6.
IRG 43
USAID ECO-III Project
AADI Building, Lower Ground Floor
2,Balbir Saxena Marg, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016, India
Phone: +91-11-2685-3110; Email: eco3@irgssa.com; Web Site: www.eco3.org

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GLAZING DESIGN

USAID ECO-III Project Office

Design and Specification Tips

Technical Resources Series

1.1 WHY WE ARE EMPHASIZING ON ENVELOPE

1.2 INTENDED AUDIENCE

1.3 HOW TO USE THIS Glazing Design and Selection Guide

USAID’s ECO-III Project Office

3.1 IMPORTANCE OF WINDOWS

3.1.1 THE EFFECT OF GLAZING ON LIGHTING ENERGY USE

3.2 HUMAN FACTORS ISSUES

3.2.4 THERMAL COMFORT

3.3 TECHNICAL ISSUES

3.3.1 ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE

3.3.3 FIRE PROTECTION

Key Concepts of Fire Protection and Fenestration Design

Fire Protection and Energy Efficiency

3.4 ENERGY-RELATED PROPERTIES OF WINDOWS

AII-96, and GDSG-97)

3.4.1 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS AND GLAZING PROPERTIES RELATED

Table: Sum ma ry of Pro pe rtie s of Typi cal Win dows

4.1 TECHNOLOGIES TO ACHIEVE ENERGY EFFICIENT

4.2 GLAZING IN FENESTRATION PRODUCTS

Center of Glass Values

Layers mm W/m2-K Temperature

1 Clear 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.86 0.99 0.90 32.3

2 Clear 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.81 0.94 0.88 34.0

4.2.2 TINTED GLASS

Center of Glass Values

Layers mm W/m2-K Temperature

3 Gray 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.70 0.81 0.62 38.3

4 Gray 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.57 0.66 0.44 43.1

5 Bronze 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.72 0.84 0.68 37.3

Center of Glass Values

7 Green 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.69 0.80 0.83 38.50

8 Green 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.58 0.68 0.76 42.50

9 Blue 3 mm 1 90 3 5.49 0.64 0.74 0.71 40.30

10 Blue 6 mm 1 90 6 5.40 0.50 0.59 0.53 45.40

4.2.3 REFLECTIVE COATINGS AND FILMS

4.2.4 APPLIED FILMS

Figure 2: Applied Film to reduce Solar Gain of a window

4.2.5 LOW-E COATED GLASS

4.2.6 LOW-E COATINGS IN ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS

Transmitted Short Wave Solar Radiation

Long Wave Thermal Radiation

Figure 4: Low-E coating on Surface 2 of a window

4.2.7 S OFT COAT – APPLIED BY SPUTTERING

4.2.8 HARD COAT – APPLIED BY PYROLYTIC DEPOSITION

Center of Glass Values

Layers mm W/m2-K Temperature

11 LowE-Air-Clr_3mm 2 90 3 1.58 0.36 0.42 0.69 29.3

12 LowE-Air-Clr-6mm 2 90 6 1.56 0.36 0.41 0.67 30.8

13 LowE-Air-Clr_3mm 2 90 3 1.54 0.24 0.27 0.49 29.1

14 LowE-Air-Clr-6mm 2 90 6 1.53 0.24 0.27 0.47 30.2

15 LowE-H-Air-Clr_3mm 2 90 3 1.92 0.46 0.53 0.55 33.2

16 LowE-H-Air-Clr-6mm 2 90 6 1.90 0.44 0.51 0.53 35.1

4.2.9 GAS FILLED UNITS IN ENERGY EFFICIENT WINDOWS

4.2.10 GENERAL FACTORS FOR GAS FILLING AREA

Figure: 5 Gap effect on gas filled units.

4.3.3 LIQUID CRYSTALS

4.3.4 SUSPENDED PARTICLE DISPLAYS

4.4 EDGE SEAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY

4.5.4 VINYL FRAMES

4.5.5 FIBERGLASS AND ENGINEERED THERMOPLASTICS