Fourier Series Tutorial

Series
FOURIER SERIES
Graham S McDonald
A self-contained Tutorial Module for learning

the technique of Fourier series analysis
● Table of contents
● Begin Tutorial

c 2004 g.s.mcdonald@salford.ac.uk
Table of contents
1. Theory
2. Exercises
3. Answers
4. Integrals
5. Useful trig results
6. Alternative notation
7. Tips on using solutions
Full worked solutions
Section 1: Theory 3
1. Theory
● A graph of periodic function f (x) that has period L exhibits the

same pattern every L units along the x-axis, so that f (x + L) = f (x)
for every value of x. If we know what the function looks like over one
complete period, we can thus sketch a graph of the function over a
wider interval of x (that may contain many periods)
f(x )
P E R IO D = L
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 4
● This property of repetition defines a fundamental spatial fre-

quency k = 2π L that can be used to give a first approximation to
the periodic pattern f (x):
f (x) ' c1 sin(kx + α1 ) = a1 cos(kx) + b1 sin(kx),
where symbols with subscript 1 are constants that determine the am-
plitude and phase of this first approximation
● A much better approximation of the periodic pattern f (x) can

be built up by adding an appropriate combination of harmonics to
this fundamental (sine-wave) pattern. For example, adding
c2 sin(2kx + α2 ) = a2 cos(2kx) + b2 sin(2kx) (the 2nd harmonic)

c3 sin(3kx + α3 ) = a3 cos(3kx) + b3 sin(3kx) (the 3rd harmonic)
Here, symbols with subscripts are constants that determine the am-
plitude and phase of each harmonic contribution
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 5
One can even approximate a square-wave pattern with a suitable sum

that involves a fundamental sine-wave plus a combination of harmon-
ics of this fundamental frequency. This sum is called a Fourier series
F u n d a m e n ta l
F u n d a m e n ta l + 2 h a rm o n ic s
F u n d a m e n ta l + 5 h a rm o n ic s P E R IO D = L
F u n d a m e n ta l + 2 0 h a rm o n ic s
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 6
● In this Tutorial, we consider working out Fourier series for func-

tions f (x) with period L = 2π. Their fundamental frequency is then
k = 2π
L = 1, and their Fourier series representations involve terms like
a1 cos x , b1 sin x
a2 cos 2x , b2 sin 2x
a3 cos 3x , b3 sin 3x
We also include a constant term a0 /2 in the Fourier series. This

allows us to represent functions that are, for example, entirely above
the x−axis. With a sufficient number of harmonics included, our ap-
proximate series can exactly represent a given function f (x)
f (x) = a0 /2 + a1 cos x + a2 cos 2x + a3 cos 3x + ...

+ b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x + ...
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 7
A more compact way of writing the Fourier series of a function f (x),

with period 2π, uses the variable subscript n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
∞
a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
● We need to work out the Fourier coefficients (a0 , an and bn ) for

given functions f (x). This process is broken down into three steps
Z
STEP ONE 1
a0 = f (x) dx
π
2π
Z
STEP TWO 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π
2π
Z
STEP THREE 1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π
2π
where integrations are over a single interval in x of L = 2π
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 8
● Finally, specifying a particular value of x = x1 in a Fourier series,

gives a series of constants that should equal f (x1 ). However, if f (x)
is discontinuous at this value of x, then the series converges to a value
that is half-way between the two possible function values
" V e rtic a l ju m p " /d is c o n tin u ity

in th e fu n c tio n re p re s e n te d f(x )
F o u rie r s e rie s
c o n v e rg e s to
h a lf-w a y p o in t
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 2: Exercises 9
2. Exercises
Click on Exercise links for full worked solutions (7 exercises in total).
Exercise 1.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2π such that

1, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x < π .
a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π
b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval −π < x < π is

1 2 1 1
− sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + ...
2 π 3 5
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
π 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + ...
4 3 5 7
● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 2.

0, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
x, 0 < x < π .


π 2 1 1
− cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 π 3 5

1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ...
2 3
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
2
(i) π4 = 1 − 31 + 15 − 17 + . . . and (ii) π8 = 1 + 312 + 512 + 712 + . . .

Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 3.

x, 0 < x < π
f (x) =
π, π < x < 2π .
b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 2π is

3π 2 1 1
− cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 π 3 5

1 1
− sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 3
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
π 1 1 1 π2 1 1 1
(i) 4 = 1− 3 + 5 − 7 +... and (ii) 8 = 1+ 32 + 52 + 72 +...

Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 4.
x
f (x) = over the interval 0 < x < 2π.
2
a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 4π

π 1 1
− sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 2 3
π 1 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + − ...
4 3 5 7 9

Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 5.

π − x, 0 < x < π
f (x) =
0, π < x < 2π

π 2 1 1
+ cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 π 3 5
1 1 1
+ sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + . . .
2 3 4
π2 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5

Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 6.
f (x) = x in the range − π < x < π.

1 1
2 sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − . . .
2 3
π 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + ...
4 3 5 7

Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 7.
f (x) = x2 over the interval − π < x < π.
π2

1 1
− 4 cos x − 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x − . . .
3 2 3
π2 1 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 2 3 4

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 3: Answers 16
3. Answers
The sketches asked for in part (a) of each exercise are given within
the full worked solutions – click on the Exercise links to see these
solutions
The answers below are suggested values of x to get the series of

constants quoted in part (c) of each exercise
π
1. x = 2,
π
2. (i) x = 2, (ii) x = 0,
π
3. (i) x = 2, (ii) x = 0,
π
4. x = 2,
5. x = 0,
π
6. x = 2,
7. x = π.
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 4: Integrals 17
4. Integrals
R b dv b Rb du
Formula for integration by parts: a u dx dx = [uv]a − a dx v dx
R R
f (x) f (x)dx f (x) f (x)dx
xn+1 n [g(x)]n+1
xn n+1 (n 6= −1) [g (x)] g 0 (x) n+1 (n 6= −1)
0
1 g (x)
x ln |x| g(x) ln |g (x)|
x ax
e ex ax
ln a (a > 0)
sin x − cos x sinh x cosh x
cos x sin x cosh x sinh x
tan x − ln
|cos x| tanh x ln cosh x
cosec x ln tan x2 cosech x ln tanh x2
sec x ln |sec x + tan x| sech x 2 tan−1 ex
sec2 x tan x sech2 x tanh x
cot x ln |sin x| coth x ln |sinh x|
sin2 x x
2 −
sin 2x
4 sinh2 x sinh 2x
4 − x2
cos2 x x
2 +
sin 2x
4 cosh2 x sinh 2x
4 + x2
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 4: Integrals 18
R R
f (x) f (x) dx f (x) f (x) dx

1 1
tan−1 x 1 1 a+x
a2 +x2 a a a2 −x2 2a ln a−x (0 < |x| < a)

1 1 x−a
(a > 0) x2 −a2 2a ln x+a (|x| > a > 0)
√
2 2
√ 1 sin−1 x √ 1 ln x+ aa +x (a > 0)

a2 −x2 a a2 +x2
√
2 2
(−a < x < a) √ 1 ln x+ xa −a (x > a > 0)

x2 −a2
√ a2
√ a2
h √ i
sinh−1 x a2 +x2
−1 x
x

a2 − x2 2 sin a a2 +x2 2 a + a2
√ i √ h √ i
a2
a2 −x2
− cosh−1
2 2
+x x
+ x xa2−a

a2 x2 −a2 2 a
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 5: Useful trig results 19
5. Useful trig results

When calculating the Fourier coefficients an and bn , for which n =
1, 2, 3, . . . , the following trig. results are useful. Each of these results,
which are also true for n = 0, −1, −2, −3, . . . , can be deduced from
the graph of sin x or that of cos x
s in (x )
1
● sin nπ = 0 x
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
−1
c o s(x )
1
● cos nπ = (−1)n x
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
−1
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 5: Useful trig results 20
s in (x ) c o s(x )
1 1
x x
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π −3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
−1 −1
 
0 , n even 0 , n odd
π  π 
● sin n = 1 , n = 1, 5, 9, ... ● cos n = 1 , n = 0, 4, 8, ...
2 2
−1 , n = 3, 7, 11, ... −1 , n = 2, 6, 10, ...
 
Areas cancel when

s in (x )
when integrating 1
overR whole periods + + + x

● sin nx dx = 0 −3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
2π
R
● cos nx dx = 0 −1
2π
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 6: Alternative notation 21
6. Alternative notation
2π
● For a waveform f (x) with period L = k
∞
a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nkx + bn sin nkx]
2 n=1
The corresponding Fourier coefficients are
Z
STEP ONE 2
a0 = f (x) dx
L
L
Z
STEP TWO 2
an = f (x) cos nkx dx
L
L
Z
STEP THREE 2
bn = f (x) sin nkx dx
L
L
and integrations are over a single interval in x of L
Toc JJ II J I Back
● For a waveform f (x) with period 2L = 2π

k , we have that
2π π
k = 2L =L and nkx = nπx
L
∞
a0 X h nπx nπx i
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin
2 n=1
L L
Z
STEP ONE 1
a0 = f (x) dx
L
2L
Z
STEP TWO 1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
L L
2L
Z
STEP THREE 1 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
L L
2L
and integrations are over a single interval in x of 2L
Toc JJ II J I Back
2π
● For a waveform f (t) with period T = ω
∞
a0 X
f (t) = + [an cos nωt + bn sin nωt]
2 n=1
Z
STEP ONE 2
a0 = f (t) dt
T
T
Z
STEP TWO 2
an = f (t) cos nωt dt
T
T
Z
STEP THREE 2
bn = f (t) sin nωt dt
T
T
and integrations are over a single interval in t of T
Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 7: Tips on using solutions 24
7. Tips on using solutions
● When looking at the THEORY, ANSWERS, INTEGRALS, TRIG

or NOTATION pages, use the Back button (at the bottom of the
page) to return to the exercises
● Use the solutions intelligently. For example, they can help you get
started on an exercise, or they can allow you to check whether your
intermediate results are correct
● Try to make less use of the full solutions as you work your way
through the Tutorial
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 25
Full worked solutions

Exercise 1.

1, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x < π, and has period 2π
f(x )
1
−2π −π 0 π 2π
x
Toc JJ II J I Back
b) Fourier series representation of f (x)
STEP ONE
π 0
1 π
Z Z Z
1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
π −π π −π π 0
1 0 1 π
Z Z
= 1 · dx + 0 · dx
π −π π 0
1 0
Z
= dx
π −π
1 0
= [x]
π −π
1
= (0 − (−π))
π
1
= · (π)
π
i.e. a0 = 1 .
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP TWO
Z π Z 0 Z π
1 1 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx = f (x) cos nx dx + f (x) cos nx dx
π −π π −π π 0
Z 0 Z π
1 1
= 1 · cos nx dx + 0 · cos nx dx
π −π π 0
Z 0
1
= cos nx dx
π −π
0
1 sin nx 1 0
= = [sin nx]−π
π n −π nπ
1
= (sin 0 − sin(−nπ))
nπ
1
= (0 + sin nπ)
nπ
1
i.e. an = (0 + 0) = 0.
nπ
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP THREE
Z π
1
π −π
Z 0 Z π
1 1
= f (x) sin nx dx + f (x) sin nx dx
π −π π 0
Z 0 Z π
1 1
= 1 · sin nx dx + 0 · sin nx dx
π −π π 0
0 0
1 − cos nx
Z
1
i.e. bn = sin nx dx =
π −π π n −π
1 1
= − [cos nx]0−π = − (cos 0 − cos(−nπ))
nπ nπ
1 1
= − (1 − cos nπ) = − (1 − (−1)n ) , see Trig
nπ nπ
0 , n even n 1 , n even
i.e. bn = 2 , since (−1) =
− nπ , n odd −1 , n odd
Toc JJ II J I Back
We now have that

∞
a0 X
2 n=1
with the three steps giving

0 , n even
a0 = 1, an = 0 , and bn = 2
− nπ , n odd
It may be helpful to construct a table of values of bn
n 1 2 3 4 5
bn − π2 0 − π2 13 0 − π2 15
Substituting our results now gives the required series

1 2 1 1
f (x) = − sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + . . .
2 π 3 5
Toc JJ II J I Back
c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that
π 1 1 1
4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...
Comparing this series with

1 2 1 1
f (x) = − sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + . . . ,
2 π 3 5
we need to introduce a minus sign in front of the constants 13 , 17 ,. . .
So we need sin x = 1, sin 3x = −1, sin 5x = 1, sin 7x = −1, etc
π
The first condition of sin x = 1 suggests trying x = 2.
This choice gives sin π2 + 1

3 sin 3 π2 + 1
5 sin 5 π2 + 1
7 sin 7 π2
1 1 1
i.e. 1 − 3 + 5 − 7
Looking at the graph of f (x), we also have that f ( π2 ) = 0.
Toc JJ II J I Back
π
Picking x = 2 thus gives
h
0 = 21 − π2 sin π2 + 1
3 sin 3π
2 +
1
5 sin 5π
2 i
1
+ 7 sin 7π
2 + ...
h
1 2 1 1
i.e. 0 = 2 − π 1 − 3 + 5 i
1
− 7 + ...
A little manipulation then gives a series representation of π4

2 1 1 1 1
1 − + − + ... =
π 3 5 7 2
1 1 1 π
1 − + − + ... = .
3 5 7 4
Return to Exercise 1
Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 2.

0, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
x, 0 < x < π, and has period 2π
f(x )
π
−3π −2π −π π 2π 3π
x
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP ONE
Z π Z 0 Z π
1 1 1
π −π π −π π 0
Z 0 Z π
1 1
= 0 · dx + x dx
π −π π 0
π
1 x2
=
π 2 0
1 π2

= −0
π 2
π
i.e. a0 = .
2
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP TWO
Z π Z 0 Z π
1 1 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx = f (x) cos nx dx + f (x) cos nx dx
π −π π −π π 0
Z 0 Z π
1 1
=0 · cos nx dx + x cos nx dx
−π π π 0
Z π π Z π
1 1 sin nx sin nx
i.e. an = x cos nx dx = x − dx
π 0 π n 0 0 n
(using integration by parts)

1 sin nπ 1 h cos nx iπ
i.e. an = π −0 − −
π n n n 0

1 1
= ( 0 − 0) + 2 [cos nx]π0
π n
1 1
= 2
{cos nπ − cos 0} = 2
{(−1)n − 1}
πn
πn
0 , n even
i.e. an = , see Trig.
− πn2 2 , n odd
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP THREE
π 0
1 π
Z Z Z
1 1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = f (x) sin nx dx + f (x) sin nx dx
π −π π −π π 0
1 0 1 π
Z Z
= 0 · sin nx dx + x sin nx dx
π −π π 0
Z π Z π
1 1 h cos nx iπ cos nx
i.e. bn = x sin nx dx = x − − − dx
π 0 π n 0 0 n
(using integration by parts)
1 π
Z
1 1 π
= − [x cos nx]0 + cos nx dx
π n n 0
π
1 1 1 sin nx
= − (π cos nπ − 0) +
π n n n 0
1 1
= − (−1)n + (0 − 0), see Trig
n πn2
1
= − (−1)n
n
Toc JJ II J I Back
− n1
(
, n even
i.e. bn =
+ n1 , n odd
We now have
∞
a0 X
2 n=1
− n1
( (
π 0 , n even , n even
where a0 = , an = , bn =
2 − πn2 2 , n odd 1
, n odd
n
Constructing a table of values gives
n 1 2 3 4 5
an − π2 0 − π2 · 1
32 0 − π2 · 1
52
bn 1 − 12 1
3 − 14 1
5
Toc JJ II J I Back
This table of coefficients gives

1 π 2
f (x) = + − cos x + 0 · cos 2x
2 2 π

2 1
+ − · 2 cos 3x + 0 · cos 4x
π 3

2 1
+ − · 2 cos 5x + ...
π 5
1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ...
2 3

π 2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = − cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 π 3 5

1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ...
2 3
and we have found the required series!
Toc JJ II J I Back
π 1 1 1
(i) 4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...
Comparing this series with

π 2 1 1
f (x) = − cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 π 3 5

1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ... ,
2 3
the required series of constants does not involve terms like 312 , 512 , 712 , ....
So we need to pick a value of x that sets the cos nx terms to zero.
The Trig section shows that cos n π2 = 0 when n is odd, and note also
that cos nx terms in the Fourier series all have odd n
π
i.e. cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = ... = 0 when x = 2,
i.e. cos π2 = cos 3 π2 = cos 5 π2 = ... = 0
Toc JJ II J I Back
Setting x = π2 in the series for f (x) gives

π
π 2 π 1 3π 1 5π
f = − cos + 2 cos + 2 cos + ...
2 4 π 2 3 2 5 2

π 1 2π 1 3π 1 4π 1 5π
+ sin − sin + sin − sin + sin − ...
2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2
π 2
= − [0 + 0 + 0 + ...]
4 π 
1 1 1 1
+ 1 − sin π + · (−1) − sin 2π + · (1) − ...
2 | {z } 3 4 | {z } 5
=0 =0
π π

The graph of f (x) shows that f 2 = 2, so that
π π 1 1 1
= + 1 − + − + ...
2 4 3 5 7
π 1 1 1
i.e. = 1 − + − + ...
4 3 5 7
Toc JJ II J I Back
Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that
π2 1 1 1
(ii) 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + 72 + ...
Compare this series with

π 2 1 1
f (x) = − cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 π 3 5

1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ... .
2 3
This time, we want to use the coefficients of the cos nx terms, and
the same choice of x needs to set the sin nx terms to zero
Picking x = 0 gives
sin x = sin 2x = sin 3x = 0 and cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = 1
Note also that the graph of f (x) gives f (x) = 0 when x = 0
Toc JJ II J I Back
So, picking x = 0 gives

π 2 1 1 1
0 = − cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + ...
4 π 3 5 7
sin 0 sin 0
+ sin 0 − + − ...
2 3
π 2 1 1 1
i.e. 0 = − 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... + 0 − 0 + 0 − ...
4 π 3 5 7
We then find that

2 1 1 1 π
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... =
π 3 5 7 4
1 1 1 π2
and 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... = .
3 5 7 8
Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 3.

x, 0 < x < π
f (x) =
π, π < x < 2π, and has period 2π
f(x )
π
−2π −π 0 π 2π
x
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STEP ONE
2π π
1 2π
Z Z Z
1 1
π 0 π 0 π π
1 π 1 2π
Z Z
= xdx + π · dx
π 0 π π
π 2π
1 x2 π
= + x
π 2 0 π π
2
1 π
= − 0 + 2π − π
π 2
π
= +π
2
3π
i.e. a0 = .
2
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP TWO
Z 2π
1
π 0
Z π Z 2π
1 1
= x cos nx dx + π · cos nx dx
π 0 π π
" π # 2π
Z π
1 sin nx sin nx π sin nx
= x − dx +
π n 0 0 n π n π
| {z }
using integration by parts
" π #
1 1 − cos nx
= π sin nπ − 0 · sin n0 −
π n n2 0
1
+ (sin n2π − sin nπ)
n
Toc JJ II J I Back
" #
1 1 cos nπ cos 0 1
i.e. an = 0−0 + − 2 + 0−0
π n n2 n n
1
= (cos nπ − 1), see Trig
n2 π
1
(−1)n − 1 ,

= 2
n π
− n22 π , n odd
(
i.e. an =
0 , n even.
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP THREE
Z 2π
1
π 0
Z π Z 2π
1 1
= x sin nx dx + π · sin nx dx
π 0 π π
" # 2π
1 h cos nx iπ Z π − cos nx
π − cos nx
= x − − dx +
π n 0 0 n π n π
| {z }
" π #
1 −π cos nπ sin nx 1
= +0 + − (cos 2nπ − cos nπ)
π n n2 0 n
" #
1 −π(−1)n

sin nπ − sin 0 1
1 − (−1)n

= + 2
−
π n n n
1 1
− (−1)n + 1 − (−1)n

= 0 −
n n
Toc JJ II J I Back
1 1 1
i.e. bn = − (−1)n − + (−1)n
n n n
1
i.e. bn = − .
n
We now have
∞
a0 X
2 n=1
(
3π 0 , n even
where a0 = 2 , an = , bn = − n1
− n22 π , n odd
Constructing a table of values gives
n 1 2 3 4 5
an − π2 0 − π2 312 0 − π2 512
bn −1 − 21 − 13 − 14 − 15
Toc JJ II J I Back
This table of coefficients gives
h i
1 3π 2 1
f (x) = 2 2 + − π cos x + 0 · cos 2x + 32 cos 3x + . . .
h i
1 1
+ −1 sin x + 2 sin 2x + 3 sin 3x + . . .
h i
3π 2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = 4 − π cos x + 32 cos 3x + 52 cos 5x + . . .
h i
1 1
− sin x + 2 sin 2x + 3 sin 3x + . . .
and we have found the required series.
Toc JJ II J I Back
π 1 1 1
(i) 4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...
Compare this series with

3π 2 1 1
f (x) = − cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 π 3 5

1 1
− sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 3
Here, we want to set the cos nx terms to zero (since their coefficients
are 1, 312 , 512 , . . .). Since cos n π2 = 0 when n is odd, we will try setting
x = π2 in the series. Note also that f ( π2 ) = π2
This gives
π 3π 2
cos π2 + 1
cos 3 π2 + 1
cos 5 π2 + . . .

2 = 4 − π 32 52
sin π2 + 1
sin 2 π2 + 1
sin 3 π2 + 1
sin 4 π2 + 1
sin 5 π2 + . . .

− 2 3 4 5
Toc JJ II J I Back
and
π 3π 2
2 = 4 − π [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
1 1 1 1

− (1) + 2 · (0) + 3 · (−1) + 4 · (0) + 5 · (1) + . . .
then
π 3π 1 1 1

2 = 4 − 1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...
1 1 1 3π π
1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ... = 4 − 2
1 1 1 π
1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ... = 4, as required.
To show that
π2 1 1 1
(ii) 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + 72 + ... ,
We want zero sin nx terms and to use the coefficients of cos nx

Toc JJ II J I Back
Setting x = 0 eliminates the sin nx terms from the series, and also
gives
1 1 1 1 1 1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + 2 cos 7x + . . . = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . .
3 5 7 3 5 7
(i.e. the desired series).
The graph of f (x) shows a discontinuity (a “vertical jump”) at x = 0
The Fourier series converges to a value that is half-way between the

two values of f (x) around this discontinuity. That is the series will
converge to π2 at x = 0

π 3π 2 1 1 1
i.e. = − cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + . . .
2 4 π 3 5 7

1 1
− sin 0 + sin 0 + sin 0 + . . .
2 3

π 3π 2 1 1 1
and = − 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . . − [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
2 4 π 3 5 7
Toc JJ II J I Back
Finally, this gives

π 2 1 1 1
− = − 1+
+ + + . . .
4 π 32 52 72
π2 1 1 1
and = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5 7
Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 4.
f (x) = x2 , over the interval 0 < x < 2π and has period 2π
a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 4π
f(x )
π
0 π 2π 3π 4π
x
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP ONE
Z 2π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0
Z 2π
1 x
= dx
π 0 2
2 2π
1 x
=
π 4 0
(2π)2

1
= −0
π 4
i.e. a0 = π.
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP TWO
Z 2π
1
π 0
Z 2π
1 x
= cos nx dx
π 0 2
( 2π )
Z 2π
1 sin nx 1
= x − sin nx dx
2π n 0 n 0
| {z }
( )
1 sin n2π sin n · 0 1
= 2π −0· − ·0
2π n n n
( )
1 1
= (0 − 0) − · 0 , see Trig
2π n
i.e. an = 0.
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP THREE
Z 2π Z 2π
1 1 x
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = sin nx dx
π 0 π 0 2
Z 2π
1
= x sin nx dx
2π 0
( 2π Z 2π )
1 − cos nx − cos nx
= x − dx
2π n 0 0 n
| {z }
( )
1 1 1
= (−2π cos n2π + 0) + · 0 , see Trig
2π n n
−2π
= cos(n2π)
2πn
1
= − cos(2nπ)
n
1
i.e. bn = − , since 2n is even (see Trig)
n
Toc JJ II J I Back
We now have
∞
a0 X
2 n=1
where a0 = π, an = 0, bn = − n1
These Fourier coefficients give
∞
π X 1
f (x) = + 0 − sin nx
2 n=1 n

π 1 1
i.e. f (x) = − sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . . .
2 2 3
Toc JJ II J I Back
π 1 1 1 1
4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + 9 − ...
π π
Setting x = 2 gives f (x) = 4 and

π π 1 1
= − 1 + 0 − + 0 + + 0 − ...
4 2 3 5

π π 1 1 1 1
= − 1 − + − + − ...
4 2 3 5 7 9

1 1 1 1 π
1 − + − + − ... =
3 5 7 9 4
1 1 1 1 π
i.e. 1 − + − + − . . . = .
3 5 7 9 4
Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 5.

π−x , 0<x<π
f (x) =
0 , π < x < 2π, and has period 2π
f(x )
π
−2π −π 0 π 2π
x
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP ONE
Z 2π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0
Z π Z 2π
1 1
= (π − x) dx + 0 · dx
π 0 π π
π
1 1
= πx − x2 + 0
π 2 0
2

1 π
= π2 − −0
π 2
π
i.e. a0 = .
2
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP TWO
Z 2π
1
π 0
1 π 1 2π
Z Z
= (π − x) cos nx dx + 0 · dx
π 0 π π
π Z π
1 sin nx sin nx
i.e. an = (π − x) − (−1) · dx +0
π n 0 0 n
| {z }
Z π
1 sin nx
= (0 − 0) + dx , see Trig
π 0 n
π
1 − cos nx
=
πn n 0
1
= − 2 (cos nπ − cos 0)
πn
1
i.e. an = − 2 ((−1)n − 1) , see Trig
πn
Toc JJ II J I Back

 0 , n even
i.e. an =
2
, n odd

πn2
STEP THREE
Z 2π
1
π 0
Z π Z 2π
1
= (π − x) sin nx dx + 0 · dx
π 0 π
1
h cos nx iπ Z π cos nx
= (π − x) − − (−1) · − dx + 0
π n 0 0 n
π 1
1
= 0− − − · 0 , see Trig
π n n
1
i.e. bn = .
n
Toc JJ II J I Back
π
In summary, a0 = 2 and a table of other Fourier cofficients is
n 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 2 1 2 1
an = πn2 (when n is odd) π 0 π 32 0 π 52
1 1 1 1 1
bn = n 1 2 3 4 5
∞
a0 X
∴ f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
π 2 2 1 2 1
= + cos x + cos 3x + cos 5x + . . .
4 π π 32 π 52
1 1 1
2 3 4
π 2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = + cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 π 3 5
1 1 1
2 3 4
Toc JJ II J I Back
π2 1 1
c) To show that 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + ... ,
π
note that, as x → 0 , the series converges to the half-way value of 2,

π π 2 1 1
and then = + cos 0 + cos 0 + cos 0 + . . .
2 4 π 32 52
1 1
+ sin 0 + sin 0 + sin 0 + . . .
2 3

π π 2 1 1
= + 1 + 2 + 2 + ... + 0
2 4 π 3 5

π 2 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
4 π 3 5
π2 1 1
giving = 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5
Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 6.
f (x) = x, over the interval −π < x < π and has period 2π
f(x )
π
x
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
−π
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP ONE
Z π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π −π
Z π
1
= x dx
π −π
π
1 x2
=
π 2 −π
1 π2 π2

= −
π 2 2
i.e. a0 = 0.
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP TWO
1 π
Z
π −π
Z π
1
= x cos nx dx
π −π
( π Z π )
1 sin nx sin nx
= x − dx
π n −π −π n
| {z }
1 π
Z
1 1
i.e. an = (π sin nπ − (−π) sin(−nπ)) − sin nx dx
π n n −π

1 1 1
= (0 − 0) − · 0 ,
π n n
Z
since sin nπ = 0 and sin nx dx = 0,
2π
i.e. an = 0.
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP THREE
1 π
Z
π −π
Z π
1
= x sin nx dx
π −π
( π Z π )
1 −x cos nx − cos nx
= − dx
π n −π −π n
1 π
Z
1 1 π
= − [x cos nx]−π + cos nx dx
π n n −π

1 1 1
= − (π cos nπ − (−π) cos(−nπ)) + · 0
π n n
π
= − (cos nπ + cos nπ)
nπ
1
= − (2 cos nπ)
n
2
i.e. bn = − (−1)n .
n
Toc JJ II J I Back
We thus have
∞
a0 X h i
f (x) = + an cos nx + bn sin nx
2 n=1
with a0 = 0, an = 0, bn = − n2 (−1)n
and
n 1 2 3
2
bn 2 −1 3
Therefore
f (x) = b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x + . . .

1 1
i.e. f (x) = 2 sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − . . .
2 3
and we have found the required Fourier series.
Toc JJ II J I Back
π 1 1 1
4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...
Setting x = π2 gives f (x) = π2 and

π π 1 2π 1 3π 1 4π 1 5π
= 2 sin − sin + sin − sin + sin − ...
2 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2
This gives
π 1 1 1
= 2 1 + 0 + · (−1) − 0 + · (1) − 0 + · (−1) + . . .
2 3 5 7

π 1 1 1
= 2 1 − + − + ...
2 3 5 7
π 1 1 1
i.e. = 1 − + − + ...
4 3 5 7
Toc JJ II J I Back
Exercise 7.
f (x) = x2 , over the interval −π < x < π and has period 2π
f(x )
π
2
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
x
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP ONE
Z π Z π
1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = x2 dx
π −π π −π
π
1 x3
=
π 3 −π
1 π3 π3

= − −
π 3 3
1 2π 3

=
π 3
2π 2
i.e. a0 = .
3
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP TWO
1 π
Z
π −π
Z π
1
= x2 cos nx dx
π −π
( π Z π )
1 sin nx sin nx
= x2 − 2x dx
π n −π −π n
| {z }
( )
2 π
Z
1 1 2 2
= π sin nπ − π sin(−nπ) − x sin nx dx
π n n −π
( )
2 π
Z
1 1
= (0 − 0) − x sin nx dx , see Trig
π n n −π
Z π
−2
= x sin nx dx
nπ −π
Toc JJ II J I Back
( π Z π )
−2 − cos nx − cos nx
i.e. an = x − dx
nπ n −π −π n
| {z }
using integration by parts again
( )
−2 1 π
Z
1 π
= − [x cos nx]−π + cos nx dx
nπ n n −π
( )
−2 1 1
= − π cos nπ − (−π) cos(−nπ) + · 0
nπ n n
( )
−2 1
= − π(−1)n + π(−1)n
nπ n
( )
−2 −2π
= (−1)n
nπ n
Toc JJ II J I Back
( )
−2 2π
i.e. an = − (−1)n
nπ n
+4π
= (−1)n
πn2
4
= (−1)n
n2
4
, n even
(
n2
i.e. an =
−4
n2 , n odd.
Toc JJ II J I Back
STEP THREE
π
1 π 2
Z Z
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = x sin nx dx
π −π π −π
( π Z π )
1 − cos nx − cos nx
= x2 − 2x · dx
π n −π −π n
| {z }
( )
Z π
1 1 2 π 2
= − x cos nx −π + x cos nx dx
π n n −π
( Z π )
1 1 2 2
π cos nπ − π 2 cos(−nπ) +

= − x cos nx dx
π n n −π
( )
2 π
Z
1 1 2 2
= − π cos nπ − π cos(nπ) + x cos nx dx
π n| {z } n −π
=0
Z π
2
= x cos nx dx
πn −π
Toc JJ II J I Back
( π )
Z π
2 sin nx sin nx
i.e. bn = x − dx
πn n −π −π n
| {z }
( )
Z π
2 1 1
= (π sin nπ − (−π) sin(−nπ)) − sin nx dx
πn n n −π
( )
1 π
Z
2 1
= (0 + 0) − sin nx dx
πn n n −π
−2 π
Z
= sin nx dx
πn2 −π
i.e. bn = 0.
Toc JJ II J I Back
∞
a0 X
∴ f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
(
4
2π 2 n2 , n even
where a0 = 3 , an = −4 , bn = 0
n2 , n odd
n 1 2 3 4
1 1 1

an −4(1) 4 22 −4 32 4 42
2π 2

1 1 1 1
i.e. f (x) = − 4 cos x − 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x − 2 cos 4x . . .
2 3 2 3 4
+ [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
π2

1 1 1
i.e. f (x) = − 4 cos x − 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x − 2 cos 4x + . . . .
3 2 3 4
Toc JJ II J I Back
π2
c) To show that = 1 + 212 + 312 + 412 + . . . ,
6
(
1 , n even
use the fact that cos nπ =
−1 , n odd
1 1 1
i.e. cos x − 22 cos 2x + 32 cos 3x − 42 cos 4x + . . . with x = π
1 1 1
gives cos π − 22 cos 2π + 32 cos 3π − 42 cos 4π + . . .
1 1 1
i.e. (−1) − 22 · (1) + 32 · (−1) − 42 · (1) + . . .
1 1 1
i.e. −1 − 22 − 32 − 42 +...

1 1 1
= −1 · 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . .
2 3 4
| {z }
(the desired series)
Toc JJ II J I Back
The graph of f (x) gives that f (π) = π 2 and the series converges to
this value.
Setting x = π in the Fourier series thus gives

π2

2 1 1 1
π = − 4 cos π − 2 cos 2π + 2 cos 3π − 2 cos 4π + . . .
3 2 3 4
2

π 1 1 1
π2 = − 4 −1 − 2 − 2 − 2 − . . .
3 2 3 4
π2

2 1 1 1
π = + 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3 2 3 4
2

2π 1 1 1
= 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3 2 3 4
π2 1 1 1
i.e. = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 2 3 4
Toc JJ II J I Back

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Series

A self-contained Tutorial Module for learning

● A graph of periodic function f (x) that has period L exhibits the

● This property of repetition defines a fundamental spatial fre-

f (x) ' c1 sin(kx + α1 ) = a1 cos(kx) + b1 sin(kx),

● A much better approximation of the periodic pattern f (x) can

c2 sin(2kx + α2 ) = a2 cos(2kx) + b2 sin(2kx) (the 2nd harmonic)

One can even approximate a square-wave pattern with a suitable sum

● In this Tutorial, we consider working out Fourier series for func-

We also include a constant term a0 /2 in the Fourier series. This

f (x) = a0 /2 + a1 cos x + a2 cos 2x + a3 cos 3x + ...

A more compact way of writing the Fourier series of a function f (x),

● We need to work out the Fourier coefficients (a0 , an and bn ) for

● Finally, specifying a particular value of x = x1 in a Fourier series,

" V e rtic a l ju m p " /d is c o n tin u ity

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 4π

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

f (x) = x in the range − π < x < π.

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

f (x) = x2 over the interval − π < x < π.

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

The answers below are suggested values of x to get the series of

5. Useful trig results

Areas cancel when

overR whole periods + + + x

● For a waveform f (x) with period 2L = 2π

7. Tips on using solutions

● When looking at the THEORY, ANSWERS, INTEGRALS, TRIG

Full worked solutions

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

We now have that

Substituting our results now gives the required series

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

Comparing this series with

So we need sin x = 1, sin 3x = −1, sin 5x = 1, sin 7x = −1, etc

This choice gives sin π2 + 1

A little manipulation then gives a series representation of π4

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

Constructing a table of values gives

This table of coefficients gives

and we have found the required series!

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

Comparing this series with

i.e. cos π2 = cos 3 π2 = cos 5 π2 = ... = 0

Setting x = π2 in the series for f (x) gives

Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

Compare this series with

Note also that the graph of f (x) gives f (x) = 0 when x = 0

So, picking x = 0 gives

We then find that

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π