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Control of Industrial Dryers

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 Control of Industrial Dryers
49 Rami Y. Jumah, Arun S. Mujumdar, and Vijaya G.S. Raghavan

CONTENTS

49.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1161

49.2 Scope .................................................................................................................................................. 1162
49.3 Dryer Control System Characteristics................................................................................................ 1162
49.4 Dryer Control System Synthesis ........................................................................................................ 1163
49.5 Conventional and Advanced Dryer Control Systems ........................................................................ 1164
49.5.1 Manual Control..................................................................................................................... 1164
49.5.2 Feedback Control.................................................................................................................. 1164
49.5.3 Feedforward Control............................................................................................................. 1165
49.5.4 Feedforward–Feedback Control ........................................................................................... 1165
49.5.5 Model-Based Control ............................................................................................................ 1165
49.5.6 Microprocessor-Based Control.............................................................................................. 1168
49.6 Typical Industrial Dryer Control Systems ......................................................................................... 1169
49.6.1 Batch Dryers ......................................................................................................................... 1169
49.6.2 Rotary Dryers ....................................................................................................................... 1170
49.6.3 Spray Dryers ......................................................................................................................... 1170
49.6.4 Conveyor Dryers ................................................................................................................... 1171
49.6.5 Flash Dryers.......................................................................................................................... 1171
49.6.6 Fluid-Bed Dryers................................................................................................................... 1173
49.6.7 Continuous Cross-Flow Grain Dryers .................................................................................. 1174
49.7 Intelligent Control Systems ................................................................................................................ 1175
49.7.1 Rule-Based Expert Control Systems ..................................................................................... 1176
49.7.2 Fuzzy Logic Control Systems................................................................................................ 1177
49.7.3 Neural Networks Control Systems........................................................................................ 1177
References .................................................................................................................................................... 1179

49.1 INTRODUCTION trol when the dryer performance is highly nonlinear

Today, most industrial dryers are equipped with vary-
ing levels of automatic controllers. Often they use
simple control strategies based, for example, simply
on the exhaust-gas temperature for a direct dryer.
Small-scale and slow drying operations are often con-
trolled (or adjusted for process upsets) manually. Very
high production units, those involving very rapid dry-
ing or units that produce products within stringent
quality specifications, must be equipped with some
degree of automatic control. Although commercial
dryers currently use conventional control strategies,
it is expected that within the next decade more and
more industrial dryers will utilize model-based control
(MBC), fuzzy logic control (FLC), or neural nets con-
and difficult to predict with simple mathematical
models. Some improvements in dryer controls became
available because of the development of better sensors
and analyzers, whereas others are by-products of new,
more sophisticated, computer-based control tech-
niques [1]. This chapter provides an introductory over-
view of both the conventional and the emerging
control schemes for industrial drying. Examples are
cited with reference to the more common dryers (e.g.,
spray, flash, fluid-bed dryers). Relevant information is
also provided to the readers interested in intelligent
control systems based on expert systems, fuzzy logic,
or neural nets. It is inconceivable that within this dec-
ade equipment suppliers will market ‘‘smart’’ dryers
that can adjust their operating parameters consistent

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

with the needs of product quality during drying. How-
ever, such a possibility exists for some dryer types in a
longer term.
49.2 SCOPE
The aim of any industrial drying process is to produce
a solid product of desired quality at minimum cost
and maximum throughput and to maintain these con-
sistently. Good quality implies that the product cor-
responds to a number of technical, chemical, and
biological parameters, each within specified limits.
Thermal drying is an energy-intensive operation
that accounts for up to 15% of all industrial energy
usage. Moreover, conventional dryers often operate
at low thermal efficiency, typically between 25 and
50% but which may be as low as 10% also. Applica-
tion of automatic control technology to industrial
dryers offers an opportunity to improve the dryer
operation and its efficiency. Furthermore, the wide
variety of dried products that are available to the
consumer increases the concern to meet high-quality
specifications. Therefore, the need for optimal-energy
management, with the demand for high-quality prod-
ucts as well as the adoption of more strict safety and
environmental regulations, catalyze the development
of more advanced dryer-control strategies.
The control of dryers is probably one of the least-
studied areas of process control and has not pro-
gressed concurrently with improvements in drying
and dryer design. This may be attributed to various
factors [1–3], including
. The lack of emphasis on product quality in the
past
. An apparent lack of knowledge of the important
role that the dryer control plays in product
quality and drying efficiency
. The lack of a direct, online, reliable method for
sensing product moisture content
. The complex and the highly nonlinear dynamics
of drying processes, leading to difficulties in
modeling the process adequately
The basic objectives of a dryer control system are:
. Maintenance of desired dried-product quality,
irrespective of disturbances in the drying oper-
ation and variations in feed supply
. Maximization of throughput at optimal energy
efficiency and minimum cost.
. Avoidance of overdrying and underdrying;
underdrying may result in spoilage, in the case
of grains and foodstuffs, whereas overdrying of
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
the product results in increased energy costs and
reduced yields as the price of some products is
based on a specific moisture content; it may also
cause thermal damage to heat-sensitive products
. Reduction of fire hazard, defective product, and
particle emission
. Suppression of the influence of external disturb-
ances
. Stable drying process
. Optimization of the performance of the drying
process
It is worth pointing out that drying is, in principle,
an inherently self-regulating process and there is no
need for automatic control as long as there are no
input fluctuations and the mass balance and the
process conditions are invariant. However, few real
drying processes ever approach this ideal and
changes do occur, justifying the need for regulation
and control.
As the dryer represents a very complicated plant
for automation with a great number of parameters
affecting product quality, specifying a control system
for the dryer requires the consideration of many pro-
cess factors. These considerations include the process
dynamics; the number of process variables that are to
be controlled or monitored; product handling; oper-
ating ranges of temperature, pressure, humidity; air
and product flows; initial and final moisture contents;
and so on. Additional factors include the protection
of critical process parameters with the use of inter-
locks; data acquisition systems; ease of calibration of
control and sensing devices; and ease of maintenance
and operating reliability. Overall reliability and cost
of the control system are clearly important as well. If
the process is inherently subject to fire or explosion
hazards, then special considerations must apply; how-
ever, these are beyond the scope of this chapter.
49.3 DRYER CONTROL SYSTEM
CHARACTERISTICS
The requirements and characteristics of any industrial
dryer control system are [4]:
1. Accuracy. The exit product moisture content
must be close to the desired value.
2. Stability. The system must not oscillate; other-
wise, large fluctuations in output moisture con-
tent would occur.
3. Speed of response. Any disturbances (e.g., changes
in input moisture content) should be quickly offset
by the controller in order to provide acceptable
upset recovery time and system stability.
 4. Robustness. The control system should be able
to operate successfully over a wide range of
process conditions.
49.4 DRYER CONTROL SYSTEM SYNTHESIS
Prior to control system design, control synthesis must
be performed. The synthesis of control configuration
for a multivariable system involves the selection of
controlled and manipulated variables, steady-state an-
alysis, dynamic analysis, loop pairing (pairing manipu-
lated inputs and controlled outputs), and the selection
of best control configuration [5–7]. A good selection of
the control scheme depends on studying the behavior
of the system under different circumstances. This can
be achieved by making some deterministic tests either
in a real plant or in a physical model that properly and
adequately fits the actual process.
In the language of process control, the variables
associated with an industrial drying process can be
divided into two general groups:
1. Input variables, which denote the effect of the
surroundings on the drying process
2. Output or controlled variables, which denote the
effect of the drying process on the surroundings
The input variables can be further classified into
manipulated variables and disturbances or load vari-
ables.
Manipulated variables can be adjusted either manu-
ally or automatically. The most important manipulated
inputs to a dryer are (depending on dryer type):
1. Heating rate (e.g., inlet air or steam tempera-
ture)
2. Solids feed rate (e.g., screw conveyor speed,
discharge rate)
3. Airflow rate (for direct dryers)
4. Rotational speed (for rotary dryers)
Disturbances or load variables cannot be adjusted
by a control system. The most common dryer disturb-
ances are:
1. Ambient air temperature
2. Ambient air humidity
3. Feed moisture content
4. Feed composition
The output or controlled variables may be classi-
fied as measured output variables and unmeasured
(or difficult-to-measure) output variables. Dryer out-
put variables are:
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
1. Dried-product moisture content
2. Exhaust air temperature
3. The temperature of the air–product mixture
(for spray dryers)
4. Exhaust air humidity
5. Product quality (color, flavor, textures, activ-
ity, etc.); these properties are generally difficult
(or impossible) to measure online and the cost
is often too high
In general, it is difficult to make online measure-
ment of product quality; it is often an inferred entity
based on experience. The moisture content can be a
measured variable if a suitable moisture sensor is used
in the process. Analyzers are available for moisture
analysis, which can be adapted for automatic, closed-
loop dryer control. The most successful of these units
rely on infrared, microwave, or capacitance detection
[1]. Care must be exercised in the selection to allow
for changes in bulk density or for void spaces, which
will introduce an error. In many industrial-drying
plants, such sensors are not available because either
they are expensive or they have low reliability. Con-
sequently, in such cases the moisture content is an
unmeasured output variable.
The relationship between output, manipulated,
and load variables constitutes the process control
system of the dryer (see Figure 49.1). In particular,
the purpose of a dryer control system is to produce a
desired output by changing the manipulated variables
so as to compensate for changes in the main load
variables (disturbances). Inputs are in the form of
commands, which the output is expected to follow,
and disturbances, which the automatic control is
expected to minimize.
The most desirable drying process output variable
to control is the product moisture content, but this is
often difficult to measure directly. Often, the moisture
content of the dried product can be inferred from the
temperature and humidity of the exhaust gas, though
care must be taken in applying appropriate heat and
mass balances. Moreover, because measuring the
temperature of the exit gas is simple, accurate, reli-
able, cheap, and has significant effects on the drying
rate, dryer manufacturers have used this variable as
the control output variable; and, in fact, the majority
of existing dryers rely on the automatic control of this
variable. However, due to the low correlation be-
tween the temperature and the actual product mois-
ture content, using indirect control (by parameters
such as temperature and humidity) usually results in
poor control of the drying process.
In some special cases, this may even lead to serious
failure if the exhaust temperature is used in isolation
(without concurrent measurement of humidity). For
 External disturbances
Manipulated
variables Drying process
Unmeasured outputs
FIGURE 49.1 Schematic diagram of drying-process variables.
example, a higher exhaust-gas temperature will be
interpreted by the controller as increased available
dryer capacity, leading to an increase in feed rate.
However, the elevated temperature can result from
poor dryer performance (due to deposits, etc.). Thus
the controller action can worsen the problem.
Direct control and online measurement of the sol-
ids moisture content would enable significant improve-
ments in dryer control by providing an immediate
measure of the moisture content at the dryer exit and
by automatic compensation for factors that disturb the
control action. In certain dryers, these are already
implemented industrially (e.g., in paper dryers).
49.5 CONVENTIONAL AND ADVANCED
DRYER CONTROL SYSTEMS
49.5.1 MANUAL CONTROL
In manual control, expert judgment by the operator is
relied upon to judge the endpoint of the drying pro-
cess. A dryer manual control scheme may be de-
scribed by the following sequence [2,4]:
1. Turn on the dryer
2. Set the initial throughput
3. Measure the output moisture content and com-
pare measurement with the desired value
4. Based on the difference between the desired
and the measured moisture content value,
make adjustments to the manipulated variables
(e.g., energy input, feed rate) to maintain the
desired moisture content
This type of manual control is simpler and less
expensive, and less expertise is required than auto-
matic control systems. It can be applied to small
plants (mainly batch systems) and on easy-to-dry-
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Measured
outputs
materials. However, manual control is not recom-
mended in the case of large drying processes and
where good control is required to stabilize the process
against any disturbances. It is also labor-intensive.
49.5.2 FEEDBACK CONTROL
The principle of feedback control is one of the most
commonly used control strategies in dryer control.
The major function of a dryer feedback controller is
to hold the controlled variable at a target value or set
point. The control system receives a measured signal
of the controlled output variable (i.e., moisture con-
tent) and compares it with the set point value, which
generates an error signal. The value of the error is
supplied to the main controller. The controller in turn
changes the value of the manipulated variable in such
a way to reduce the magnitude of the error. Usually,
the controller does not affect the manipulated vari-
able directly but through another device, known as
the final control element, such as a control valve,
motor, fan, or heater, depending on the application.
Ideally, control will result in an exact correction in the
process output variable, forcing it back to the desired
value (set point). A typical feedback control loop is
shown in Figure 49.2.
Three basic types of feedback controller actions are
available: (1) proportional, (2) integral, and (3) deriva-
tive action. Proportional action actuates the manipu-
lated variable in direct proportion to the error signal.
Integral action eliminates any steady-state residual
errors or offsets and it moves the manipulated variable
based on the time integral of the error. The purpose of
the derivative action is to forecast fast changes in the
error signal by using a control mode proportional to
the time rate of change of the error signal.
In industrial dryer control applications, the three
control actions described above can be used indivi-
dually or in combined modes: proportional (P)
 Disturbances
Final control m(t ) Product
Dryer
element
e(t ) _
Moisture
Controller
meter
y (t )
+ model in predicting the response of the process to
ySP (t )
FIGURE 49.2 General structure of dryer feedback control
system.
controller, proportional–integral (PI) controller, or
proportional–integral–derivative (PID) controller.
However, the derivative action is generally undesir-
able because of the problem of noisy signals [8,9].
The general three-action (PID) controller can be
described by the following equation:
ð tem; they include the feedforward controller incorp-
Kc d«
m(t) ¼ Kc «(t) þ «(t) dt þ Kc t D þ BIAS (49:1)
tI dt
where
m is the control action, Kc is the proportional gain
of the controller, « is the error signal, tI is the integral
time constant, tD is the derivative time constant, and
BIAS is the controller’s bias signal (i.e., its actuating
signal when « ¼ 0).
Typical feedback controllers in drying applica-
tions have been investigated and reviewed by Robin-
son [2], Marchant [4], and Whitfield [10].
49.5.3 FEEDFORWARD CONTROL
The residence time of the solid material may be rela-
tively long in certain types of industrial dryers (e.g.,
rotary dryers, floater dryers for pulp sheets). Also, in
certain dryers the thermal inertia of the heat-transfer
mode may be long relative to the drying time (e.g., for
drying of newsprint or contact dryers or Yankee
dryers for tissue paper). In such cases, there is a
significant time lag between a change being made to
an input and its effect being felt on the output. If this
dead time is large, it may result in inadequate per-
formance of the feedback controller. To overcome
this problem, a predictive type of control known as
feedforward control is used.
In this control system, process disturbances are
measured and compensation is made for them with-
out waiting for a change in the output variable to
indicate that a disturbance has occurred. The control
scheme is implemented by measuring the disturbance
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
or load input (e.g., inlet moisture content) and the
controller uses a system model to determine the rela-
tionship between the disturbances and the manipu-
lated and controlled variables. The objective here is to
keep the value of the controlled output variable at the
desired level by eliminating the impact that the dis-
turbances would have on the output. It is clear that
the effectiveness of the feedforward control system
depends on the accuracy of the system’s mathematical
input and disturbance changes. The principle of feed-
forward control is illustrated in Figure 49.3.
49.5.4 FEEDFORWARD–FEEDBACK CONTROL
From the earlier discussion and from Table 49.1 [11],
we would expect that a combined feedforward–feed-
back control system would retain the superior per-
formance of the feedforward controller and the
insensitivity of the feedback controller to uncertain-
ties and inaccuracies. Figure 49.4 shows the main
components of a feedforward–feedback control sys-
orated with the process model, the feedback
controller, and the dynamic compensator. The func-
tion of feedback element is to correct the action of the
feedforward controller in the case of measurement
and modeling inaccuracy. Courtois et al. [12] and
Bruce and McFarlane [13] implemented the combined
feedforward–feedback control system for mixed-flow
grain dryers.
49.5.5 MODEL-BASED CONTROL
MBC has recently become a process-control
approach of much interest. The basic idea is to use
a dynamic model of the process in the control system.
A comprehensive exposition of MBC is beyond
the scope of this chapter; interested readers are
Disturbances
Inlet moisture content Solid flow
Set point
Controller
Dryer Product
Manipulated variable
Final control
element
FIGURE 49.3 Dryer feedforward control system
configuration.
TABLE 49.1
Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Feedforward and Feedback Controllers [11]
Advantages
Feedforward Controller
1. Acts before the effect of the disturbance has been felt
by the system
2. Good for slow systems or those with significant dead time
3. Does not introduce instability in the closed-loop response
Feedback Controller
1. Does not require identification and measurement of
any disturbance
2. Insensitive to modeling uncertainties
3. Insensitive to parameter changes
encouraged to read other references [8,14–17]. Some
of the MBC strategies are:
1. Inferential control
2. Internal model control (IMC)
3. Dynamic matrix control (DMC)
Inferential control [11,17,18] is an early model-
based approach for process control. This control
strategy is useful when the main dryer controlled
variable (i.e., product moisture content) cannot be
measured directly due to some technical difficulties
or due to insufficient economic justification for its
measurement. Inferential control uses the values of
measured outputs (e.g., product or gas temperature
and humidity) together with the process model to
Dynamic
compensator
Disturbance variable
FIGURE 49.4 Feedforward–feedback control system.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Disadvantages
1. Requires identification of all possible disturbances and their
direct measurement
2. Cannot cope with unmeasured disturbances
3. Sensitive to process parameter variations
4. Requires a process model
1. Waits until the effect of the disturbances is felt by the system
before control action is taken
2. Unsatisfactory for slow processes or those with significant dead time
3. May create instability in closed-loop response
infer the value of the unmeasured control variable.
These estimates are used to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables in order to keep the moisture
content at the desired levels (Figure 49.5). This con-
trol policy can also be used to counteract the disturb-
ances as it is less expensive to infer these disturbances
from other available process measurements rather
than by measuring them directly.
The basic idea of IMC is to use a process model
and to relate the controller settings to the model para-
meters in such a way that the selection of the specified
closed-loop response yields a physically realizable feed-
back controller [8,17]. IMC is advantageous because
it can be adjusted to balance controller performance
with control system robustness (when either modeling
errors or changes in process dynamics occur). Clearly,
Feedforward
controller
Feedback
controller
Final control
element
Set point
Manipulated variable
Dryer
Controlled variable
 Disturbance(s)

Moisture content
Manipulated variable (unmeasured)
Dryer
Measured
Variables

Estimator:
Controller Computes an estimate of the
value of moisture content

Set point

FIGURE 49.5 General structure of a dryer inferential control system.

the effectiveness of IMC depends on the availability of DMC uses a direct, least-squares computational
a reliable model for the dryer. procedure to find the optimum values of future
Panda investigated the performance of IMC in changes in the manipulated variables to match future
fluid-bed drying of sand particles, mustard seeds, and output responses such that some performance index is
wheat grains [19]. The structure of the IMC system for minimized [8]. Panda applied DMC to control the
the fluid-bed dryer is depicted in the block diagram fluid-bed dryer as mentioned earlier and proved that
shown in Figure 49.6. In this study, IMC uses a pro- DMC gives better control in the presence of measure-
cess-model transfer function (Gm) parallel to the actual ment noise [19]. The response in the exit-air tempera-
plant transfer function (Gp). A filter is used in the ture does not show much oscillation and settles
control system to ensure robustness in performance. quickly.
The exit-air temperature is used for set-point tracking Al-Haj Ali et al. [5,6] developed different types of
by the IMC. If the system is performed without any linear time invariant models by system identification,
oscillations, the overshoots will be tolerable, which adequately represent the fluidized-bed drying
there will be no offset, and the control scheme will dynamics. MBC techniques such as IMC and model
be effective and respond rapidly as described by predictive control (MPC) were used for the designing
Panda [19]. of the control system. Simulations with multivariable
MPC strategy provided robust, fast, stable, and non-
oscillatory closed loop responses. A stationary form
of Kalman filter was designed to estimate the particle
d Gd moisture content (state observer). Performance stud-
ies showed that the Kalman filter provided satisfac-
Set point ⫹ tory estimates even in the presence of significant
U ⫹ Y
Gf Gc Gp
⫹ noise levels and inaccurate initial states feed to the
_
Filter IMC FBD observer.
Kiranoudis et al. [20] developed a dynamic model
⫹
Gm − for the simulation of conveyor-belt dryers and pro-
posed a SISO (single-input, single output) control
Process model
scheme for the regulation of material moisture con-
tent. In a subsequent work, Kiranoudis et al. [21]
Y : exit-air temperature extended the dynamic model of this process to include
U : voltage to heater
d : feed rate of solids MIMO (multiple-input, multiple output) scheme to
control the material moisture content and tempera-
FIGURE 49.6 Basic structure of internal model control for ture. In both works, PI controllers were appropriately
a fluid-bed dryer. tuned and nonlinear simulations were performed.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Trelea et al. [22] designed and tested a nonlinear,
predictive, optimal control algorithm for a batch corn
dryer. The control algorithm relies on the solution of a
realistic, constrained, optimization problem and
experiments showed that the algorithm was able to
handle important disturbances and failures. Vascon-
celos and Filho [23] developed a supervisory control
strategy for the optimal operation of grain dryers. In
this study, an optimization problem was developed to
function as a supervisory control and predictive DMC
algorithm was used for servo or regulatory control.
The proposed algorithm presented satisfactory results
for the load rejection and set-point variation.
Corrêa et al. [24] conducted control tests in a
spouted bed dryer of paste using a generalized predictive
control (GPC) algorithm. The GPC algorithm is based
on the minimization of deviations between process
variables and nominal (or reference) model variables
using the recursive least-square method. The controller
showed a stable behavior and good performance for
both set point tracking and disturbance-rejection experi-
ments. Didriksen [25] showed that the performance of a
model-based controller was superior when compared
with traditional feedback control in a simulation study
based on industrial rotary dryer data. An augmented
Kalman filter was used to estimate the disturbances.
MBC had also been used by Altafini and Furini [26],
Harn et al. [27], and Thyagarajan et al. [28].
49.5.6 MICROPROCESSOR-BASED CONTROL
Traditionally, analog instrumentation was used, and
is still used for process control in some cases. How-
ever, the advent of the microprocessor in the early
1970s and the development of digital computers,
coupled with significant reduction in their cost, have
brought about the evolution of computer-based con-
trol systems and controllers capable of providing
more than basic control.
Although the primary task of a computer-based
controller is the implementation of a control algo-
rithm (PID or more sophisticated algorithms), the
presence of a computer makes it possible to achieve
more than basic control and to assign a number of
tasks that are useful in process control. The following
characteristics of modern computer control system
illustrate some of these tasks [8,11,18,29,30]:
1. Implement classical and advanced control al-
gorithms
2. A single digital computer (or microprocessor)
to service a number of control loops (time-
shared basis)
3. Distribute data processing by which data can
be collected from different process instruments
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
and processed for monitoring and control pur-
poses; the computer system can also be con-
nected to local analytical instruments (e.g.,
moisture and humidity meters), which usually
have their own microcomputer
4. Provide static and dynamic displays on moni-
tors or other visual display units
5. Provide mathematical functions
6. Provide data acquisition and storage for dif-
ferent process measurements, such as tempera-
ture, flow rate, pressure, humidity, and moisture
content
7. Provide planning, supervision, optimization,
quality control, and control of mode of
operation
Figure 49.7 shows the structure of a microproces-
sor-based control system. The computer system col-
lects data from the process measurements and
calculates the values of the manipulated variable
and implements the control action on the process,
based on the control algorithm that is already pro-
grammed and stored in the memory of the computer.
Signals are converted by digital to analog (D/A) and
analog to digital (A/D) converters. The operator com-
municates with the control system with a keyboard, a
monitor, and a printer or plotter.
Panda investigated a direct digital control (DDC)
feedback loop to control a continuous fluid-bed dryer
[19]. A PI control algorithm tuned with Cohen–Coon
tuning rule gave satisfactory performance of the drying
of sand, mustard, and wheat for different load vari-
ables, such as solid feed rate. A microprocessor-based
control system for a column-type grain dryer had been
developed by Jaaksoo et al. [31]. Input–output variables
of the plant were specified and a two-input/two-output
state variable model was obtained using experimental
input–output data. The proposed control algorithm
had proven to be reasonably suitable to realize a robust
regulator for a grain dryer.
Sundaramoorthy and Rao designed and imple-
mented a DDC scheme on a batch fluid-bed dryer,
which was drying wet sawdust [32]. The system was
described by a state-space model with parameters that
were estimated from experimental data. The perform-
ance of the designed controller was checked by
closed-loop simulation and then the scheme was
implemented online using the heater power supply
as the final control element to regulate the inlet-air
temperature.
Barker and Christie described a microprocessor-
based control system for the control of textile drying
processes [33]. In addition to the control of the dryer
outlet moisture content, the computer-based system
was used to optimize the energy use of the dryer.

Final control Manipulated variables
element
Computer-to-process
interface:
(D/A converters, etc.)
Microprocessor
(for data processing and control)
User Interface
(printers, monitors, etc.)
FIGURE 49.7 Microprocessor-based dryer control system.
Douglas et al. presented a computer-based control
system of particulate dryers, including the required
sensors, a centralized computer system, and the soft-
ware [34]. The work included the development of a
capacitance-type moisture meter. A continuous hori-
zontal conveyor-belt dryer for drying pet food had
been used as an illustration.
Microprocessor-based control system had also
been implemented in a solar-tunnel dryer [35] and a
pneumatic drum dryer [36].
49.6 TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL
DRYER CONTROL SYSTEMS
In this section, we overview some control strategies
for commonly used industrial dryers. It can be noted
that different strategies are possible and, indeed,
actually used in practice.
49.6.1 BATCH DRYERS
Batch drying is a time-dependent and repeatable
process usually used for the drying of small volumes,
sensitive products, or valuable materials (e.g., pharma-
ceutical products). Manual control of batch dryers
requires higher labor costs per unit product through-
put than continuous processes, necessitating the need
of automatic control. The major benefits of automatic
control of batch-drying processes are increased safety,
increased production through a reduction in cycle
time, and increased consistency of product quality. In
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Disturbances
Output variables
Dryer
Measuring
devices
Process-to-computer
interface
(A/D converters, multiplexers,
amplifiers, transducers, etc.)
some special cases, preprogrammed temperature or
airflow (or both) can be implemented in the interest
of enhanced quality or energy savings.
Typical automatic batch-dryer control systems use
the exhaust-air temperature as the controlled variable
to determine when to end the drying process. Shinskey
[37] and Fadum and Shinskey [38] have described an
alternative control scheme employing inferential con-
trol. The system has proven to be an effective substitute
for online moisture analysis in terminating drying. This
method is based on the following equation:
Tof ¼ Toc þ K(Ti  Toc ) (49:2)
where Tof is the final outlet-air temperature corre-
sponding to the desired moisture content, Ti is the
inlet-air temperature, and Toc is the constant outlet-
air temperature. K is a factor that depends on particle
size and drying rate. The control strategy is to shut
down the process when the outlet temperature reaches
the level defined in Equation 49.2. The moisture
control scheme may be refined to include a dew-
point loop to save energy during the falling drying-
period rate.
Robinson described a control system based on a
temperature-drop model to determine and control the
product moisture content at any appropriate point
inside batch dryers [2]. It is based on the model
M ¼ k1 (dT)q  k2 (Dt )r (49:3)
which relates product moisture content M to the tem-
perature drop dT, which is defined as the difference
between the temperature of the entering drying air
and the temperature of the exhaust air. Dt is the
drying time and k values and exponents are constant
for a given product and dryer.
The temperature-drop method enables the calcu-
lation of drying rates and rate of change of drying
rates for the use as controlled variables. As suggested
by Robinson [2], such variables significantly improve
the control of endpoint moisture content because they
are independent of the dryer and process variables.
49.6.2 ROTARY DRYERS
Convective rotary dryers are normally controlled by
the measurement of exit-gas temperature, which is
used to regulate the inlet-air temperature; the pressure
is adjusted by the exhaust damper setting, and the
inlet-air rate is used to control the outlet-air wet-
bulb temperature [39,40]. An alternative control
scheme uses the air rate to control the difference
between the dry- and wet-bulb exhaust temperatures;
these temperatures serve as an indication of the rate
of evaporation [39]. This modified control system is
shown in Figure 49.8.
Douglas et al. have developed a control strategy
to control the outlet moisture content and tempera-
ture by manipulating the airflow rate and rotational
speed of the dryer, respectively [41]. A PI controller is
used to achieve the control objectives. In steam-tube
rotary dryers, the system is controlled conventionally
by regulating the steam-tube pressure. This control
TC
TC
Rotary dryer
Air
Heater
Product
FIGURE 49.8 Rotary dryer control system.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
system produces acceptable results for a constant
dryer load; but as load changes, underdrying and
overdrying may occur. To overcome this problem,
Fadum and Shinskey developed a compensated con-
trol system based on the fact that the relationship
between pressure and steam flow must be maintained
in order to control product moisture content [38].
They suggested that this relationship could be re-
duced to a linear approximation,
Po ¼ Rh þ b (49:4)
where Po is the tube pressure set point, R is the ratio
setting for desired moisture, b is the bias term, and h is
the steam orifice differential pressure.
49.6.3 SPRAY DRYERS
The residence time in spray dryers is short and the
small droplets offer a large surface exposed to heat
and mass transfer, hence drying is rapid. Rapid dry-
ing leads to a short process dead time, allowing good
automatic control. Usually, one of the control object-
ives is to keep the size of the droplets uniform. Three
basic types of control systems are commonly used in
spray-drying installations [42].
Control system A (Figure 49.9) features two quick-
response control loops:
1. Control of exhaust-air temperature by feed-
rate regulation
2. Control of inlet-air temperature by air-heater
regulation
Exit air
PC
⫹
TW
⫹
Td
Feed
 Exit temperature controller preferred when wide variations in feed rate cannot
Feed be handled.
These control schemes are provided with safety
Pump Atomizer
Inlet-temperature controller
systems that prevent any failure in the feed system in
order to prevent the outlet-air temperature from rising
Tinlet above a specified safety level. These safety systems can
shut down the air heater or pass water to nozzles
Air heater Spray drying
chamber positioned as a safety measure when a certain outlet-
Texit air temperature is reached [42]. Alarms might be added
Fuel
Exhaust air to detect the potentials for explosion, product plug-
ging, flooding, high temperature, and loss of airflow.
Fan
Air Filter Product

49.6.4 CONVEYOR DRYERS

FIGURE 49.9 Control system A for industrial spray dryers.
Control system B (Figure 49.10) uses air-heater
regulation to compensate for any deviation from the
desired outlet-air temperature. This system also
features manual regulation of the feed rate.
Control system C features two alternatives:
1. Outlet air–temperature control with feedback
from moisture content measurement (Figure
49.11a)
2. Microprocessor-based control (Figure 49.11b)
in which the outlet-air temperature is controlled
by regulating the feed rate, with feedback from
the moisture content measurement and feed-
forward from the atmospheric humidity, feed
specific gravity, and inlet air–temperature
measurements
Control systems A and C are commonly used for
rotary atomizers.Control systems A and B are applic-
able for nozzle atomizers, but control system B is
Feed-rate manual controller
Feed
Atomizer
Pump
Spray drying
Air heater chamber
Fuel
Air
Fan Product
Filter
Exit-temperature controller
FIGURE 49.10 Control system B for industrial spray dryers.
Various control schemes have been used in conveyor
dryer systems. When a steam heater is used to heat up
the makeup air, the temperature of the circulating air
through the dryer is controlled by adjusting the
steam-control valve [40].
Zagorzycki investigated the technical and eco-
nomic feasibility of humidity control systems applied
to conveyor dryers such as tobacco dryers [43,44].
The humidity at any point in the dryer is controlled
by the adjustment of the volume of exhaust flow. In
this case study, it has been shown that applying con-
trol technology to conveyor dryers offers substantial
cost savings.
49.6.5 FLASH DRYERS
Traditional flash-dryer control systems include con-
trolling the exhaust-air temperature by varying the
inlet drying-air temperature (Figure 49.12). This con-
trol system performs adequately in the absence of
process disturbances, but poor control and overdrying
or underdrying occur in the case of load changes (feed
moisture content) because of the short residence times
of both solids and gases. Alternatively, the flow rate of
wet solids can be controlled with a small response time
[40]. If the product is proved to form deposits, special
care is needed in interpreting the control action.
Shinskey conducted a thorough study of adiabatic
dryers, including flash dryers, and, using material and
energy balances, established the following relation-
ship for product moisture content [37,38]:
 
Ti  Tw
Xp ¼ K ln (49:5)
To  Tw
Exhaust air
where Xp is the product moisture content, Ti is the
Texit inlet-air temperature, To is the outlet-air temperature,
Tw is the wet-bulb temperature, and K is the constant
for a particular dryer and product.
From Equation 49.5, it is clear that, in order to
control the moisture content in the dryer, the ratio of

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Exit-temperature Product moisture
(a) controller controller
Feed
Set point
Pump Atomizer
Inlet-temperature controller

Tinlet
Spray drying
Air heater chamber
Texit

Fuel
Moisture
Exhaust air meter
Fan
Air Filter
Product

Density Exit-temperature
Feed
meter controller
(b)

Pump Atomizer
Inlet-temperature controller

Microprocessor
Tinlet
Spray drying
Air heater chamber
Texit

Fuel
Moisture
Exhaust Air meter
Fan
Air Filter
Product

Inlet-air temperature and humidity

FIGURE 49.11 Control system C for industrial spray dryers: (a) outlet-temperature control with feedback from moisture
content measurement; (b) microprocessor-based control system.

the driving force at input and output must be kept which gives the required output temperature to keep a
constant by varying both input and output temperat- constant moisture content for a given input tempera-
ures as the load varies. Equation 49.5 can be re- ture and wet-bulb temperature.
arranged to give However, as it is difficult to measure the wet-bulb
temperature in the case of hot air contaminated with
To  Tw solids, a program relating To to Ti for a particular
¼ K ¼ constant (49:6)
Ti  Tw ratio of temperature difference To  Tw/ Ti  Tw has
been established. Linearization results in the follow-
or ing equation:

To ¼ KTi þ (1  K)Tw (49:7) To ¼ RTi þ b (49:8)

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Set point

TIC Exit gas

Outlet-temperature Vent fan

controller

Cyclone

Inlet-temperature Rotary valve

controller
TIC

Dryer Wet feed

duct
Recycle
Dried product
Disintegrator Screw
Fuel feeder
Air Mixer
heater
Air

FIGURE 49.12 A conventional flash-dryer control system.

where To* is the desired outlet-air temperature, R is
the slop of To vs. Ti curve, and b is the To axis
intercept or bias.
A control system employing this concept is shown
in Figure 49.13.
49.6.6 FLUID-BED DRYERS
Among the available control strategies, the control
system based on exhaust-air temperature as the con-
trolled variable and inlet-air temperature as the ma-
nipulated variable is found to be adequate for most
fluid-bed dryers. This control strategy (Figure 49.14)
performs quite satisfactorily under any load changes
because of the fluid-bed buffer capacity [40]. How-
ever, as this control system responds to exhaust tem-
perature but not to the absolute humidity of the
airstream, it is limited by the ‘‘reverse action’’ [1];
an increase in humidity of the entering air can
cause a reduction in inlet-air temperature instead of

Set point Outlet-temperature Exit gas

controller
TIC

Vent
R Ratio fan
⫹
bias
b Cyclone
Inlet-
Lag temperature
controller
Rotary valve
TIC
Dryer
duct Wet feed

Recycle
Dried product
Disintegrator Screw
Fuel feeder
Air Mixer
heater
Air

FIGURE 49.13 Compensated flash-dryer control system.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

increasing it. This is because the effect of increased
humidity is to reduce the drying rate, which repre-
sents less heat supply from the air, and therefore
raises the outlet temperature. The controller (TIC)
in Figure 49.14 compensates for this rise in tempera-
ture by lowering the inlet temperature, which further
reduces the drying capacity of the air.
An alternative fluid-bed dryer control system has
been developed based on the temperature-difference
technique [45]. This technique is based upon the fact
that the temperature difference between the material
and the wet bulb is a function of the moisture
content of the material at the instant of temperature
measurement.
Alden et al. extended the method by estimating
the equilibrium relative humidity based on the wet-
bulb temperature (Tw), the partial pressure of water at
the solid’s temperature, and the saturated vapor pres-
sure of water at Tw [46]. Thus, the moisture content of
a given material can be inferred from the estimated
temperature difference (DT) and the equilibrium rela-
tive humidity. This method has been successfully
implemented to control the endpoint in batch fluid-
bed dryer for aqueous and aqueous-alcohol granules.
An empirical method was used to determine the de-
sired DT value by frequent sampling of the dried
material and moisture content determination. The
real-time DT was estimated using a computer pro-
gram based on the temperature measurements; this
Set point
TIC
Feed
Screw
feeder
Fuel Air
heater
Air
Fan
FIGURE 49.14 A conventional fluid-bed dryer control system.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
value was then compared with the desired value and
used as the drying-endpoint indicator.
49.6.7 CONTINUOUS CROSS-FLOW GRAIN DRYERS
Traditionally, continuous cross-flow grain dryers
have been controlled manually by adjusting the
unloading auger revolutions per minute (rpm),
which controls the residence time of the grain in the
dryer. However, this control often leads to overdrying
and excessive stress cracking of some of the grain.
Feedback control based on the exhaust-air tem-
perature was the first automatic control method used
in cross-flow grain-drying plants. However, due to the
uncertain relationship between the outlet-air tempera-
ture and the outlet grain moisture content, this con-
trol strategy had proven to be ineffective [47,48].
Due to the above-mentioned difficulties with man-
ual and temperature-based feedback controllers, the
control systems based on product moisture content
have been investigated and applied in many grain-
drying installations in recent years. Forbes et al.
compared different control strategies based on the
product moisture content for commercial corn-drying
units [49]. Three control schemes were studied: (1) a
model-based feedforward controller for which the
corn-drying process is represented by an exponen-
tial-decay-type model with the corn-drying character-
istics lumped into a single parameter; (2) a feedback
Exit gas
Vent fan
Cyclone
Dried product
controller; and (3) a feedforward lead/lag controller.
Using simulations, it has been proven that MBC
system functions better than either PID feedback
control or lead/lag feedforward control. This was
attributed to the fact that MBC is able to avoid
instabilities caused by the frequent and large vari-
ations in the feed moisture content without detuning.
A more effective control strategy for cross-flow
grain dryers is the feedforward–feedback controller
[47,48]. The control algorithm consists of a model-
based feedforward controller with feedback correc-
tion and dynamic compensation. In this system, the
controlled variable is the grain outlet moisture con-
tent, the manipulated variable is the auger rpm, and
the major load (disturbance) variable is the grain inlet
moisture content. The control system consists of a
microcomputer, a commercial moisture meter, a tach-
ometer, and the control/dryer model software, which
is shown schematically in Figure 49.15. The function
of the feedback trim is to force the outlet moisture
content back to the desired value (set point) in the
case of any changes in the minor load variables (e.g.,
grain test weight, wind effect), inaccuracy of the pro-
cess model, or imprecise grain inlet moisture meas-
urement. The dynamic compensation is accomplished
by using a pseudo inlet moisture content consisting of
a weighted average of the present inlet moisture con-
tent and the inlet moisture content of the grain cur-
rently in the dryer. The control algorithm has been
successfully tested on several commercial cross-flow
maize dryers for which the average outlet maize mois-
ture content was controlled to +0.5% of the set point.
Moisture
content
A /D
D/A
Silicon-controlled
rectifier (SRC)
FIGURE 49.15 Cross-flow grain dryer control system.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
49.7 INTELLIGENT CONTROL SYSTEMS
The control strategies of industrial dryers, which are
described earlier, are all based on some mathematical
equations or algorithms. Classical control theory gives
differential equations or transfer functions, and a mod-
ern control theory gives a first-order vector-matrix
differential equation based on the state-space method.
In these approaches, one has to represent the know-
ledge and prior information about the system into
some analytical structure. However, many difficulties
are encountered when designing and applying a dryer
control system based on these approaches. These diffi-
culties arise due to one or more of the following reasons:
1. The drying process is complex, time-variant,
and nonlinear.
2. Some drying variables (e.g., product quality
and color) cannot be measured directly. Other
measurements (e.g., moisture content) may be
inconsistent, imprecise, incomplete, or not to-
tally reliable.
3. Dryer models are generally approximations to
the real process and may require large comput-
ing time.
4. Difficulties are experienced when the process
operates over a wide range of conditions and
suffers from stochastic disturbances.
5. Often, it is not possible to adequately represent
the system characteristics such as nonlinearity,
time delay, time-varying parameters, and over-
all complexity.
Grain in
Moisture
meter
Dryer
RPM
Grain out
Auger motor
Voltage
 6. Dryers contain controlled and manipulated
variables that exhibit interacting effects.
It is clear that, in order to tackle these difficulties,
there is a growing need for the reevaluation of the
conventional control methods used in drying oper-
ations. This leads us to search for a more general
concept of dryer control, one that includes higher-
level decision-making, planning, sequencing, learn-
ing, logic, and reasoning. These goals present another
dimension to the control of an industrial process, i.e.,
the human element.
The process operators’ control strategy is based
on anticipation, knowledge (know-how), and experi-
ence, and can be considered as a set of heuristic
decision rules or ‘‘rules of thumb.’’ In order to recog-
nize the human’s basic elements and to include the
operator’s control actions in an automatic scheme, a
good user–system interface is required. A useful way
to combine this user–system interface with process
control is to use intelligent control systems.
Three approaches dominate the real-time intelli-
gent control field: (1) expert systems, (2) neural net
controllers (neurocontrollers), and (3) fuzzy logic
controllers [50]. These intelligent control systems are
based on two types of information processing: sym-
bolic and subsymbolic processing [15,51].
The symbolic process consists of production rules,
semantic networks, frames, and objects. Systems built
on this principle are called expert systems and are
useful for reasoning about process state (temperature,
pressure, etc.) and process structures. The subsym-
bolic process is based on a model of biological neural
system. Systems modeled on this principle are called
artificial neural networks (ANNs) and are useful for
Global data base Inference engine
(system status) (control structure)
Process
FIGURE 49.16 Structure of an expert control system.
ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
reasoning about process trends and the complex
causal interaction of process variables and states.
Fuzzy logic systems grew out of a desire to quan-
tify rule-based expert systems. Fuzzy set theory had
provided us with an effective framework for dealing
with fuzzy information and for translating control
strategies based on an expert knowledge into an auto-
matic control strategy.
Although not common in the control of industrial
dryers, it is anticipated that complex dryers will find
useful applications for such controls within the next
decade. The following sections present a simple out-
line of these control strategies and references pertain-
ing to their basic principles and some applications
(not necessarily in drying). The interested reader is
referred to the literature cited for details.
49.7.1 RULE-BASED EXPERT CONTROL SYSTEMS
An expert system is an intelligent, computerized, know-
ledge-based system that uses symbolic processes and
inference procedures to simulate the decision-making
process that an expert performs to solve a problem.
As illustrated in Figure 49.16, an expert control
system consists of the following [51–54]:
1. A knowledge base of domain facts, rules, and
heuristics associated with the process. These
can be obtained from the knowledge of the
plant functions, engineering principles, statis-
tical information, and from observing the
skilled human operators. The latter can be
achieved by means of interviews, question-
naires, and online recording of human-initiated
control actions.
User interface
Rules, heuristics, models, etc.
Knowledge
base
 2. An inference engine (or control structure) uses
inference procedures to draw conclusions and
to infer the correct control action based on the
information stored in the knowledge base and
the current state of the process.
3. A global database for keeping track of the
system status, the input data, and the relevant
history of the process.
4. A user interface to provide communication be-
tween the user and the program.
Expert systems can be employed in many process
control–related usages, such as [15,51,53,55]:
1. Process optimization, process management,
trend analysis, alarm processing, control-system
design, and adaptive control
2. Enhancement of classical controller perform-
ance by sensor failure identification, valve sat-
uration, and process constrains
3. Fault detection, diagnosis, and troubleshooting
4. Supervisory control of simple PID-like control-
ler and startup or shutdown procedures
49.7.2 FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
Ri : If x is Ai , . . . , and y is Bi ,
(49:9)
then z ¼ f (x, . . . , y) is Ci
where x, . . . , y are linguistic variables representing
the process-state variables and z is a linguistic variable
representing the process-control variable; Ai, . . . ., Bi,
and Ci are linguistic values of the linguistic variables
x, . . . , y, and z, respectively.
Figure 49.17 shows the basic configuration of an
FLC system, comprising four components: a fuzzifi-
cation interface, a knowledge base, a decision-making
logic (control algorithm), and a defuzzification
interface.
The literature on FLC has been growing rapidly
in recent years, making it difficult to present a com-
prehensive listing of the wide variety of applications
that have been made. Among these are an experi-
mental warm-water plant [65], temperature control
of stirred tank reactor [66], activated sludge waste-
water treatment process [67], cement kiln [68,69],
and startup of catalytic reactor [70]. In drying appli-
cations, FLC systems have been developed for simu-
lated rotary dryers [71–73], deep-bed grain and food
dryers [74–76], fluidized-bed dryers [77,78], and
drum dryers [79].

The FLC is a knowledge-based control strategy that
uses fuzzy linguistic variables into its rule set to model
a ‘‘human-operator-like’’ control approach to cope
with the uncertainty in process dynamics or the con-
trol environment. In this system, fuzzy logic is used to
convert linguistic variables into precise numerical
control actions.
The use of fuzzy logic in automatic control was
suggested by Zadeh in an attempt to design controllers
for complex or ill-defined dynamic systems [56]. Most
early applications came out from the researches done by
Mamdani and his colleagues [57–59]. Definitions of
some terms used in FLC systems are listed in Table 49.2.
In a typical FLC system, the relation between the
input x and the output f(x) of the process can be
described with a set of linguistic rules of which the
typical form is
49.7.3 NEURAL NETWORKS CONTROL SYSTEMS
ANNs are computational paradigms that function in
an analogous way to biological neural systems [64,80–
82]. They consist of massively interconnected, simple,
processing elements (also called neurons or nodes).
The strength of the connection among these neurons
is characterized by its assigned weight. These weights
are adjusted with a training algorithm in order to
reach a desired input/output.
ANNs are of interest to the control community
because they have the potential to treat many prob-
lems that cannot be handled by traditional control
techniques. Bhat and McAvoy [83], Psichogios and
Unger [84], and Ydstie [85] are among many re-
searchers who have investigated the use of ANNs in
process control. A handbook by White and Sofge

TABLE 49.2
Fuzzy Logic Control Defining Terms [60–64]
Fuzzy sets Sets that do not have a crisply defined membership, but rather allow objects to have grades of membership from 0 to 1.
Fuzzy logic Kind of logic using graded or qualified statements rather than ones that are strictly true or false. It is much closer
in spirit to human thinking and natural language than the traditional logical systems. Basically, it provides
effective means of capturing the approximate, inexact nature of the real world.
Linguistic variables Ordinary-language terms that are used to represent a particular fuzzy set in a given problem, such as positive
big (PB), positive medium (PM), positive small (PS), zero (ZO), negative small (NS), negative medium (NM),
and negative big (NB).

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Knowledge base
(fuzzy control rules)

Decision-making logic
Defuzzification (Fuzzy) • Fuzzy implication (Fuzzy)
Fuzzification
interface interface
• Rules of inference
(Crisp or fuzzy)

(Crisp) Changes of error

calculation

(Error)

Process ⫹
⫺
⫹

Set point

FIGURE 49.17 Basic fuzzy control system configuration.

[86], a book by Miller et al. [87], and an article by 1. Process modeling

Hunt et al. [88] give good reviews of the application of
ANNs in process control. Duchesne et al. [89] and
Yliniemi [90] have investigated the use of neural net-
works and hybrid neural–fuzzy control systems in
rotary dryers.
In addition to process control, ANNs can be used
in many potential applications related to industrial
dryers’ design, operation, and control, such as:
2. Qualitative interpretation of process data for
the purpose of control, extraction of control
rules for fuzzy logic controllers, and the like
3. Detection of sensor failure
4. Provision of inferred values for signals that are
difficult to measure in practical situations
5. Estimation of model parameters (e.g., mass
diffusivity) from experimental data

ysp Disturbance, d
d⬘
⫹ yp
u
⫹ Filter NN controller Process ⫹
⫺

ym
NN model ⫹

FIGURE 49.18 Neural network internal model control structure.

ß 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

 Figure 49.18 illustrates a neural network IMC
system in which both process model and process con-
trol are realized using neural networks.
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