880 JAPANESE Hinds, J. 1986 Jpanese (Croom Helm Descriptive Grammars; Croom Helm, Tondo $73, The Sucre ofthe Japanese Language (MIT Press, Cambridge LD. 1968, The Phonologica! Component ofthe Grammar of Japanese Mouton The Hague) : E. 1975, tA Reference ‘Grammar of Japanese (Yale University Press, New "A. 1967. Te Japanese Language (University of Chicago Press, Chicago) fine Other Attic Languages (University of Chicago Press, chine Sansom. 1928. An Historical Grammar of Japanese (Oxford University Press. nti Shiba O (ed.) 1976. Japanese Generative Grammar (Academic Press, New co Sida 082, seis Japanese Lingus (= Lingua vl. 57. 08. 2-4) (oth olan, Arsen) 44 KOREAN Nam-Kil Kim 1 Historical Background For a long time scholars have tried to associate the Korean language to one cof the major language families but have not been suecessfl inthis venture, There have been many theories proposed on the origin of Korean. Based on the views a5 fo where the Korean language first originated, two prominent views, which are called the Southern theory and the Northern theory, have been advocated by some scholars. According to the Southern theory, the Korean people and language originated in the south, namely the South Pacific region. There are two versions of this theory, One is that the Korean language is related to the Dravidian languages of India. This view is not taken seriously by contemporary linguists, but it was strongly advocated by the British scholar Homer B. 1 languages. For instance, both languages have the same syntactic characteristics: the word order subject-object-verb, postpositions instead of preposi tive pronouns, modifiers in front of the head noun, copula and existential as two distinct grammatical Parts of speech etc. i Korean may be wes, There are some linguistic as well as anthropological and archeological findings which may support this view. The882 KOREAN \guistic features of Korean which are shared by some Poly Jude the phon I structure of open syllables, the ‘and the names of various body parts. The anthropol {rcheological clements shared by Koreans and the people in other regions of the South Pacificare rice cultivation, tattooing, a matrilineal family system, the myth of an egg as the birth place of royalty and other recent discoveries in paleolithie or preceramic cultures. Although this Southern theory has brought to the attention of many linguists, it is not accepted as ng by linguists forthern theory is the view that Korean is related to the Altaic ‘Although this view is not wholly accepted by the linguistic ity, the majority of Korean linguists and some western scholars ving this view. The major language branches Which belong to the Altaic family are Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic. The darea in which the Aitaic languages are spoken runs from the Balkans to the Kamchatka Peninsula in the North Pacific. The Northern theory stipulates that the Tungusic branch of Altaic tribesmen migrated towards the south and reached the Korean peninsula, The Tungusic languages would include two rajor languages: Korean and Manchu. The view that Korean isa branch of the Altaic family is supported by anthro-archeological evidence such as ‘comb ceramics (pottery with comb-surface design), bronze-ware, dolmens, ‘menhirs and shamanism. AIl these findings are similar to those found in Central Asia, Siberia and northern Manchuria, Korean jar to the guages with respect to the absence of grammatical elements such genders, articles, f ‘morphology, voice, relative pronouns { conjunctions. Vowel harmony and agglutination are also found in Korean as well as in the Altaic languages. Comparing the two theories, itis apparent that the Northern influence in the Korean language is more dominant than the Southern. Tt has becn discovered in recent archeological excavations that the early race called Paleosiberians lived in the Korean peninsula and Manchuria before the Altaic race migrated to these areas. The Paleosiberians, who include the Chukchi, Koryaks, Kamchadals, Ainu, Eskimos ete., were ther driven away to the farther north by the newly arrived race or assimilated by the conquerors when they came to the Korean peninsula. It is believed that the migration of the new race towards the Korean peninsula took place around 4000 sc. Nothing is known about the languages of the cearliest settlers. After migration, some ancient Koreans settled down in the ins of Manchuria thern Korea while others moved farther to the south, Many stall tribal states were established in the general region of Manchuria and the Korean peninsula from the first century s¢ to the first century ab. The ancient Korean language is divided into two dialeets: the Puyd language and the Han language. The Puyé language was spoken by the people of trihal states such as Puyo, Kokury6, Okchd and Yemaek in KOREAN 883 Manchuria and northern Korea u language was spoken by the peopleof the three Han tribal states of Mahan, Chinhan and By@nhan which wore created in southern Korea. E ‘Around the fourth century AD the small tribal and the Korean peninsula. Of these three kingdoms, the bis Kokury0,oscuple te testory af Manchuta andthe northern pon of the Korean peninsula. The other two kingdoms, Paekche and established states in the southwestern and the southeastern regions of the Korean peninsula respectively. It is believed that the Kokuryé people spoke the Puyd language and the Silla people spoke the Han language; however, is not certain what language the Paekche people spoke because the class of the Paekche kingdom consisted of Puy® tribesmen who spoki Puy6 language. When the Korea peninsula was unified by Silla in the seventh century, the Han language became the dominant dialect pay the emergence of a homogeneous language. The Han language final became the sole Korean language through the two succeeding dynasties of Koryd (936-1392) and Chosin (1392-1910) Since Silla’s unification of the Korean penins appears that the language spoken in the capital has been the standard dialect. Thus, the Silla capital, Kyongju, dialect was the standard dialect during the unified Silla period from the seventh century to the tenth century. ‘When Silla was succeeded by Koryo in the tenth century, the capital was moved from KyOngju, which was located in the southeastetn region of the Korean peninsula, to Kaegydng in the central region of Korea and subsequently the dialect spoken in this new capital became the standard language in Koryd from the tenth century to the end of the fourteenth century. When the Yi (or Chosdn) Dynasty succeeded Koryd at the end of Wat Seoul capital of South Korea; andthe language spoken inthis area became the standard dialect and has continued as a standard dialect to the present time, ‘Thus, it is obvious that n of the standard dialect has be dominated by po! find this even in the twent the seventh century, i¢ own standard dialect and made separate policies on l " mn language. Though the dialect distinction of one region from the other is not drastic ze of the Kore: each region has its cts, For instance, in the Hamgyong dialect of of verb bases ending in pis pono before suffixed morphemes start Se eee a vowel; tap- “hot is pronounced {taba] in the Hamgydng dialect but [tawa} in the standard884 KOREAN dialect, As another example, in the standard dialect palatalisation is normal but in the Pyéng'yang dialect palatalisation does not take place: kat"i “together is pronounced as [kac"i] in the standard dialect but as [kat"'] in the P'yong'yang dialect. Historically, both Hamgyong and P*yéng'yang dialects reflect archaic forms. Thatis, in the ninetcenth-century Yi Dynasty language the standard reflects this historical change. The Korean language spoken before the fifteenth century is not well known because there are not many records or documents reveating how the language was used before the fifteenth century. [twas in the fifteenth century that the alphabetic script (Han’gil) for writing Korean was invented by King. Sejong. Before the Korean script was invented, only Chinese characters Were used for the purpose of writing. But Chinese characters could not depict the living language spoken by Korean people, since Chinese characters were meaning-based and the grammar of classical Chinese did not have any connection with Korean grammar. Even after the Korean script was invented, Chinese characters were continuously used as the main means of writing until the twentieth century. In traditional Korean society, the learning and study of Chinese characters and classical Chinese were entirely monopolised by a small cass of elite aristocrats. For average commoners, the time-consuming learning of Chinese characters was not only a luxury but also useless, because they were busy making a living and knowledge of Chinese characters did not help in improving their lives, ‘The use of Chinese characters imported a massive quantity of loanwords into the Korean lexicon. More than half of Korean words are Chinese- originated loanwords, words have original Korean words and subsequently many native Korean words completely vanished from use. A movement by people who wanted to restore native culture at the end of the nineteenth century tried to stimulate ‘mass interest in the study of the Korean fanguage. When the government proclaimed that the official governmental documents would be written both in Korean script and Chinese characters. the first newspapers and magazines were published in Korean script and the use of the Korean alphabet In the early twentieth century, more systematic studies on the Korean language were started and a few scholars published Korean 1 books. However, the active study of Korean grammar was ese colonial policy suppressing the study of ly of the Korean language resumed a but Korea was to two countries by KOREAN 885 iphabet and Chinese characters were used in the South, only the Korean, abet was used in the North. In the North the policy on the use of Chinese. characters has been firm; that is, no instruction in Chinese characters has been given to students and Chinese characters are not used in newspapers, 's or books. This policy has never been changed in the North. trary 0 this, in the South the policy on the instruction of CI characters has been inconsistent; whenever a new regime has power, both proponents and opponents of the use of C have tried to persuade the government to adopt their views. Though the instruction of Chinese characters was abolished a couple of times by the government in the past, this abol ' the present time in the South, the government has adopted a policy whic forces students in secondary schools to fearn 1,800 ba ‘The South and the North also have different pol ‘purification’ of Korean, Korean means the sole use of native Korean words in everyday life by discontinuing the use of foreign- ted words. The main targets of this campaign are Sino-Korean words, In the North, the government has be this campaign, mobilising newspapers and magazines to spread the newly translated or discovered pure Korean words to a wide audience of readers. In the South, some interested scholars and language study organisati advo wwe tried to and academic ly participated in this kind of It will be interesting t0 see what course each of the two governments will take in future with respect to language polic 2 Phonology ‘The sound system of Korean consists of 21 consonants and ten vowels, The vowels can be classified by the three positions formed by the vocal organs, ight of the tongue, the second is the front or the back of the the shape of the lips. The vowel systems of Korean able 44.1 ‘can be represented as ‘Table 44.1: Korean Vowels Front Back led Rounded _Unrounded Rounded u a w a ‘The vowels itfand //have tree variants [wi] and [we] respectively: thus, ki! ‘ear’ is pronounced either [kt] or {kwi] and /komul/ “strange creature’ is885 KOREAN ie back vowels u and o of verbal bases undergo ey are immediately connected to 2 or a of suffixes. re — [ses s2-2 ‘stand’ —> [so] and ka-2t0 ‘even if her glide formation o1 e deuree of voi Korean obstruents have two other KOREAN 887 ‘Table 44.2: Korean Consonants Manner Dental Palatal Velar Gl lax t k Stops voiceless } aspirated ° e temed pt « faxed Alfricates voiceless. aspirated tensed ; ed s » Fricatves _vojeeless {MXC : Nasals voiced moo a Liquid voiced ' Semi-vowels woy c/ are pron when they occur between two voiced sounds, have voiced allophones, Korean range, For inst the word /akal ‘baby’ is, pronounced [aga] because /ki occurs between two vowels, which ‘The Korean aspirated obstruents are produced with stronger aspi than English aspirated sounds. The Korean tensed obstruents are one: most pecul inds among Korean consonants. The tensed produced tension, but these ejectives. For instance, the Ke {general qualities of Korean con described. Let us now discuss some of the phonological processes affect Korean consonants. In pronunciation, consonants are always unrelease: word-final position and before another obstruent, Because of this, consonants belonging to a given phonetic group ate p in word-final position and b stops /p same manner, the velar stops largest group of c nts were briefly id to (Wl. The dental and palatal obstrucnts,888 KOREAN which are pronounced ‘one consonant is pronounced and the other consonant is 1¢ Uk cluster in its base, is pronounced Jowever, us far, we have seen the Korcan phonemic system and some of Korean system [As can be se Han’ sts of 40 letters: basic consonants and 5 double consonants, The Korean writing s KOREAN 889 ‘Table 44.3: Korean Alphabet Lewer Leter Pure vowels: 1 w 7 fw v fel 1 iat ¥ at } hal a fa > hal -l ier = fol ‘Compound vowels: + 1e semi-vowels y and w do not have rs, They are always repre other vowels occurring with them. For instance, the letter Fis a the letter +f isa ci sequence of CV(C) ik ‘each’ —s 2890 KOREAN by the symbol © an fen aso} . For instance. a word ai vowels, a and i, is written as ofS} 3 Morphology Korean words can be di nto two classes: inflected ar uninflected words are bs and interjections, swords are classed as action verbs, descriptive verbs, copula and existential. xd with verbal rocessive forms. Thus, whereas the action verb plus the in is grammatical, the combinations of and mak- is an ending, Bases and endings can be classed into groups accor to the ways in which alternant shapes of bases are combined with endings. ere are two kinds of ending: one-shape ¢! as -ki ‘Two-shape endings are pl instance, the formal form -stipnita occurs only with base forms ending in a sant form of the for ‘occurs only with sed on these classes of endings, verb bases have three classes in addi ing bases and [inst see how the base form is changed whe KOREAN 891 with endings starting wi phonologically conditioned; ¢ is changed to k before k; 1 Below, the part ng. vowel base is illustrated the conjugation of an ordinary vowel base. he conjugation of the /e. However, in the case of irregular vowel bases. such as p/ inserted before the same endings, ‘The number of endings which can be at nite verb forms, there are sev endings can occur: honorific, tense, aspect, modal aspect and mood. The honorific marker si (or tsi) is attached to the base to show the ‘or behaviour honouring the social status of the subject of rked form is ker 25's" has the meaning past and the unmarked form present. The pas completed act positions because there are two different ve and retrospective, which are m hen the other cannot. The expt precisely, the first sentence merely indicates the fact that the subject has892 KOREAN re now. But the second sentence has the meaning {has had the experience of beingin school or that he had been. in school before but has come back to the plice where he is now. THhus, the two sentences have quite different meanings. Only the second sentence has ‘an aspectual meaning of experiential-contrastive “The retrospective (aindicates that the speaker recollects what he observed in the past and reports it in the present situation. The sentence John i cip ¢ kka-ta la has roughly the meaning ‘I observed that John was goin now I report to you what I observed’ The modal Kes’ has the meaning indicating the speaker's volition or postion and is used both fora definite future and a probable present or .ched to a verb whose subject is first person, al meaning and is used only with reference 10 tomorrow" but *nae ka nail ka- sentence whose subject is second ;ntence has only the suppositional meaning and is used il ka- Suppose that Mary will go tomorrow’ and Mary ka ace ka-s'-kes it Mary left yesterday’ is used for the speaker to express poli ‘op-sipni-ta “itis hot today’ and onl tap-ta itis he only difference between the two sentences isthe presence or absence of the polite form supni in the ve be used for addressing those whose social status is supe’ but the second sentence would be used for addressing one w/ equal to the speaker in social status (here, soc position, age, sex, job ete.) terrogative, mood morpheme: 20 forms can be derived by adding suffixes to and li bases. There area which have common shapes. Gene verbal forms are frequently produced z fom the base kal Besides the causa fe morphemes -i- KOREAN 893 u- and -iu- morphemes in /-theme ive isformed by lowed by the Some verbs take passives are not so commonly used a ish or Japanese. There are many tran: passive formation in group of verbs. There are two kinds of verbs which undergo periphrastic passivisation: one is a group of verbs which take ar her a group of verbs which take an inchoative verb 10 in «sive of the first group is formed by adding ive verb ci: pusu-a ce the inchoative verb 13 in ted loan verbs plus the are derived from verbs bases. There are three general rule deciding which nominaliser is attached to which base, more ed from verbal bases by adding the nomin: vm and iscussion will concentrate ean different from many894 KOREAN h; here, the phrase ‘relatively free means that Korean is not a completely free word order language. The Korean language obeys.a strict grammatical constraint requi at the sentence end with a verb. As long as the sentence obeys this constraint. @ permutation of the, majo Sway: John i ctk ail Mary eke cu-as'-ta; Mary eke John i c'iek il cu-as'-ta; ae arson Mary eke cust; cuek al Mary eke John i ets" However, the following sentences are ungrammatical: “John i Mary eke cu: peta ci iil; John i cu-as"-ta C'k ud Mary eke. The ungrammaticality of { two sentences is due to the violation of the verb-final constraint. in the above examples of Korean sentences, the grammatical elements i eke and. iil_ate postpositional particles corresponding to the case ‘nominative, dative and accusative. There are other kinds of postpositional Such as ¢ torat, es ‘ain’, 10 ‘also, nn “topic” put'a from’ and Paci toll. All these particles must occur after nouns, but some of them can oceur aver other particles; ice put" to ha-l-su ita ‘we can do it fro now, too’; wli tosakwan e niin ek i manh-ta ‘in our ibrary, there are many books’ ‘Compating the Korean example with its English translation, itis found that de Korean does not have any number marker, singular or yn has a plural marker s. This narker attachment is not so obligatory as in English. Especi tases where quantifiers or numerals appear in sentences as in the above example, the plual marker is usually not attached to the noun. Another characteristic of number in Koreans that the plural marker can be attached to adverbs, e.g, p'allitil if dl ha-n-ta ‘they do work fast’. In the exampl plural market ais attached to the adverb p'alli‘fast’. Usually, inthis kind of Sentence, the subject is deleted, but itis understood that the subject of the sentence is plural instead of singular owing to the presence of the plural marker on the adverb, ‘When nouns occur with numerals, classifiers are attached to numerals 3 obligatorily. Korean has a rich system of 1s. Bach classifier is related to a class of nouns. In other words, a cert ier occurs only with a certain class of nouns, e.g. ceek han-kwan ‘one volume of a book’; imaekcu tu-pyay “two bottles of beer’; namu han-kilu ‘one tree’; cogi han-cayy ‘one piece of paper’. Another interesting thing with respect to numerals is that there is an alternative word order. Thus, the sequence of numeral + classifier, which occurs after nouns in the above examples, can also occur before nouns. When this floating takes place, the genitive particle di is inserted between numeral + classifier and the noun: han-kwan ti e'ak ‘one volume of a book’; tu-pyag ti merkcu ‘two bottles of beer’; han-kellu ii nama “one tree’; han-cay ii coyi ‘one piece of paper’. plu KOREAN 895, s may have been noticed in some of the examples, deletion of subjects is allowable as long as subjects are recoverable from linguistic ornon-linguistic context. Deletion of the first person and second person in Korean is especially free, asin eek ul satli-kes'-tipni-ta‘L will buy you a book anarseyo? when do you leave? Inthe first sentence, the first person subject deleted and in the second, the second person subject is deleted because these subjects are recoverable in a discourse context, Although deletion of the third person subject is not so common as deletion of first and second person subjects, itis also possible: Mary ka cip e kass-il'e @ up"yanpatalpu Tal manna-s-ta ‘when Mary went home, she met the mailman’. The zero indicates the position where the third person subject is deleted. In the last ‘example, we discover another difference between Kore: lish, In the English translation of the last Korean example, the noun mailman is preceded by the definite article he. This same noun could be preceded by the indefinite article a, This means that English has distinct definite and indefinite articles. But Korean does not have a icating defniteness or indefiniteness. Although definiteness is indicated by demonstratives in some cases, the dstinetion between definite and indefinite, in general, is not made in Korean, Modifiers such as demonstratives, genitives, adjectives and ret clauses precede head nouns in Korean e.g, ¢¢ak tin ca teresting’; John ai apoci nan disa-ta ‘John’s father is a doctor’; yepain Koc sta there isa pretty flowers hakkyo e ka-ko is?-nin hakssey tin Mati ink tuctent who is going 10 school is my friend. All constituents in bold print are located to the left of the head noun. These modifying constituents make Korean a left-branching language. The notion of 1 in the following sentence containing three tek clauses [{{[nze ka ann] haksay i tani-nin| hakyo ka i -min] tst niin Wt ‘al ‘the city [where the school is {where my friend goes fwho T know is bigh lacks relative pronouns. Demo modifiers. Korean demonstratives have two distinet characteristics which rst, Korean demonstratives cannot The second difference ive ta ‘this book is is that Korean demonstratives| addition to the demonstratives ‘this’ and ‘that’, Korean has a demonstrative which has the meaning ‘that over there’ Jat ‘that’ and co “that over there’. The same tripte systemis found in demonstrative locative nouns, e.2 ere’, kaki ‘there’ and caki ‘yonder’ Korean predicates do not agree in number, person or gender with their ubjects. However, predicates show agreement with honorifieness and iteness in different styles of speech. Three main levels of speech are Gistinguished with respect to politeness: plain, polite and deferential. Many other specch levels can also be represented among these three basic speech896 KOREAN levels by different endings. The three main speech levels of declarative sentences have the following ending forms: plain: ta; polite: yo: deferential: (si)pnita. Thus, when the speaker expresses his politeness toward the hearer, either the polite or the deferential speech level is used, e.g. sanszeynim: i cip e ka-yo ‘the teacher is going home"; sanseegmim i cip ¢ ka- pita, In contrast to this, when the speaker does not express any particular iteness toward the hearer, the plain speech level is used; e.g. sansiegnim i e ka-n-ta If the speaker wants to express his respect toward the referent of the subject, the honorific marker si is inserted between verbal bases and endings: e.g. sansarynim i cip e ka-si-ayo; sansteynim i cip e ka-si-pnita; i le. the insertion of the honorific marker si is possible in the predicate of a sent fing in the ince the honorifieness is expressed to the subject, but not fhe above example, ifthe subject isa student instead of a teacher, then unacceptable sentences are produced: "hakswey ihakkyo e ka- hakszen i hakkyo ¢ ka-si-nta. The wungra lation of agreement between the subject and the predicate with respect to honorificness. In other words, the subject haksey ‘student’ cannot occur with the predicate containing the honorific marker si, because hakswen betongs to the class of nouns which cannot be referred to with the arker si Let us now turn to negation, Korean has three different negative ‘morphemes: an, ma and mos. The morpheme an occurs in declarative and interrogative sentences and the morpheme ma occurs in propositive and imperative sentences, e.g. declarative: cip ean ka-n-ta ‘I do not go hom interrogative: cip e an ka-ni? ‘don’t you go home?’; propositive: cip e ka-ci ‘mal-ca'et's not go home’: imperative: cip ¢ ka-ci ma-ta don’t go home’. The remaining negative morpheme mos has the meaning ‘cannot’, €.g. cip € mos ka-n-ta'I cannot go home’. There are three types of negation in Korean. In the first type, the negative morphemes an and mos occur immediately before the main verb, asin the declarative and interrogative, asin the last example. 1¢ other two types involve more complicated operations. In the second the negative behaves like the main predicate and ha “do! complementation; cip ¢ ka-ci ani ha-n-ta ‘I don’t go home’; cip e ka-ci mos ‘ha-n-ta “I cannot go home’. From these three types of negation, we ean observe different occurrences of negative morphemes. That is, white the negative morpheme an appears in all three typesof negation, the morpheme ‘mos appears inthe frst and ‘morpheme ma appears only in the sec nal example of Korean syntactic characteristics, Korean sentential 1 briefly discussed, Sentential complements are marked KOREAN 897 after the iser kas, but in the sentence *na niin i c*wk i cwmiis'ta ko Positions, but yea complements We different syntactic behaviour from ial complements containing the complementiser. Sentential complements containing the nominaliser behave like regular noun phases, iser undergo ‘Thus, whereas sentential complements with the no complements with the I ‘abit td lemens withthe complementier do not undergo the sae sync processes, OF the above nominaliers and complements, i ged ac 9 question nominalsr and ko is wsed ns quotative complemventsee: aa an John ance nin ei moienta*do not khow shen loka John init o-nta ko malharyos at sai hat ohn ou competent consining Av cane differentiated fom sentential complements containing tnt by syntactic and semantic Inthe majority of cares, wml is wed for factive (ie: complements whose truths presupposes), but ki feased complements. A given predicate wil ake ony one of tees 3,68 nan Jolin eipkarkas tl won ta Tat loa togohome's*na John cipeka mi wonka w:namtn olny eke Aas taI knew tha John Was going home’, "a Jol Jelp ck kt asta. The examples show that the no fatve prediete woah ane curs only with A and the facie predicate alto osers th conn ‘The nominaliser ka occurs with bth ative and non active complements rnin John ip e Ratna monhan1a' want John to o heme ne ‘un ohn cp eke hae asta" knew that Sohn as gone hone Bibliography For discussion of the origins and kistory of Korean, refe ar gsi ofthe cigs and history of Ki ference may be English: Mart rphophonemiss, nd B.K. Lse (1077,898 KOREAN ESE 45 AUSTRONESIAN LANGUAGES | Ross Clark Jy te Korean Language (Center for Korean (Conter for eT ening Korean (Yale University Press, New Haven)