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1. Describe the principles of blood cell maturation.

In the course of blood cell maturation, certain specific features are developed. Each of the component parts of
the cell undergoes a transformation during maturation. The immature cell or blast cell contains a large nucleus,
a small amount of cytoplasm, and no granules. As the cell ages, the cytoplasm becomes less basophilic and
nuclear chromatin becomes heavier (darker stain). Reduction in size and loss of nucleoli occurs as the cell
becomes older. The three types of granulation (neutrophilic, basophilic, and eosinophilic) become more
specific and smaller as the cell ages. Maturation, in general, involves:

(1) cytoplasmic differentiation

(2) nuclear maturation,

(3) reduction in cell size

The basophilia of a blast cell is proportional to the ribonucleic acid (RNA) content. As the cell matures, the RNA
content decreases and the cell becomes a paler blue. In the myeloid cells, a specific type of granulation occurs.
When granules appear they are pinkish-red and few in number. The granules increase in number and
differentiate into three types upon maturation. As the cell matures, it develops an affinity for the acid or basic
portion of the stain (Wright’s stain). Basophilic granules stain blue-black, eosinophilic granules stain red-
orange, and neutrophilic granules stain pinkish-purple. Lymphocytes are usually devoid of cytoplasmic
granulation but they can possess non-specific azurophilic (dark-purple) granules, usually characteristic of
monocytes and plasmocytes. Upon maturation, the erythrocyte develops a light orange respiratory pigment
called hemoglobin.

The nucleus of the young cell is large, round, and occupies most of the cell. As the cell matures, the size of the
nucleus decreases. Nuclei of early or primitive cells usually have one or more nucleoli. The latter are small,
round, homogeneous areas that usually stain light blue with a darker boundary. In appearance nucleoli are
somewhat like craters in the nucleus. They are surrounded by strands of chromatin.

These nucleoli, plus a delicate reticular network of chromatin, are the principle indicators of blood cell
immaturity. As the cells mature, the nucleus gradually becomes smaller, stains darker, and chromatin
meshwork become “coarse” with the strands of chromatin less fine and lacelike. In the course of cell
development, the nucleus changes its shape, particularly in the granulocytic series, where it becomes indented,
lobulated, segmented, or fragmented. As maturation or development progresses, the nucleus, if still intact,
becomes small, compact, usually dark and structureless, and can completely disappear. The loss or shrinking of
the nucleus is accompanied by a decrease in cell size.

Researcher: Rosete, Weyan

-3 NORMAL CELL MATURATION. (n.d.). Retrieved August 29, 2017, from http://free-ed.net/free-
ed/Courses/06%20MedHealth/MD%20Series/MD0853/Hematology.asp?iNum=0103
2. Describe the stages of erythrocyte development, the order of maturation and series, and characteristics of
each stage with variation.

The six morphologically identifiable stages in erythroid maturation:


1- Pronormoblast (Rubriblast)

2- Basophilic Normoblast (Prorubricyte)

3- Polychromatophilic Normoblast (Rubricyte)

4- Orthochromic Normoblast (Metarubricyte)

5- Polychromatic Erythrocyte (Reticulocyte)

6- Mature Erythrocyte (Mature Red Blood Cell

Developmental Stages
Early Cells
The pluripotent stem cell (CFU-S) differentiates to the committed stem cell (CFU-GEMM), which in turn
differentiates to the earliest form of “committed” erythroid precursor known as the BFU-E (Burst Forming Unit-
Erythroid). After a few days, the BFU-E differentiates to the late erythroid precursor the CFU-E (Colony
Forming Unit-Erythroid), which in turn differentiates to the first morphologically identifiable stage of the
erythroid cells, the pronormoblast. The pronormoblast is the first of 6 stages ending in the mature RBC (the
erythrocyte).

Erythroblast is a term used for all forms of nucleated RBC.

Pronormoblast
The least mature erythroid precursor cell is called a pronormoblast. It is a large cell with a rim of basophilic
cytoplasm, a large nucleus which occupies most of the cell. Nuclear chromatin is coarse and prominent nucleoli
are seen.

Basophilic normoblast
This is smaller than the proerythroblast with a smaller nucleus but a more basophilic cytoplasm due to
increased numbers of ribosomes in the cytoplasm. These ribosomes are involved in the production of
hemoglobin. Nucleoli are not seen at this stage.

Polychromatic normoblast
This is the last precursor cell capable of mitosis and is smaller than the basophilic erythroblast. Its cytoplasm
appears greyer due to the increased acidophilic staining caused by the presence of hemoglobin. Nuclear
chromatin undergoes condensation.

Orthochromatic normoblast
It is the smallest of the precursors and only slightly larger than a mature erythrocyte. Hemoglobinization is
complete and so the cytoplasm appears eosinophilic. The nucleus shrinks and the chromatin isgreatly
condensed giving the nucleus a homogeneous appearance. As the proerythroblast matures through stages of
basophilic, polychromatophilic and orthrochromatic erythroblasts, the cytoplasm becomes progressively more
abundant and its colour changes from deep blue (due to high RNA content) to pink due to the increase in
hemoglobin. The nucleus becomes smaller and dark staining(pyknotic).
Reticulocyte
The cell is larger than a mature RBC, does not have a nucleus and has remnants of cytoplasmic ribosomal RNA
which appear as a fine reticulum when stained with dyes such as new methylene blue and brilliant cresyl blue.
On staining with Romansky stains it appears uniformly blue (polychromatophil). After its release from the
marrow it remains in the spleen to undergo further maturation As the reticulocyte matures to an adult RBC it
loses its ability to synthesize Hb.

The mature RBC


This is an anucleate biconcave disc lacking cytoplasmic organelles such as nucleus, mitochondria or ribosomes.
Its major (90%) constituent is hemoglobin (Hb) which carries oxygen to tissues and carbon dioxide from the
tissues. Besides Hb, it also contains enzymes required for energy production and for maintenance of Hb in a
functional reduced state. The red cells are highly deformable under normal- physiological condition and this
property allows them to pass easily through the sinusoids of the spleen.

The average life span of RBC is 100-120 days. After completion of their life span the RBC’s are removed by the
macrophages of liver and spleen(extravascular). A small fraction of RBCs may undergo destruction within the
circulation that is intravascularly.

Rsearcher: Ruiz, Trixia Mae E.

Reference: Retrieved on August 29, 2017 from http://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/dmlt/hbbt/Lesson-


01.pdf , http://medcell.med.yale.edu/histology/blood_bone_marrow_lab/erythropoiesis.php

3. List the stages of leukocyte development, the order of maturation and series, and characteristics of each
stage with variation

THE GRANULOCYSTIC SERIES

Colony-forming-unit-granulocyte-erythrocyte-megakaryocyte (CFU-GEMM) progenitor cell differentiates into


the colony-forming-unit-granulocyte-macrophage (CFU-GM) progenitor cell, the cell develops into a
myeloblast; the maturational development from the myeloblast through the myelocyte stage and mitotic
division take place in the bone marrow’s proliferative compartment.

1. The myeloblast is the first identifiable cell in the granulocytic series. Myeloblasts constitute
approximately 1% of the total nucleated bone marrow cells. This stage lasts approximately 15
hours.
2. The next stage, the promyelocyte, constitutes approximately 3% of the nucleated bone
marrow cells. This stage lasts about 24 hours.
3. The myelocyte is the next maturational stage, with approximately 12% of the proliferative cells
existing in this stage. The stage from myelocyte to metamyelocyte lasts an average of 4.3 days.
Once the metamyelocyte stage has been reached, cells have undergone four or five cell divisions and the
proliferative phase comes to an end.

Following the proliferative stage, granulocytes enter a maturation-storage compartment. The metamyelocytes
and band forms mature into segmented granulocytes in this compartment of the bone marrow. The relative
proportions of these cells are approximately 45%, 35%, and 20%, respectively. The segmented neutrophils in
the maturation-storage compartment are frequently referred to as the marrow reserve. This reserve
constitutes a 4- to 8-day supply of neutrophils. It is estimated that neutrophilic granulocytes normally remain
in the maturation-storage phase for 7 to 10 days. Eosinophils remain for about 2.5 days, and basophils remain
in this phase for the shortest period, approximately 12 hours.
Maturational Characteristics of Neutrophilic Granulocytes

 Myeloblast - has an average overall diameter of 10 to 18 mm. The nuclear chromatin is finely reticular,
with one to five light-staining nucleoli. The cytoplasm appears as a small rim of basophilic cytoplasm
that lacks granules. Auer rods may appear as red, needle-like crystalline cytoplasmic inclusions that
may appear alone or in groups. Auer rods are pathological, not normal, inclusions
 Promyelocyte - outstanding feature is the presence of prominent granulation that may actually
obscure the other morphological features of the cell. It is larger than the blast stage (14 to 20 mm). The
N:C ratio is lower in the promyelocyte than in the myeloblast. The nuclear chromatin is more
condensed than in the blast, and nucleoli are present. The cytoplasm is a pale grayish blue.
 Myelocyte - characterized by the recognizable appearance of secondary or specific cytoplasmic
granulation. The separate cell types—neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils— become visibly
recognizable at this stage. Neutrophilic granules are fi ne and stain a blue-pink color with Wright stain.
Eosinophilic granules are larger than neutrophilic granules. These round or oval-shaped granules are
orange and have a glassy or semi opaque texture. Basophilic granules have a dark blue-black color and
a dense appearance. The myelocyte has an average diameter of 12 to 18 mm.

THE MONOCYTIC-MACROPHAGE SERIES

Cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system include the monocytes and macrophages. Cells of the macrophage
system are formed from the progenitor cells in the bone marrow. These cells are derived from the CFU-GM,
which can differentiate into either the megakaryocyte-colony-forming- unit (CFU-M) and develop into a
monocyte or macrophage or the granulocyte-colony-forming-unit (CFU-G) and develop into a segmented
neutrophil.

In contrast to the granulocytic leukocytes, the promonocyte will undergo two or three mitotic divisions in
approximately 2 to 2.5 days.

Monocytes are released into the circulating blood within 12 to 24 hours after their precursors have completed
their last mitotic division. Monocytes have no large reserve of cells in a maturation-storage pool as do the
granulocytes.

Once the monocytes have entered the circulation, cells may be located in a circulating or marginating pool. The
ratio of circulating to marginating cells is 1:3.5.

Morphological Characteristics

1. Monoblasts promonocytes (young monocytes), and monocytes vary greatly in their


morphological appearance.
 The chromatin is clumped, although the clumps are smaller and more elongated
than in neutrophils. This pattern can be described as lace-like.
 The shape of the nucleus of the monocyte may be round or oval, but it is
frequently convoluted or twisted.

2. Mature monocytes - the largest mature cells seen in peripheral blood.


 They may exhibit an irregular cytoplasmic outline. These cytoplasmic irregularities can
include pseudopods.
 Vacuoles are also commonly observed. Classically, the cytoplasm is blue-gray in color,
with fi ne granulation resembling ground glass.

Researcher: Segnaben, Jenny

4. Describe the stages of thrombocyte development, the order of maturation and series, and characteristics
of each stage with variation.

The Developmental Sequence of Platelets


Early Development
Two classes of progenitors have been identified: the burst-forming-unit megakaryocyte (BFU-M) and the
colony-forming-unit megakaryocyte (CFU-M). The BFU-M is the most primitive progenitor cell committed to
megakaryocyte lineage. The next stage of megakaryocyte development is a small, mononuclear marrow cell
(Fig. 23.4) that expresses platelet-specific phenotypic markers but is not morphologically identifiable as a
megakaryocyte. These transitional cells represent 5% of marrow megakaryocyte elements. Some transitional
immature megakaryocyte cells may be capable of cellular division, but most are nonproliferating while actively
undergoing endomitosis. Megakaryocytes The final stage of megakaryocyte development is the
morphologically identifiable megakaryocyte (Fig. 23.5). These cells are readily recognizable in the marrow
because of their large size and lobulated nuclei. These cells are polyploid (Table 23.4). Megakaryocytes are the
largest bone marrow cells, ranging up to 160 mm in size. The nuclear-cytoplasmic (N:C) ratio can be as high as
1:12. Nucleoli are no longer visible. A distinctive feature of the megakaryocyte is that it is multilobular, not
multinucleated. The fully mature lobes of the megakaryocyte shed platelets from the cytoplasm on completion
of maturation. Platelet formation begins with the initial appearance of a pink color in the basophilic cytoplasm
of the megakaryocyte and increased granularity.
Mature Platelets
Platelets have an average diameter of 2 to 4 mm, with younger platelets being larger than older ones. In
contrast to megakaryocytes, platelets have no nucleus. The cytoplasm is light blue, with evenly dispersed, fi ne
red-purple granules. An inactive or unstimulated platelet circulates as a thin, smooth-surfaced disc. This discoid
shape is maintained by the microtubular cytoskeleton beneath the cytoplasmic membrane. Platelets circulate
at the center of the flowing bloodstream through endothelium-lined blood vessels without interacting with
other platelets or with the vessel wall. Platelets are extremely sensitive cells and may respond to minimal
stimulation by forming pseudopods that spontaneously retract. Stronger stimulation causes platelets to
become sticky without losing their discoid shape; however, changes in shape to an irregular sphere with spiny
pseudopods will occur with additional stimulation. This alteration in cellular shape is triggered by an increase in
the level of cytoplasmic calcium. Such changes in shape accompanied by internal cellular contractions can
result in the release of many of the internal organelles. A loss of viability is associated with this change to a
spiny sphere.

Ten step platelet formation


Megakaryocyte and platelet production is regulated by thrombopoietin. This is a hormone produced in the
kidneys and liver. The following steps will explain the platelet formation from its birth to disposition:
1. The first cell.
When an embryo is born, it consists a type of cell called totipotent cell. Totipotent cells are capable of dividing
into any cell of the body, be it bone or brain, liver or lung, and eye or ear. This cell gives rise to all the cells and
has an unmatched capacity to divide. It forms the hematopoietic cells which then give birth to all the cells of
the blood. These stem cells keep on dividing to keep the pool of totipotent cells alive.
2. Birth mother of all blood cells.
The first ancestors from blood line of cells in the lineage of platelets are hematopoietic stem cells. These stem
cells are pleuripotent, which means that they can grow into any form of blood cell lines including red blood
cells, white blood cells and the platelets. This is the first cell that gives birth to all other cells in the blood.
Hematopietic cells give birth to progenitor cells under the influence of colony stimulating factors which require
chemicals to direct a particular type of cell to divide into another particular type of cell. For example, the GM-
CSF or granulocyte monocyte colony stimulating factor gives rise to blood cell lines from hematopietic cells.
These cells also keep on dividing to keep the pleuripotent pool alive.
3. The progenitor cells.
Progenitor cells are the committed cell types in this lineage. Once formed, they can only give rise to the next
cell line depending on the chemical influence provided. That is to say that the progenitor cells are committed
to form the given cell type and will not form any other cell type.
One type of progenitor cell will only ever give rise to a particular cell type
4. Pooling of the cell lines.
These different types of cell lines are forming together from a common ancestor. The cell lines pool in their
respective areas and separate from one another.
5. Megakaryoblasts.
The progenitor cells form the megakaryoblast under the stimulating effect of colony stimulating factors. These
factors are the essential requirement for the formation of platelets. These are immature cells and found only in
the bone marrow. In certain type of diseases, these cells are released early into the circulation and can be seen
on a peripheral blood smear.
6. Megakaryocyte formation.
The megakaryoblasts mature under the effect of the same colony stimulating factors to give rise to
megakaryocyte. The role of colony stimulating factors in the formation of platelets is limited to this step.
Erythropoietin takes the task of the formation of platelets from here on.
7. Megakaryocyte maturation.
Megakaryocytes mature under the influence of erythropoietin. Erythropoietin is formed by the liver and
kidneys and is released into the blood from where it reaches the bones and enters the bone marrow. It then
shows its effects on the maturation of megakaryocytes. In diseases involving liver and kidneys where
erythropoietin production is compromised, the number of platelets also reduces due to the lack of
optimization of this step.

8. Megakaryocyte extrusion from bone.


Megakaryocytes are the precursors of platelets. This is the last step with regards to the involvement of the
bone marrow and all the other further steps, takes place outside the bone and in the blood. Megakaryocytes
are extruded from the bone through the capillaries and are released into the blood.
9. Megakaryocyte breakage and pro platelet release.
Nuclear death and cellular breakage occurs as soon as the megakaryocytes are released into the blood and
even as they are being released into the blood through the capillaries. The megakaryocytes at this stage have
pro platelet outgrowths which break off from the main body of the megakaryocytes. These pro platelet
extensions carry with them the protein forming machinery of the cells.
10. Platelets.
Platelets are finally formed from the breaking off of pro platelets into further smaller pieces in the blood. These
platelets can be counted in the blood though diagnostic procedures like taking a blood sample from the
peripheral blood and putting it in a cell counter. This helps in detecting any abnormally high or abnormally low
number of platelets. In order to see the platelet morphology, a peripheral blood smear is made and seen under
a microscope. A smear is a spread of blood taken from a periphery like a limb and spread on a slide.
These basic ten steps about platelet formation suggest that a lot can possibly go wrong when it comes to
platelet count or morphology. Any defect or drug that interferes with just one of these steps may lead to an
abnormal number, growth, or decrease in platelet formation. In order to diagnose a patient who presents with
symptoms suggestive of platelet dysfunction such as bleeding or clotting, a physician has to take into account
all these steps and examine each step for factors that may have affected the platelet count, in combination
with the assessment of symptoms, diagnostic examinations and results of platelet count and morphology.

Also, it is important to note that all the blood cells originate from a single cell. In fact, all cells originate from a
single cell and a defect at an early stage may present later with a disease at much later stage. Therefore, at the
time of platelet formation, which continues throughout life, it is important for the bone marrow to be safe.
One small change in the environment of platelet formation or other blood cell production can result in a huge
difference in the normal functioning of the body.

Researcher: Tongson, Beatrix C.

Reference: Turgeon, M.L. (2012). Clinical hematology: Theory and procedures (5th Edition). Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business. 351 West Camden Street. Two Commerce Square
Baltimore, MD 21201 2001 Market Street Philadelphia, PA 19103

Retrieved from http://www.thrombocyte.com/process-of-platelet-formation/

MATURATION SEQUENCE OF THROMBOCYTE

Megakaryoblast

Promegakaryocyte

Megakaryocyte

Thrombocyte/Platelet
Platelet Development
Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small discoid cells (0.5 to 3.0 μm) that are synthesized in the bone marrow and
stimulated by the hormone thrombopoietin. They are developed through a pluripotent stem cell that has been
influenced by colony-stimulating factors (CSF) produced by macrophages, fibroblasts, T-lymphocytes, and
stimulated endothelial cells. The parent cells of platelets are called megakaryocytes (Fig. 15.2). These large cells
(80 to 150 μm) are found in the bone marrow. Megakaryocytes do not undergo complete cellular division but
undergo a process called endomitosis or endoreduplication creating a cell with a multilobed nucleus. Each
megakaryocyte produces about 2000 platelets. Thrombopoietin is responsible for stimulating maturation and
platelet release. This hormone is generated primarily by the kidney and partly by the spleen and liver.10 There
is no reserve of platelets in the bone marrow: 80% are in circulation and 20% are in the red pulp of the spleen.
Platelets have no nucleus but do have granules: alpha granules, and dense granules. These granules are
secreted during the platelet release reaction and contain many biochemically active components such as
serotonin, ADP, and ATP. They are destroyed by the reticuloendothelial system (RE). Platelet development
occurs in the following sequence:
1. Megakaryoblasts are the most immature cell (10 to 15 μm) with a high nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio and two
to six nucleoli.
2. Promegakaryocyte is a large cell of 80 μm with dense alpha and lysosomal granules.
3. Basophilic megakaryocyte shows evidence of cytoplasmic fragments containing membranes, cytotubules,
and several glycoprotein receptors.
4. The megakaryocyte is composed of cytoplasmic fragments that are released by a process called the budding
of platelets.

Researcher: Serran, Aliya Zaine Z.


Reference:
Ciesla, B. (2007). Hematology in Practice. 1915 Arch Street Philadelphia, PA 19103 : F. A. Davis Company.

5. Describe the different components and functions of blood.

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

Blood makes up between 7% to 8% of the body weight of a human. That equals up to six quarts of blood in an
adult. The biggest function of blood, as most people know, is to carry oxygen and nutrients throughout the
body. Simply put, without blood circulating through our system, we would die instantly.

Aside from these major functions, however, blood carries out so much more. Some of the biggest functions of
blood include:%

 Removing waste products from the body, like carbon dioxide

 Transporting hormones

 Regulating acidity levels (pH)

 Regulating body temperature

 Hydraulic functions

What are the Main Components of Blood?

The main four components of blood are:

 Red blood cells


 White blood cells

 Plasma

 Platelets

Each of these components carries out a specific function within the blood. They’re all necessary for the body to
perform normally. Let’s break down the components a bit more to learn about what they are, and what they
do.

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells are also known as erythrocytes. They are relatively large cells and make up about 40% to 50%
of your blood’s total volume. If you were to look at red blood cells underneath a microscope, they would
appear as flat, disk-shaped cells.

Red blood cells are mostly made up of hemoglobin. In fact, hemoglobin makes up about 95% of a red blood
cell. It is an iron-rich protein that takes oxygen from the lungs and transports it throughout the body. Red
blood cells also carry carbon dioxide away from the cells and help to get rid of waste.

These cells die regularly. Most red blood cells don’t last longer than about four months. During that time they
are degraded. However, the body is constantly producing new ones.

People who deal with anemia typically have fewer red blood cells in their body. Because of this, they may often
feel fatigued. This is due to a shortage of oxygen being evenly circulated throughout the body. Our bodies need
enough red blood cells to function properly, have energy, and get rid of waste. As you might suspect, red blood
cells are also what gives our blood its red color.

White Blood Cells

White blood cells, commonly known as leukocytes, are the cells that help our immune system. Strangely
enough, they only make up about 1% of the blood volume in an average, healthy person. That 1% is usually
enough to keep us strong and healthy.

However, leukocytes like this are not just limited to blood. They are found elsewhere in the body and can help
to prevent against infections of many kinds. That means these cells can make movements from the blood
streams to areas of the body that need it most. They may be small, but they spring into action to protect the
body very quickly.

White blood cells work by clinging to foreign proteins in the body like bacteria and fungi. It doesn’t take long
for the cells to surround the infected area, and attempt to heal it. They even help to fight against things like
cancer cells and other infectious diseases. They can also get rid of any foreign matter in the body, and old
blood cells. It’s easy to think of white blood cells as ‘housekeepers’ of the body.

Types Of White Blood Cell

Neutrophils 60–70% of all WBCs 10–12 m diameter; nucleus has Phagocytosis. Destruction of bacteria with 2–5
lobes connected by thin strands lysozyme, defensins, and strong oxidants, of chromatin; cytoplasm has very
such as superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, fine, pale lilac granules. and hypochlorite anion.

Eosinophils 2–4% of all WBCs 10–12 m diameter; nucleus Combat the effects of histamine in allergic usually has
2 lobes connected by a reactions, phagocytize antigen–antibody thick strand of chromatin; large, complexes,
and destroy certain parasitic red-orange granules fill the cytoplasm. worms.
Basophils 0.5–1% of all WBCs 8–10 m diameter; nucleus has Liberate heparin, histamine, and serotonin 2 lobes;
large cytoplasmic granules in allergic reactions that intensify the overall appear deep blue-purple.
inflammatory response.

Agranular leukocytes Lymphocytes(T cells, 20–25% of all WBCs Small lymphocytes are 6–9 m in Mediate
immune responses, including B cells, and natural diameter; large lymphocytes are antigen–antibody reactions.
B cells develop killer cells) 10–14 m in diameter; nucleus is into plasma cells, which secrete antibodies. round
or slightly indented; T cells attack invading viruses, cancer cells, cytoplasm forms a rim around and
transplanted tissue cells. Natural killer the nucleus that looks sky blue; cells attack a wide variety of infectious
the larger the cell, the more microbes and certain spontaneously arising cytoplasm is visible. tumor cells.

Monocytes 3–8% of all WBCs 12–20 m diameter; nucleus is Phagocytosis (after transforming into fixed kidney
shaped or horseshoe shaped; or wandering macrophages). cytoplasm is blue-gray and has foamy appearance.

Plasma

Plasma is a clear/yellow-tinted watery substance that makes up about 55% of our blood’s volume. It contains
the other components of blood, and many other substances to make up that amount of volume. Some of the
other substances include things like protein, albumin, globulin (globular proteins), and sugar.

It’s a fair assessment to think of plasma as a sort of watchman for blood itself. While it contains mostly water,
it also contains:

 Blood cells

 Glucose

 Carbon dioxide

 Hormones

 Protein

Plasma provides nourishment to our blood cells and also helps to remove waste products. Research has shown
that over 500 different types of protein have been found in plasma to this day. It is believed that plasma holds
some of every type of protein the human body can produce.

One of these proteins is albumin, created by the liver. Albumin helps to keep plasma contained inside our
blood vessels. If plasma is able to leak out, when albumin levels are low, it can get into the tissue causing
problems like edema.

People often donate plasma, in a similar fashion to how blood itself is donated. Plasma that is donated is
separated from the other components of blood. It is just as important to donate plasma as it is to donate
blood. As you can see, it provides so much of what our bodies need to function properly.

Platelets

Platelets help to clot blood properly. They are also called thrombocytes. They don’t have nuclei and work with
chemicals to help blood clot when you have an injury. This is because they don’t have enough clotting power
on their own. They help the blood to clot by sticking to the blood vessel walls.

In order for proper clotting of the blood to occur, platelets need to work with twelve other clotting chemicals.
If they don’t all work together, blood won’t clot properly, which could lead to minor injuries becoming far more
serious. This can also occur if you have a low platelet count. Some symptoms of a low platelet count include:
 Frequent nosebleeds

 Bleeding gums

 Dark bruises

 Blood in urine/stools

In mild cases of low platelet counts, your doctor may simply choose to monitor you, and suggest a few lifestyle
changes. In more severe cases, you may need a blood transfusion or steroids to help.

Platelets also help to fight infection. They are able to release certain proteins that target and kill different types
of bacteria and microorganisms.

Compared to other blood cells, platelets also have a relatively short lifespan, usually just living for about ten
days. However, they are produced in a similar fashion as red and white blood cells.

Researcher: Princess Joelle Santos

References:

Tortora,G.J.Derrickson,B .(2009) Principles Of Anatomy And Physiology(12thed.)United States Pf


America.John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

https://www.phlebotomyexaminer.com/info/components-blood-functions/

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