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Chirag Goyal Rahul Kumar Bhatia Pratibha Kuri Sukhpal Kaur

Roll No. : 21414346670 Roll No. : 22046373468 Roll No. : 11630363603 Roll No. : 31452341723
Civil : Assistant Engineer Civil : Assistant Engineer Civil : Assistant Engineer Civil : Assistant Engineer Pooja Sharma Sumit Mahar Avinash Ankush Jain Poonam Chand
CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn
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Website : www.engineersacademy.org | Email: info@engineersacademy.org
CONTENTS
S.No. Topic Page No.
1. Energy ................................................................................................ 01 – 38
2. Ecosystem .......................................................................................... 39 – 78
3. Biodiversity....................................................................................... 79 – 133
4. Climate Change ...............................................................................134 – 148
5. Environmental Impact Assessment .................................................149 – 158
6. Sustainable Development ................................................................159 – 171
7. Environmental Degradation and Pollution ......................................172 – 229
8. Environmental Laws and Conventions ...........................................230 – 262
9. Important Species in India ...............................................................263 – 275
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Energy & Environment Energy 1
ENERGY
THEORY
1.1 INTRODUCTION OF ENERGY:
The word "energy" originates from Greek word "energeia" which means activity or operation. In physics
it is defined as the capacity to perform work. It cannot be created or destroyed; but can only be
converted from one form to another.
Forms of Energy :
In classical physics, forms of energy are often classified into two main categories: kinetic and potential.
KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY

Kinetic energy is motion, for example the motion Potential energy is stored energy or the potential
of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules substances energy of gravitation
and objects
Electrical Energy is the movements of electrical Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds
charges. Everything is made of tiny particles of atoms and molecules. Examples include
called atoms-made up of electrons, protons, and petroleum, biomass and neutral gas.
neutrons.
Electrical charges moving through a wire is called
electricity
Radiant Energy is electromagnetic energy that Stored Mechanical Energy is energy stored in
travels in waves like visible light, x-rays gamma objects through the application of a force like
rays and radio waves and solar energy. compressed springs and stretched rubber bands.
Thermal or heat Energy is the internal energy in Nuclear Energy is energy stored in the energy
substances the movement of atoms and molecules that holds the nucleus of an atom together and is
within substances, Geothermal energy is an released when the nuclease are combined or split
example of thermal energy. apart Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of
Uranium atoms in a process called fusion. Fusion
is a process where the sun combines the nuclei of
hydrogen atoms.
Motion Energy is the movement of objects and Gravitational Energy is the energy of position
substances from on place to another. Wind is an or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill
example of motion energy. contains gravitational potential energy. A good
example of gravitational energy is hydropower.
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2 Energy General Studies
1.1.1 Sources of Energy on The Earth
• The Sun emits Electro Magnetic radiation across most of the electromagnetic spectrum. But incoming
Solar Radiation (Isolation) at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared, 42 to 43 percent visible
and 3 to 5 percent.
• The sun is the primary energy source in our lives. We use it directly for its warm and through various
natural processes that provide us with food, water, fuel and shelter, the sun's rays power the growth of
plants, which form our food material, give off oxygen which we breathe in and take up carbon dioxide
that we breathe out, Energy from the sun evaporates water from oceans, rivers and lakes to form clouds
that turn into rains.
• Chemical energy contained in chemical compounds is released when they are broken down by animals
in the presence of oxygens. In india, manual labour is still extensively used to get work done in agricultural
systems, and domestic animals used to pull carts and ploughs.
• Electrical energy produced in several ways. powers transport artificial lighting agriculture and industry.
Nuclear energy is held in the nucleus of an atom and is now harnessed to develop electrical energy.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES:
Energy Resources
Based on Based on Based on

Based on Based on
Traditional Long term Commercial
usability origin
use availability application
Primary Conventional Non- Commercial Fossil

Intermediate Non- renewable Non- Nuclear
Secondary Conventional Renewable commercial Hydro
Solar
Wind
Biomass
Geo-thermal
Tidal
Ocean thermal
Ocean wave
1.2.1 Classification based on Usage

It has 3 types
(a) Primary Resources
These are resources embodied in nature prior to understanding any human made conversions or
transformations. Examples: coal, crude oil, sunlight, wind, running river (hydro), uranium, etc. These
resources are generally available in raw forms and are located, explored, extracted, processed and
are converted to a form as required by the consumer.
(b) Intermediate Resources
These are obtained from primary energy by one or more steps of transformation. Some forms of
energy may by categorized both in intermediate as well as secondary resources, electricity and
hydrogen.
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(c) Secondary Resources

The form of energy which is finally supplied to a consumer for utilization is known as secondary
or usable energy. e.g, electrical energy, thermal energy (in the form of stream or hot water)
chemical energy( in the form of hydrogen or fossil fuels), etc.
1.2.2 Classification based on traditional use
It has 2 types.
(a) Conventional Energy Resources:
These are being used for ages without very modern technological intervention.
Ex. Fire wood, Fossil Fuels, Hydro, Crude oil
(b) Non-Conventional Energy Resources:
These are being used in modern time with application of technology,
Ex: Petroleum, Gas, Solar, Wind, biomass, ocean, thermal Energy etc.
1.2.3 Classification based on long term availability
It has 2 types:
(a) Non-Renewable Energy Resources:
These are finite resources once used cannot be replenished again.
Ex. Fossil fuels, Atomic fuels
(b) Renewable Energy Resources:
These are resources where perpetual harvesting is humanly possible.
Ex. Solar, wind, Biotic and Hydro resources.
1.2.4 Classification based on Commerical Application
It has 2 types
(a) Non-commercial Energy Resources:
These are directly derived from nature and used without processing.
Ex Wood, Animal cow dung cake, crop residues.
(b) Commercial Energy Resources:
These derived energy resources that have undergone processing and commercial appliances.
Ex: CNG, LPG, Shale Gas, Coal, Methane etc.
1.2.5 Classification based on origin
There are many types.
(a) Fossil fuels Energy
(b) Hydro energy
(c) Nuclear energy
(d) Solar energy
(e) Wind energy
(f) Biomass energy
(g) Geothermal energy
(h) Tidal energy
(i) Ocean thermal energy
(j) Ocean wave energy
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Generally energy sources are divided into two groups.
1. Nonrenewable (an energy source that cannot be easily recreated)
2. Renewable an energy source that can be easily replenished)
• Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary energy
sources like electricity.
1.3 NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
Non Renewable energy sources are those natural resources which are exhaustible and cannot be
replaced once they are used these are available in limited amount and develop over a long period. Ex
fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and natural gas), and nuclear power.
1.3.1 Fossil Fuels
Fossils are remains of organism that lived in the fossil fuels are plants that got buried under earth that
became rock over years. Fossil fuels have to be unearthed from mines. Most fossil fuels release energy
as heat. The types of fossil fuels are:
COAL
Coal is a major conventional energy sources. It was formed from the remains of the trees and ferns grew
in swamps around 500 billions year ago. The bacterial and chemical decomposition of such plant debris
(which remained buried under water or clay) produced an intermediate product known as peat.
Rank (Lowest to High) Properties
Peat is recently accumulated organic sediment. It has a carbon content of

Peat
less than 40% or a dry ash free basis.
Lignite is the lowest rank of coal. It is a peat that has been transformed
Lignite into a rock, and that rock is a brown-black coal. It has a carbon content up
to 60% on a dry ash-free basic. It is known as "brown coal."
Bituminous coal is formed when a peat, Lignite coal is subjected to

increased levels of organic metamorphism. It has a carbon content of
Bituminous
between 77 and 87& on a dry ash-free basis and a heating value that is
much higher than lignite, it is often referred to as "soft coal":
Anthracite is the highest rank of coal it has a carbon content of over 87 on

Anthracite a dry ash-free basis. Anthracite coal generally has the highest calorific
value. It is often referred to as "hard coal":
CHARCOAL:
Charcoal is artificially formed coal. Chunk obtained from incomplete burning of plant remains (mainly
wood), on complete burning wood would turn into ash.
COKING COAL:
Coal is naturally-found fossil fuel, where as coking Coal is a derivative product from coal after removing
impurities, such as coal-tar and coal-gas, at high temperatures in an oxygen-free furnace.

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COAL TO LIQUIDS
Coal can also be converted into a liquid fuel like diesel or gasoline through direct or indirect liquefaction.
Liquid coal can become a petroleum substitute and be used in the transportation industry.
ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF COAL:
• The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use, waste management and
water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products.
• In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste
products annually including fly ash bottom ash and flue gas desulfurization sludge that contain mercury
uranium, thorium arsenic sulfur and other heavy metals miners expose to these pollutants results in
reduced life expectancy especially due to chronic and gas explosions.
OIL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS:
• Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons formed from plants and animals that lived millions years ago.
Crude oil is a fossil fuel and it exists in liquid form in underground pools or reservoirs, in tiny spaces within
sedimentary rocks and near the surface in tar (or oil) sands.
• Products made from crude oil
 After crude oil is removed from the ground it is sent to a refinery where different parts of the crude
oil are separated into usable petroleum products these petroleum products.
 Crude oil and other liquids produced from fossil fuels are refined into petroleum products that people
use for many different purposes.
 Main petroleum products from crude oil includes Petrol/Gasoline, Diesel oil, Heating Oil/fuel oil,
Hydrocarbon gas liquids (HGL) like propane, ethane, butane and jet fuel etc.,
 Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are also used as petroleum products by blending with petrol
and diesel fuel.
 Hydrocarbon gas Hquids (HGL) are hydrocarbons that occur as gases at atmospheric pressure and
as liquids under higher pressures.
• Environmental Effects of petroleum Industry:
 Crude oil is a mixture of many different kinds of organic compounds, many of which are highly toxic.
 Incompletely burned compounds are created in addition to just water and carbon dioxide. The other
compounds are often toxic to life. Examples are carbon monoxide and methanol.
 Oil spill is the release of hydrocarbons into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human
activity or, negligence it has adverse impacts. Oil is "acutely lethal" to fish.
 Volatile organic compounds VOCs from petroleum are toxic and foul the air, and some like benzene
are extremely toxic, and cause DNA damage, benzene often makes up about 1% of crude oil and
gasoline. Benzene is present in automobile exhaust. Benzene is present in both crude oil and gasoline
and is known to cause leukemia in humans.
• Coal and its environmental impacts:
 Coal is the world's single largest contributor of green house gases and is one of the most important
causes of global warming.
 Many coal based power generation plants are not fitted with devices such as electrostatic precipitators
to reduce emissions of suspended particulate matter (SPM) which is a major contributor to air
pollution.

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 Burning coal also produces oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which, combined with water vapor, lead
to 'acid rain' this kills forest vegetation and damages architectural heritage sites pollutes water and
affects human health.
 Thermal power stations that use coal produce waste in the form of fly large dumps are required
to dispose of this waste material while efforts have been made to use it for making bricks. The
transport of large quantities of fly ash and its eventual dumping are costs that have to be included
in calculating the cost-benefits of thermal power.
1.3.2 Natural Gas
 Natural gas is a new age fuel. Natural gas consisting of 87-92% of methane with a small percentage
of other higher hydrocarbons like ethane, propane and heavier hydrocarbons small quantities of nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds and water may also be found in natural gas.
 With only one carbon and four hydrogen atoms per molecule, natural gas has the lowest carbon the
hydrogen ratio, hence in burns completely, making it the clearest of fossil fuels.
 Natural Gas comes in four basic forms.
(i) Liquefied Natural Gas(LNG):
Natural Gas which has been liquefied at (Minus) 160 degree Centigrade Natural Gas is liquefied
to facilitate Transportation in large volumes to cryogenic tankers across sea as it reduces volumes
to 1/600 parts.
(ii) Re-gasified Liquefied Natural Gas (RLNG):
LNG Re-gasified before transporting it to consumers through Pipelines.
• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
Natural Gas compressed to a pressure of 200-250 kg/cm2 used as fuel for transportation. CNG decreases
vehicular pollution on the virtue of being cleaner fuel than liquid fuels.
• Piped Natural Gas (PNG)
Natural Gas distributed through a pipeline network that has safety valves to maintain the pressure
assuring safe, uninterrupted supply to the domestic sector for cooking and heating cooling applications.
• LNG is different from LPG
LPG is Liquefied petroleum Gas, LPG Production happens during the refining of crude oil.In addition,
extraction of LPG takes place directly from some of the oil wells. Because of its potential to vaporize
immediately any leaks can be hazardous basic knowledge of safety is necessary for using LPG.
CNG LPG
Constituent is methane Constituents are propane and butane
Release of green house gas is greater but relatively

Release of greenhouse gas is very less clean to gasoline.
It is lighter than air and disperses quickly in It is heavier than air and on leakage settles to
the event of spillage. Hence, risk of ignition ground and gets accumulated in lower layers.
is minimal Hence, risk of fire is more.
• Uses of Natural Gas:

Natural gas is used as a fuel in power, Transport, Fertilizer Natural gas is also used as a raw material
for many products including paints, Fertilizer, plastics, photographic film, medicines, and explosives.
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Unconventional Gases:
• Unconventional natural gas is trapped in deep underground rocks that are hard to reach, such as shale
rock or coal beds. Recent technological advances have made it possible to get these new sources of
energy out of the ground.
• Shale Gas is defined as a natural gas produced from shale. Shale has low permeability. So gas production
in commercial quantities requires fractures to provide permeability. Shale gas has been produced for
years from shale with natural fractures: the shale gas boom seen in the USA in recent years has been
due to new technology in hydraulic fracturing (especially directional drilling and frack fluids) to create
extensive artificial fractures around well bores.
• Shale oil: Fracking can be used not only to get gas out of the rock, but also oil known as shale oil.
• Tight gas is natural gas held in rocks with pores up to 20,000 times narrower than a human hair, such
that the gas will not flow freely into a well without fracturing.
• Coal Bed Methane(CBM), also sometimes known as sweet gas coal bed gas, or coal mine methane
(CMM), is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds, unlike shale, coal is frequently very porous
and permeable, and therefore often has high water content. It is often contaminated with all manner
of dissolved ingredients from the total beds and associated rocks.
• All the above types of gas extraction fall under the category of Unconventional Gas one way of
defining unconventional gas it that can only be produced economically to using hydraulic fracturing
horizontal drilling.
Atomic Energy:
• Atoms are the tiny particles in the molecules that make up gases liquids and solids atoms themselves are
made up of three particles called protons neutrons and electrons. An atom has a nucleus (or core)
containing protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by electrons. The bonds can be broken through
nuclear fission and this energy can be used produce electricity.
 In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart which releases energy. All nuclear power plants use
nuclear fission, and most nuclear power plants use uranium atoms during nuclear fission a neutron
hits it uranium atom and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and
radiation.
 Nuclear energy can also be released in nuclear fusion, in which atoms are combined or fused
together to form a larger atom. This is the source of energy in the sun and stars. Nuclear fusion
is the subject of ongoing research as a source of energy for heat and electricity generation.
Nuclear fuel-uranium
• Uranium is the fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission, Uranium is considered to be
a non-renewable energy source even through it is a common metal found in rocks worldwide. Nuclear
power plants use a certain kind of uranium, referred to as U-235 for fuel because its atoms are easily
split apart. Although uranium is about 100 times more common then silver, U-235 is relatively rare.
• Once uranium is mined, the U-235 must be extracted and processed before it can be used as fuel.
Environment and Nuclear Energy:
• Nuclear power plants routinely emit low level radioactively with disposal of nuclear waste and hazardous
material.
• Mining of uranium contributes to water pollution and land degradation. The mining process results in both
the deliberate routine release and accidental spill of contaminated water, leading to the potential poisoning
of nearby waterways and threatening the local environment and human residents.
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• The solid high-level waste from nuclear power stations is hot and very radioactive, so must be isolated
from people and the environment indefinitely.
• The presence of some random around a uranium mining operation and some dust bearing radioactive
decay products as well as the hazards of inhaled coal dust in a coal mine are well understood in both
cases, using the best current practice, the health hazards to miners are very small and certainly less than
the risks of industrial accidents.
1.4 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
Renewable energy resources are those natural resources which are inexhaustible (i.e., which can be
replaced as we use them) and can be used to produce energy again and again. These are available in
unlimited amount in nature and develop in a relatively short period of time. These include solar, wind
water geothermal, ocean energy.
There are six main renewable energy sources:
1. Hydro energy
2. Wind energy
3. Geothermal energy
4. Ocean, wave and Tidal Energy
5. Solar energy
6. Biomass energy
1.4.1 Hydropower
Hydropower is the largest renewable energy source for electricity generation.
• This uses water flowing down a natural gradient to turn turbines to generate electricity known as
'hydroelectric power' by constructing dams across rivers.
• Hydroelectricity or hydropower is the fourth largest source of commercial energy production and
consumption globally.
(i) Merits:
1. Hydropower plants have a higher economic lifetime as the maintenance cost is small.
2. It can be considered as "clean" as no greenhouse gas is emitted directly and is also considered as
"regenerative" energy source as water can be used again and again.
(ii) Demerits:
1. Hydropower does not directly pollute the water or the air. However, hydropower facilities can have large
environment impacts by changing the environment and affecting land use, homes and natural habitats in
the dam area. It disturbs the natural ecological flow of the river.
2. Water accumulation can lead to thermal and chemical changes, in the depth of the reservoirs, Deposits,
sediment, reached bottom may encourage the development accumulation of aquatic flora (plankton,
algae) which under certain conditions can cause atrophy accumulation reducing the amount of oxygen
and death of wildlife.
1.4.2 Wind power
• About 2% of the sunlight striking the earth is converted into the kinetic energy of moving air called wind.
The uneven absorption of the soil radiation by the earth's surface causes differences of temperature
density and pressure which produce air movements at local, regional and global levers powered by wind
energy.

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• The kinetic energy of the wind can be harnessed by converting it into mechanical energy or electrical
energy using suitable devices.
• Wind speed typically increases with altitude and increases over open areas without windbreaks. Good
sites for wind turbines include the tops of smooth, rounded hills open plains or shorelines, and mountain
gaps that funnel and intensity wind. Wind is concentrated in certain regions and is variable with time at
any given location.
• Five nations - USA, Germany, Denmark, Spain and India - account for 80% of the world's installed wind
energy capacity.
(i) Merits:
1. Free and readily available energy supply on a windy day
2. Technology fairly well developed
3. Very low environmental impact
4. Moderate net useful energy yield
(ii) Demerits:
1. Insufficient wind in many places.
2. Requires conventional backup electrical system or fairly expensive a storage system.
3. Production and installation costs are high (but should decrees with mass production)
4. Cannot be used to power vehicles unless electricity is used to produce hydrogen gas or to recharge
batteries.
1.4.3 Geothermal power:
• Geothermal energy produced by natural processes occurring within the earth. The major source of this
energy (in the form of heat) is molten underground rock or magma.
• Geothermal energy is extracted for heating and power generation from natural stream, hot water or dry
rocks in the Earth's crust. Water is pumped down through an injection well where it passes through joints
in the hot rocks and then water rises to the surface through a recovery well.
• Geothermal reservoirs are naturally occurring areas of hydrothermal resources. They are deep underground
and are largely undetectable above ground. Geothermal energy finds its way to the earth's surface in
three ways.
 Volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are released)
 Hot springs.
 Geysers.
• There are three main types of geothermal energy systems:
 Direct use and district heating systems use hot water from springs or reservoirs located near the
surface of the earth.
 Electricity generation power plants require water or stream at high temperatures (300° to 700°F).
Geothermal power plants are generally built where geothermal reservoirs are located within a mile
or two of the surface of the earth.
 Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or water temperature near the earth's surface to control
building temperatures above ground.
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Merits of Geothermal Energy
1. Geothermal energy is the most versatile and least polluting renewable energy resource.
2. Geothermal energy is relatively inexpensive.
3. It is not subject to the same safety political price and operating cost uncertainties as imported oil, natural
gas or nuclear fuel use.
4. Geothermal power plants could be brought on line more quickly than most other energy sources in case
of an extended national emergency.
Demerits of Geothermal Energy
1. Geothermal hot spots are sparsely distributed and usually some distance away from the area needling
energy. Only few sites have the potential of Geothermal Energy.
2. The minimum temperature of steam required for the efficient production of electricity is about 100*c.
as a result, many reservoirs of hot water can be used only for direct heating (as in Iceland), because
thermal energy cannot be efficiently transported very far from the source.
3. Through geothermal energy as a whole can be treated as an inexhaustible resource, a single bore will
have a limited life of 10 years or so in economic terms.
4. Withdrawal of large amounts of steam or water from a geothermal source may result in surface
subsidence.
Positive environmental effects of geothermal energy:
1. The environmental impact of geothermal energy depends on how geothermal energy is used or on how
it is converted to useful energy. Direct use applications and geothermal heat pumps have almost no
negative impact on the environment. Direct use applications and geothermal heat pumps can actually
have a positive effect because they may reduce the use of other types of energy that may have grater
negative impacts on the environment.
2. Geothermal power plants release less than 1% of the carbon dioxide emissions released by a fossil fuel
power plant. Geothermal power plants further limit air pollution through the use of scrubber systems that
remove hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is naturally found in the steam and in the hot water used to
generate geothermal power.
3. Geothermal plants emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulfur compounds than are emitted by fossil fuel
power plants. After the steam and water from a geothermal reservoir are used, they are injected back
into the earth.
1.4.4 Ocean Energy
Oceans are large water bodies covering 70.8% of the earth's total surface are and hold about 1445
million cubic km of saline water. Energy from ocean or sea can be obtained in many ways. These include:
(i) Ocean thermal energy Conversion (OTEC)
(ii) Tidal Energy
(iii) Wave Energy
(iv) Current Energy
(v) Salinity Gradient Energy
(vi) Ocean Wind Energy
(vii) Ocean Geothermal Energy
(viii) Bio Conversion Energy

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(i) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC):

The sun warms the oceans at the surface and wave motion mixes the warmed water downward to
depths about 100m. this mixed layer is separated from the deep cold water formed at high latitudes by
a thermo cline. This boundary is sometimes marked by an abrupt change in temperature but more often
the change the change is gradual. The vertical temperature distribution consisting of two layers with
thermal gradient ranging 10-30 c with higher values found in equatorial waters. The engine using this
energy is referred as OTEC. OTEC makes use of the difference in temperature between the two layers
of the sea to extract energy. This energy is used to drive the turbines for generating electricity.
Merits of OTEC
(a) Power from OTEC is continues renewable and pollution free.
(b) OTEC offers one of the most benign power production technologies since the handling of hazardous
substances is limited to the working fluid (e.g. ammonia) and no noxious by products are generated.
(c) Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to the thermo cline, could
be accomplished with minimal environmental impact.
(d) An unexpected bonus of OTEC systems might be the enrichment of fishing grounds due to the transfer
of nutrients from the unproductive deep waters to the warmer surface waters.
Limitation of OTEC
(a) One principal difficulty with OTEC is not of technological order. OTEC is capital intensive and the very
first plants will most likely be small requiring a substantial capital investment.
(b) Due to small temperature difference between the surface water, the conversion efficiency is as low as
3-4%. This value is low as compared to the efficiencies obtained for conventional power plants.
(c) The low efficiency coupled with high capital costs. Large sized floating vessels and water pipes, maintenance
of pumps and pipes, operational snags, etc make the OTEC power uneconomical for small at the present
state of the technology.
(d) A sustained flow of cold, nutrient-rich, bacteria,-free deep ocean water could cause sea surface temperature
anomatics and biostimulation if resident times in the mixed layer and the euphoric zone (upper layer in
which there is sufficient light for photo-synthesis) respectively are long enough (i.e., Marine Upwelling)
(ii) Tidal and wave Energy:
• The gravitational force exerted by moon causes tides and movement of winds over sea surface due to
differential heating causes waves in the sea.
1.4.4.1 Tidal Energy:
 Tidal Power projects attempt to harness the energy of tides as they flow in and out. The main criteria
for a tidal power generation site are that the mean tidal range must be greater than 5 meters.
 The tidal power is harnessed by building a dam across the entrance to a bay or estuary creating a
reservoir. As the tide rises, water is initially prevented from entering the bay then when tides are high
and water is sufficient to run the turbines, the dam is opened and water flows through it into the reservoir
(the bay), turning the blades of turbines and generating electricity.
 Again when the reservoir (the bay) is filed. The dam is closed, stopping the flow and holding the water
in reservoir when the tide falls (ebb tide) the water level in the reservoir is higher than that in the ocean.
The dam is then opened to run the turbines (which are reversible), electricity is produced as the water
is let out of the reservoir.
 The dams build to harness the tidal power adversely affect the vegetation and wildlife.

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1.4.4.2 Wave Energy:
Wave energy is produced when electrics generators are placed on the surface of the ocean the energy
provided is most often used to desalination plants, power plants and water pumps, energy output is
determined by wave height, wave speed, wavelength, and water density to date there are only a handful
experimental wave generator plants in operations around the world.
Merit of tidal energy
(i) It is inexhaustible and renewable source of energy.
(ii) Besides being inexhaustible, it is completely independent of the uncertainly of precipitation (rainfall, etc.)
even if there is a continuous dry spell for many years, there will be no effect whatever on tidal power
generation.
(iii) It is pollution-free source of energy, as it does not use any fuel and also does not produce any unhealthy
waste.
Limitations of Tidal Energy
(i) Variability in output caused by the variations in the tidal range.
(ii) Generation is intermittent. However this intermittent pattern could be improved to certain extent by using
two (or more) basined to double cycle system.
(iii) Tidal power schemes require low-head turbines which are larger and more expensive than high-head
turbines of similar power.
Merits of wave Energy
(i) It is free renewable and pollution-free energy resource.
(ii) Unlike tidal energy (which is very site-specific), some potential for the extraction of wave energy exists
on almost any coastline.
(iii) Energy has been naturally concentrated in waves therefore the energy density of ocean waves is greater
than that of wind as well as solar (the natural processes that generate them).
Limitations of Wave Energy
(i) Wave energy extraction equipment must be capable of operating in a marine environment and withstand
very severe peak stresses in storms.
(ii) A variety of working fluids and prime movers are required to convert the slow-acting, reversing wave
forces into high speed, unidirectional rotation of a generator shaft. That is, the wave energy conversion
devices are relatively complicated.
(iii) With present state of technologies wave power is expensive.
1.4.5 Solar Power
• Sun is a source of enormous amounts of energy in the form of radiation energy travelling in small wave
packet called photons. It is believed that with just 0.1 percent of the 75000 trillion kwh of solar energy
that reaches earth. The planet's energy requirements can be fulfilled.
• Solar energy use can be classified as:
(i) Direct use of solar energy through the capture of sunlight and it can be used for heating generating
electricity and cooling.
(ii) Indirect use of solar energy derived from natural processes driven by the sun for example wind
biomass waves, hydroelectric power.

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• Under Direct use, sunlight can be converted into

A. Heat as solar Thermal Energy
B. Electricity as solar Electric Energy
C. Chemical Energy as Solar Fuels
A. Solar Thermal Energy:
• Solar Thermal energy can be used to heat water or air. It is most often used for heating water in buildings
and in swimming pools. Solar Thermal energy is also used to heat the insides of buildings.
• Solar heating systems can be classified as passive or active.
• Passive solar space heating happen in a car on a hot summer day. The sun's rays power though the
windows and heat up the inside of the car, in passive solar heated buildings aire is circulated past a solar
heat-absorbing surface and through the building by natural convection No mechanical equipment is used
for passive solar heating.
• Solar Thermal energy devices include solar cookers, solar water heating systems. Solar air heating, crop
drying, refrigeration, water pumping, timber seasoning and water desalination
• Active solar heating systems use collector and a fluid to collect and absorb solar radiation, farms or
pumps circulate air or heat absorbing liquids through collectors ad then transfer the heated fluids directly
to a room or to a heat storage system. Active water heating systems usually include a tank for storing
water heated by the system.
• Solar collectors are either non concentrating or concentrating.
• Nonconcentrating collectors the collector area (the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the same
as the absorber area (the area absorbing the radiation.) flat plate collectors are the most common type
of non concentrating collectors and are used when temperature lower than 200 F are sufficient. Non
concentrating collectors are often used for heating wear or air for space heating in buildings and in
swimming pools.
• Concentrating collectors the intercepting areas of the solar radiations is greater sometimes hundreds
of times greater than the absorber area. The collector focuses or concentrates solar energy onto an
absorber. The collector usually moves so that it maintains a high degree of concentration on the absorber.
• Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems: Most solar thermal systems use a solar collector with a
mirrored surface to focus sunlight onto a receiver that heats a liquid. The super heated liquid is used to
make steam to produce electricity in the same way that coal plants do.
• Solar Energy for cooling: A solar collector can also be used for cooling. In the system, energy from
the sunlight powers a small heat engine similar to an electric motor of a refrigerator. The heat engine
drives a piston that compresses a special vapor into a liquid: the liquid then revalorizes and draws heat
out of the surrounding air.
B. Solar Electric Energy:
• Sunlight is composed of photons or particles of solar energy. These photons contain varying amounts of
energy that correspond to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum.
• A photovoltaic (PV) cell is made of a semi conductor material. When photons strike a PV cell, they
may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed by the semiconductor material. Only the absorbed
photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight (solar energy) is absorbed by the
material, atoms special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface
of the cell more receptive to the dislodged or free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the
surface of the cell electrical conductors are placed on the cell to absorb the electrons. When the
conductors are connected in an electrical circuit to an external load, such as an appliance, electricity
flows in the circuit.
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• Photovoltaic cells generate direct current (DC) electricity. This DC electricity can be used to charge
batteries that, in turn, power devices that use direct current electricity nearly all electricity is supplied as
alternating current in electricity transmission and distribution systems.
Solar radiation
Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Thermal

Solar cells, photovolatic arrays Heat exchanges
Solar Hot Water

Concentrating Solar Thermal
Parabolic through, power tower,
parabolic dish, fresnel reflector
Electricity
Bulb
Process Heat
Space heating, food processing
and cooking,. distillation,
desallination, industrial
hot water
C. Solar Chemical Energy (Solar Fuel):

• The biggest obstacle to renewable energy is not the generation of sustainable energy sources but the
storage of renewable energy.
• Solar fuels refer to the process where energy from the sun is captured and stored in the chemical bonds
of material. Photosynthesis is the blueprint for this procedure.
• There are three main approaches for producing solar fuels.
A. Artificial photosynthesis
B. Natural photosynthesis
C. Thermo chemical approaches.
A. Artificial photosynthesis
Artificial photosynthesis is a term that has emerged to describe processes that like natural photosynthesis,
harvests sunlight and uses this energy to chemically convert water and carbon dioxide into fuels.
• Artificial photosynthesis refers to the constructions of a bio-inspired device that directly converts
energy from the sun into fuel. Such a device will almost certainly use the same basic steps as used
in photosynthesis light harvesting charge separations water splitting (solar Hydrolysis and fuel
production such a device can potentially, yield a much higher efficiency compared to other methods
of solar to duel conversion in theory up to 42%.

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Sunlight is absorbed This solar energy

by plants, algae and drives a complex
certain bacteria. process in which
water and carbon
dioxide are converted
to oxygen and
carbohydrates
or other ‘fuels’.
Plants
Algae
Sunlight
Water Carbon Oxygen Fuel

dioxide
Cyanobacteria
• Solar Hydrolysis involves usage of solar energy to split water into its component parts, thereby
allowing the solar energy to be stored as hydrogen fuel.
Producing hydrogen by splitting water using sunlight
Water
Sunlight
Sunlight is used
to split water into
Solar fuel hydrogen and oxygen
production
system
Sunlight
Oxygen
Water
Water Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be used a transport

fuel and is already widely used as
a raw material for making products
like fertilser and plastics
B. Natural photosynthesis
• An obvious route to the production of fuel from sunlight is to use photosynthesis itself here, there are
two main directions cellular systems and plants Single celled photosynthetic organisms such as algae and
photosynthetic bacteria can be utilized to produced fuels such an approach is attractive for a number of
reasons.
• Firstly natural photosynthesis recycles CO2 from air and the potential efficiency is relatively high.
• Second, many of these microorganisms can be grown in dirty or brackish water.

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• Fuel can also be made from plants (this is the way most of the current biofuels are produced). However,
solar to fuel conversion efficiencies are low (generally significantly less than 1 percent) fuel production
from plants is generally considered not to be a good long term solution.
C. Thermochemical production
Thermo chemical production of fuel uses heat from the sun to heat reactanta to very high temperature
to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen. These two substances can then be used to produce fuel.
Advantages of Solar energy:
1. Solar Energy is free although there is a cost in the building of collectors and other equipment required
to convert solar energy into electricity or hot water.
2. Solar energy does not cause pollution. However, solar collectors and other associated equipment machines
are manufactured in factors that in turn cause some pollution.
3. Solar energy can be used in remote areas where it is too expensive to extend the electricity power grid.
Disadvantages of solar energy:
1. Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is daytime and sunny.
2. Solar collectors panels and cells are relatively expensive to manufacture although prices are falling
rapidly.
3. Solar power stations can be built but they do not match the power output of similar sized conventional
power stations. They are also very expensive.
1.4.6 Biomass Energy
• Biomass is organic material that comes from plants and animals, and it is a renewable source of energy.
Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. plants absorb the sun's energy in a process called
photosynthesis.
• Sources of biomass:
These are obtained from the following four broad categories of biomass sources:
(i) Plantations specially raised for producing energy or energy and food such as energy plantations
petro crops, agro forestry etc;
(ii) Agricultural residues and wastes including manure straw bagasse and forest wastes;
(iii) Uncultivated biomass such as weeds: and
(iv) Organic urban or industrial wastes.
• Biomass energy can be derived in many ways.
(i) By direct burning as Solid Biofuels
(ii) By converting into liquids Biofuels
(iii) By converting into Biogas
(1) Solid Biomass Burning (Solid Biofuels):
• When biomass is burning, the chemical energy biomass is released as heat. It is an age old practice to
harness bio-energy. Examples of biomass and their uses for energy.
• Examples of Solidbiomass sources influxe Wood logs and pellet, Charcoal, Agricultural waste (stalks and
other plant debris), Timbering waste (branches, treetops and wood chips), Animal waste (dung), Aquatic
plants (kelp and water hyacinths), Urban waste (paper cared board and other combustible materials)
• Biomass can be burnt directly as a source for cooking, heating, lighting , generating steam, for industrial
use for producing electricity.

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(2) Liquid Biofuels:

• Liquid biofuels being considered world over fall into the following categories:
1. Alcohols;
2. Plant seed oils; and
3. Biocrude and synthetic oils.
• Alcohols produced by the action of micro organisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or
starches (easiest), or cellulose (more difficult).
 Bio-ethanol, most commonly used is produced by fermentation of sugar and starchy crops.
 Bio-methanol can be obtained by thermo chemical degradation of lignocelluloses material.
 Bionutanol (also called biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement of gasoline/
petrol, because it can be used directly in a gasoline engine the sources of sugars to produce ethanol
include.
• Sugar containing materials, like sugar cane, sugar beet, sweet sorghum etc.
• Starch containing materials such as corn, potato skins cassava, wheat, rice algae etc; and,
• Cellulosic materials such as bagasse, wood waste, agricultural and forestry residues
(3) Bio fuel gas:
• Biogas is a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of
oxygen.
• Biogas primarily consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) moisture and siloxanes.
• Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste landfills
plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste.
• Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a fuel gas mixture consisting primarily of hydrogen carbon monoxide and
very often some carbon dioxide. It s produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is combustion with
an amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide and water,
syngas can be produced from many sources, including natural gas, coal, biomass, or virtually any
hydrocarbon feedstock.
• Producer gas is fuel gas that is manufactured from material such as coal, as opposed to natural gas.
 In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic bacteria decompose organic matter as follows:
Organic matter + Anaerobic bacteria  CH4 + CO2 + H2S + NH3 + Other end products + energy.
 The conditions for bio gasification need to anaerobic, for which a totally enclosed process vessel
is required. Although this necessitates a higher level of technology than compared to composting,
it allows a greater control over the process itself and the emission of noxious odours.
1.4.6.1 Classification of Biofuels:
The international Energy Agency (IEA) adopts a simplified classification of biofuels based on the maturity
of the technology deployed. This taxonomy uses terms like "conventional" and "advanced" to distinguish
between different types of biofuels.
1. Conventional biofuels (1st generation biofuels) include sugar and starch-based ethanol, oil-crop
based biodiesel and straight vegetable oil, as well as biogas derived through anaerobic digestion. The
technology for conventional biofuel is well-established and is being deployed for producing biofuels on a
commercial scale.

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The most common conventional biofuels that are largely used as transport fuels are ethanol and biodiesel.
Both ethanol and biodiesel are used in internal combustion engines either in its pure form or more often
as an additive.
2. Advanced biofuel (2nd and 3rd generation biofuels) include biofuels based on feedstock lie
lignocelluloses biomass, which include cellulosic ethanol, biomass-to-liquids diesel, an bio synthetic gas.
The category also includes novel conversion technologies, such as algae-based biofuels and the conversion
of sugar into diesel-type biofuels using biological or chemical catalysts, and biofuel produced from
conversion of agriculture residues. The technologies deployed for producing advanced biofuels are still
in the research and development (R&D) or demonstration stage.
Merits of Bio-energy:
1. Plants ensure a continuous supply of energy due to their continuous growth.
2. The cost of obtaining bio-energy through energy-plantations is less than the cost or obtaining energy from
fossil fuels.
3. The production of biogas (particularly from human or animal waters) has additional value in intensive
agricultural systems as a method of avoiding pollution.
4. Growth of biomass consumes more carbon dioxide than is released during combustion of biomass beside
producing the atmosphere purifying oxygen as a by-product of the photosynthetic process.
Demerits of Biomass energy:
1. Expensive: Firstly, its expensive, living thing are expensive to care for, feed, and house, and all of that
has to be considered when trying to use waste products from animals for fuel.
2. Inefficient as compared to fossil fuels: Secondly, the relative inefficiency of biomass energy, ethanol
as a biodiesel is terribly inefficient when compared to gasoline, and it often has to be mixed with some
gasoline to make it work properly. On top of that, ethanol is harmful to combustion engines over ling term
use.
3. Harmful to environment: Thirdly, using animal and human waste to power engines may save on carbon
dioxide emissions, but it increases methane gases, which are also harmful to the earth's ozone layer. So
really, we are no better off environmentally for using one or the other. And speaking of using waste
products, there is the smell to consider. While it is not physically harmful, it is definitely unpleasant, and
it can attract unwanted pests (rats, files) and spread bacteria and infection.
Environmental impacts of Biomass Energy:
1. Greater Deforestation and soil degradation
2. Destruction of natural habitat for wild life
3. Water scarcity and alters ground water table
4. Over consumption of fertilizers and pesticides
Ranking of renewable energies

Ranking By cleanliness By sustainability
1 Wind Wind
2 CSP Hydro
3 Tidal Geothermal
4 PV
5 Wave
6 hydro

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Recent developments and key conditions for faster deployment of low-carbon energy technologies
Technology Recent developments Key conditions for faster deployment

 Installation of renewable-based power
generation technologies hit a record  Ensure a predictable and reliable lond
high in 2014 helped by the continuing term market to mitigate investment risks.
Renewable decline in technology costs.  Promote a regulatory framework the
power  Onshore wind capacity increased by supports cost-effective remuneration
45GW with China alone adding 20 GW. avoiding high cost incentives and the
Solar PV grew by around 40 GW possibility of retroactive change.
 In 2014, 72 GW of nuclear capacity  Promote incentives for all types of low

were under construction carbon solutions to provide financing
 Three projects began construction in certainly for investment.
Nuclear power 2014, down from ten in 2013.  Recognize the security of supply,
 Almost 40 countries are considering reliability and predictability that nuclear
developing first nuclear plants. Three power offers.
counters have committed to phasing out
nuclear power
 Demonstrate financial and policy
 The first large-scale power plant CO2 commitment to CCS demonstration and
capture was demonstrated in 2014. deployment. Help to mitigate investment
Carbon capture  Thirteen large-scale CCS projects were riks.
and storage online capturing a total of 26 Mt CO2  Carbon pricing that expands the
(CCS) per year by the end of 2014 commercial value of CO2, beyond its use
 Two large-scale CCS power projects are in enhanced recovery.
under constructions in the united States.
 Impacted by the price declines in crude

oil there is ongoing uncertainly over  Develop long term policies,
future biofuel demand and investment. demonstration scale and pilot plants to
Biofuels  Investment in new biofuels capacity has advance technology development.
focused on hydro-treated vegetable oil  Formulate and implement sustainability
in Europe and cellulosic plants in the criteria and standards.
United States.
 Continue and enhance research and
 Global sales of light-duty passenger
Hybrid and development infrastructure roll-out and
electric vehicles grew by 50% in 2014,
electric vehicles. government incentives to support
compared with 2013
development of EVs.
Energy  The share of the world's energy
efficiency consumption covered by efficiency 
regulation
Storage demonstration by pumped by, which accounts for 99% of global energy storage.
• Some technologies provide short term energy storage while others can endure for much longer.
• A wind up stored potential energy (in this case mechanical in the spring tension),a rechargeable battery
stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone and a hydroelectric dam stores
energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store energy
derived from sunlight by organism that lader died, became buried and over same were them converted
into these fodd which is made by the same process is fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical
form.
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1.5 BATTERIES
Batteries are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy. We can
distinguish between primary on secondary batteries primary batteries convert chemical energy to electrical
energy irreversibly. For example zinc carbon and alkaline batteries are primary batteries, secondary
batteries or rechargeable batteries as they are more commonly called convert chemical energy to
electrical energy reversibly. This means that they can be recharged when an over potential is used in
other words, excess electrical energy is stored in these secondary batteries in the form of chemical
energy typical examples for rechargeable batteries are lead acid or lithium ion batteries.
1.5.1 Types of Batteries
• The lead acid battery is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy to
weight ratio and a low energy to volume ratio its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells
have a relatively large power to weight ratio. These features, along with the low cost make it attractive
for being economical for larger power applications where weight is of little concern. The lead acid battery
is the preferred choice for hospital equipment, wheelchairs, emergency lighting and UPS systems
automobiles.
• The nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd) uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes.
Cadmium is a toxic element and was banned for most uses by many countries. The NiCd is used where
long life, high discharge rate and economical price aer important. Main applications are two way radios
biomedical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools the NiCd contains toxic metals and
is environmentally unfriendly.
• The nickel metal hydride battery (NIMH) has a hydrogen -absorbing alloy for the negative electrode
instead of cadmium . it has a higher energy density compared to the NiCd at the expense of reduced
cycle life, NiMH contains no toxic metal applications include mobile phones and laptop computers. These
are now a common use for consumer and industrial type goods.
• The lithium ion battery was introduced in the market in 1991. Li-ion in used where high energy density,
lightweight and a very slow loss of charge when not in use the technology is fragile and a protection
circuit is required to assure safety. Applications include consumer electronics like notebook computers
and cellular phones.
• Lithium ion polymer batteries are light in weight offer slightly higher energy density than Li-ion at
slightly higher cost, and can be made in may shape they are available but have not displaced Li-ion in
the market.
Fuel cell Technology:
• Fuel cells generate electricity by an electrochemical reaction in which oxygen and a hydrogen rich fuel
combine to form water.
• Hydrogen is the basic fuel, but fuel cells in the they generate electricity with very little pollution much
of the hydrogen and oxygen used in generating electricity ultimately combine to form a harmless byproduct,
namely water
Hydrogen + oxygen  Electricity + Water vapor
• Both batteries and fuel cells convert chemical potential energy into electrical energy and also, as a
byproduct of this process into heat energy however a battery holds a closed store of energy when it and
once this is depleted the battery must be discarded on recharged by using an internal supply of electricity
to drive the electrochemical reaction in the reverse direction. A fuel cell on the other hand uses an
external supply of chemical energy and can run indefinitely as long as it is supplied with a source of
hydrogen and a source of oxygen (usually air).
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• Fuel cells are generally classified according to the nature of the electrolyte (except for direct methanol
fuel cells which are named for their ability to use methanol as a fuel) each type requiring particular
materials and fuel each fuel cell type also has its own operational characteristics offering advantages to
particular applications the his makes fuel cells a very versatile technology.
1.6 ENERGY SCENARIO AT WORLD
• Top ten countries in Energy Consumption (mtoe)
(1) China 3101
(2) USA 2196
(3) India 882
(4) Russia 718
(5) Japan 435
(6) Germany 305
(7) Brazil 299
(8) South Korea 280
(9) Canada 251
(10) France 246
(11) Iran 244
(12) Indonesia 227
1.6.1 ENERGY TRILEMMA INDEX
The energy Trilemma index ranks countries in term of their likely ability to provide sustainable. Energy
policies through the 3 dimensions of the energy trilemma:
• Energy security: the effective management of primary energy supply from domestic and external
sources, the reliability of energy infrastructure, and the ability of participating energy companies to meet
current and future demand.
• Energy equity: the accessibility and affordability of energy supply across the population.
• Environmental sustainability: the achievement of supply and demand side energy efficiencies and the
development of energy supply from renewable and the others low- carbon sources.
1.7 ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDIA
1.7.1 Coal
• India has the third-largest hard coal reserves in the world (roughly 12% of the world total), as well as
significant deposits of lignite. The estimated reserves of coal were 301.05 billion tons, 98% of India's coal
reserves belong to Gondwana coal. Yet the deposits are generally of low quality and India faces major
obstacles to the development of its coal resources in a way that keeps pace with burgeoning domestic
needs.
• Coal deposits are mainly confined to eastern and south central parts of the country. The states of
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra
account for more than 99% of the total coal reserves in the country. The State of Jharkhand had the
maximum share (26.81%) in the overall reserves of coal in the country as on 2014 followed by the State
of Odisha(24.94%).
• In 2015, India produced almost 650 million tonnes of coal equivalent (Mtce), but it also imported some
140 Mtce - roughly 12% of world coal imports (61% from Indonesia, 21% from Australia, 13% from
South Africa). With a view to limiting reliance on imports, the government intended to double the
country's coal production by 2020.
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• At present, more than 90% of coal in India is produced by open cast mining. This method has relatively
low production costs and is less dangerous than deep mining, but has a large, adverse environmental
footprint in the form of land degradation, deforestation, erosion and acid water runoff.
Oil and oil products
• India is one the few countries in the world (alongside the United states and Korea) that rely on imports
of crude oild while also being significant net exporters of refined products. Domestic crude oil production
of just over 900 thousand barrels per day (kb/d) is far from enough to satisfy the needs of 4.4 mb/d of
refinery capacity. The output from the refinery sector, in turn, is more than enough to meet India's current
consumption of oil products, at around 3.8 mb/d (with the exception of LPG, for which imports about half
of domestic consumption).
• The estimated reserves of crude oil in India as in 2014 stood at 762.74 million tons(MT).
• India has relatively modest oil resources and most of the proven reserves (around 5.7 billion barrels) are
located in the western part of the country, notably in Rajasthan and in offshore areas near Gujarat and
Maharashtra. The Assam-Arakan basin in the northeast is also an oil-producing basin and contains nearly
a quarter of total reserves.
• The upstream of oil supply in india is still dominated by a few state-owned companies: about two-thirds
of crude oil is produced by the Oil Natural Gas Corporations Limited (ONGC) and Oil India Limited
(OIL) under a pre-liberalization nomination regime. Most of the remaining production comes from joint
ventures with the national oil and gas companies and from blocks awarded under successive licensing
rounds held under the New Exploration Licensing Policy introduced in 1999.
1.7.2 Refineries in India
• Visakhapatnam, Tatipaka in A.P;
• Digboi, Bongaigaon, Guwahati, Numaligarh in Assam;
• Barauni in Bihar;
• Koyali, Jamnagar, Vadinar in Gujarath;
• Panipat in Harayan;
• Mangalore in Karnataka;
• Kochi in Kerala;
• Bina in M.P;
• Mumbai in M.H;
• Paradip in Orissa;
• Bathinda in Punjab;
• Chennai, Cauvery Basin in T.N;
• Mathura in U.P;
• Haldia in W.B.
Natural Gas has a relatively small share (6%) of the domestic energy mix. The main onshore producing
fields are in the states of Assam in the northeast, Gujarat in the west and Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh in the south. Some of the most promising areas are offshore, including the Krishna Godavari
basin off the east coast.
Production of conventional gas reached 34 bcm in 2013 and was supplemented by LNG imports via four
regasification terminals.
The majority state-owned gas company, GAIL is the largest player in the midstream and downstream gas
market. In addition to conventional potential, both from coalbed methane (CBM) and shale gas.
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1.8 MAJOR PIPELINES IN INDIA

Crude oil from oil-wells and finished products from refineries are generally transported through pipelines.
Transportation of oil and petroleum through pipelines is cheap, effective and considered to be safe.
Looking at these advantages, a network of pipelines has been developed in India.
Some of the important pipelines are as under:
1.8.1 Pipelines of North-East India
(i) Noonmati-Siliguri-Pipeline to transport petroleum products from Noonmati to Siliguri.
(ii) Lakwa-Rudrasagar-Barauni Pipeline, completed in 1968 to transport crude-oil from Lakwa and
Rudrasagar (Sibsagar District, Assam) to Barauni Oil Refinery (Bihar).
(iii) Barauni-Haldia Pipeline: This pipeline was laid down in 1966 to carry refined petroleum products
to Haldia port and bring back imported crude-oil to Barauni refinery.
(iv) Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline: This pipeline was completed in 1966 to transport refined petro-leum
products to Kanpur city.
(v) Noonmati-Bngaigaon Pipeline: This pipeline was constructed to transport crude-oil Bongaigaon
petro-chemical complex.
(vi) Haldia-Maurigram-Rajbandh Pipeline: This pipeline was comleted in 1998.
1.8.2 Pipeline of Western India
(i) Bombay-High Mumbai-Ankleshwer-Koyali Pipeline:
This pipe-line connects the oilfields of Bombay High and Gujarat with the Koyali refinery of Gujarat. The
city of Mumbai has been connected with a pipe line of 210 km length double pipeline to Bombay High
to transport crude oil and natural gas. The Ankleshwar-Koyali pipeline was completed in 1965 to transport
crude oil to Koyali refinery.
(ii) The Salaya-Koyali-Mathura Pipline:
This pipeline, 1075 km m length was laid down from Salaya (Gulf of Kachchh) to koyali and
Mathura refinery. From Mathura, it has been extended to the oil-refinery at Panipat (Harayana) and
Jalandhar in Punjab. It has and offshore terminal and the Sayala-Koyali sector of the pipeline was
completed in 1978, while the Viramgram-Mathura sector was completed in 1981.
1.8.3 The Matura-Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar Pipeline:
This 513 km long pipeline was constructed to transport refinery products of Mathura to the main cities
of north and north-west India.
1.8.4 Pipelines of Gujarat:
In Gujarat, there are a number of short distance pipelines to transport crude-oil and natural gas to the
refineries and the refined products to the market. These include the Kalol-Sabarmati market. These
include the Kalol-Sabarmati Crude Pipeline, the Nwagam-Kalol-Koyali Pipeline, the Nwagam-Kalol-
Koyali Pipeline, the Cambay-Dhuravan Gas Pipeline, the Ankleshwar-Uttran Gas Pipeline, the Ankleshwar-
Vadodara Gas Pipeline, and the Koyali-Ahamadabad products Pipeline.
1.8.5 Mumbai Pipeline:
From Mumbai, pipeline have been laid up to Pune and Manmad to distribute petroleum products.
1.8.6 The Haldia-Kolkata Pipeline:
Through this pipeline, the Haldia products are sent to Kolkata and neighbouring urban places.

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1.8.7 The Hajira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline:
Having a length of 1750 km, this is the longest pipeline of India. It crosses 75 big and small rivers and
29 railway crossings. This pipeline was laid down by the Gas Authority of India. This gas pipeline
connects Kawas (Gujarat), Anta (Rajasthan), Bijaipur (M.P.) and Jagdishpur (U.P.) and Auraiya (U.P.).
It provides gas to the fertilizer plants at Bijaipur, Sawai Madhopur, Jagdishpur, Shahjahanpur, Aonla and
Babrola. Each one of these fertiliser plants has the capacity to produce about 1400 tonnes of ammonia
per day.
1.8.8 The Kandla-Bhatinda Pipeline:
This Pipeline transports imported crude-oil from the Kandla seaport to the Bhatinda refinery.
Shale Gas/Shale Oil Resources:
It is estimated that a number of onland sedimentary areas in Gangetic plain, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra
Pradesh & Assam in India, including the hydrocarbons bearing basins - Cambay, Cauvery, Krishna
Godavari, Assam-Arakan & Damodar (Gondawana) have large shale deposits. There have been few
efforts by the Government to conduct surveys and estimate the full potential reserves of shale oil and
shale gas in the country.
Coal Bed Methane (CBM):
CBM is Natural Gas produced from Coal Beds in Coal bearing areas. In order to harness CBM potential
in the country, CBM Policy was formulated in 1997. The Government of India has so far awarded 33
CBM blocks under 4 rounds of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Odisha and Assam.
1.9 NUCLEAR POWER
India has twenty-one operating nuclear reactor at seven sites, with a total installed capacity close to 6
GW. Another six nuclear power plants are under construction, which will add around 4GW to the total.
The operation of the existing nuclear fleet has been constrained in the past by chronic fuel shortages.
• This constraint was eased after India became a party to the Nuclear Supplier Group agreement in 2008,
allowing access not only to technology and expertise but also reactor parts and uranium.
1.9.1 Nuclear program of India
Though the current share of nuclear power in the generation mix is relatively small at 3%, India has
ambitious plans to expand its future role, including a long-term plan to develop more complex reactors
that utilize thorium - a potential alternative source of fuel for nuclear reactors. India has limited low-grade
uranium reserves, but it has the world's largest reserve of thorium: developing a thorium fuel cycle will
though require a range of tough economic, technical and regulatory challenges to be overcome.
1.9.2 Nuclear Policy of India
Though the National Security Board of India has submitted a Draft Nuclear Policy to the government
in 1998, it has not yet been accepted and approved by the government. However the Draft Policy has
not been rejected too and the government has included some of the key aspects of the Draft Policy in
nuclear doctrine. The main tenets mentioned in the Draft Policy have been described below:
1. The prime objective of India is to achieve economic, political, social, scientific and technology development
within a peaceful and democratic network.
2. In order to fulfill the objective, India will strive for peace and insurance against possible potential risks
to stability.
3. India strongly feels that unless the disarmament is followed globally, the target to sustain nuclear deterrence
cannot be achieved.
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4. Indian nuclear weapon programme aims to deter the possible use of such weapons by any other country.
5. Indian is ready to invoke measures to counter any threat to her peace and stability.
6. India will maintain effective surveillance and early warning capabilities.
7. India will not take any step to use nuclear weapon against any country except in case of any nuclear
attack on Indian by other countries. This tenet has popularly been known as the concept of 'no first use'.
8. India will follow the policy of credible minimum deterrence.
9. India's principles of nuclear deterrence are creditability, effectiveness and survivability.
10. Special focus is to be given to ensure nuclear safety.
11. With a view to improving communication network to develop effective surveillance and early warning
system, space science and other communication techniques will be strengthened.
12. India will strengthen her computing and intelligence system.
13. India will assure the dual capable delivery system.
14. India will assure improved research and development program to sustain technological advancements.
15. Arms control measure will be made a part of the national security policy.
1.9.3 INDIA'S NUCLEAR ENERGY PROGRAMME
• The importance of nuclear energy, as a sustainable energy resource for India was recognized at the very
inception of its atomic energy programme more than four decades ago. A three-stage nuclear power
porgramme, based on a closed nuclear fuel cycle, was then chalked out. The three stage are:
First Stage
Reactor Pressured Heavy Water Rector (PHWR)
Capacity 250MW
Fuel Natural Uranium
By-product Plutonium
Coolant Heavy Water
Second Stage
Rector Fast Breeder Rector
Capacity 500 MW
Fuel Plutonium obtained from the first stage
Along with the fuel, some Thorium will be kept inside the reactor and it will be converted into
U02333.
Third Stage
Rector Fast Breeder Reactor
Capacity 1000MW
Fuel U-233 obtained from the second stage
• India stared the indigenous development of nuclear power plants based on uranium cycle in PHWRs, in
the First Stage. At present India has twelve such reactors under operation, four are under construction,
and several others have been planned.
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India has become self sufficient in all aspects of the PHWR technology. The capacity factors of
operating PHWRs have been close to eighty percent during recent years, and excellent performance
even with respect to international standards.
• A large volume of R & D has been done in the past to provide support to PHWR programme. Such
support has encompassed construction, commissioning, operation and maintenance of these power plants.
Considering the limited size of India's nuclear power programme based on PHWRs, there does not seem
to be any necessity for seeking major changes in the already matured and standardized designs of its 220
and 500 MWe PHWRs. The required R & D support for currently operating and future PHWRs will,
however, continue although the range and volume of these activities to be carried out at BARC is likely
to progressively reduce.
• As a part of the Second Stage, India started the FBR programme with the Fast Breeder Test Rector
(FBTR), at IGCAR, Kalpakkam. This rector, operating with indigenously developed mixed (U+Pu)
carbide fuel, has already yielded a large volume of operating experience and a better understanding of
the technologies involved. This has enabled the country to design 500 MWe (Prototype) FBR that will
utilize plutonium and the depleted uranium from its PHWRs Construction of this reactor is due to begin
soon.
• With the experience gained from the first prototype, improvement and up-gradation in the technology will
of course, be an important part of the programme in the coming years. Implementation of further
evolutionary and innovative improvements in the reactor design and associated fuel cycle technologies
will follow next.
• India is now designing and developing advanced nuclear system, which will utilize the precious plutonium
resources in an optimum way to maximize conversion of thorium to 233U, extract power in-situ from the
thorium fuel, and recycle the bred 233U in future reactors.
• The Advanced heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) project provides a focal point for a time bound high
intensity development in the efficient utilizations of thorium. The work on AHWR will also help in
conserving and further enhancing the R & D expertise related to Heavy Water Reactors. Reprocessing
and re-fabrication of the fuel plays a major par in the utilization of resources to the full extent. R & D
work on the reprocessing and re-fabrication in the context of AHWR is an important step forward
towards large-scale thorium utilization.
• A very important and upcoming technology is accelerator Driven System (ADS), which is attracting
worldwide attention due to its superior safety characteristics and is potential for burning actinide and
fission product waste and energy production. A number of countries around the world have drawn up
roadmaps/programs for development of ADS.
• Indian interest in ADS has an additional dimension, which is related to the planned utilization of its large
thorium reserves for future nuclear energy generation. Thorium has the added advantage that is produces
much less quantities of long-lived radioactive actinide wastes as compared to uranium. However, as
discussed earlier thorium by itself is not fissile and must be first converted to fissile U-232 by neutron
irradiation. In ADS, the accelerator delivers additional neutrons over and above those coming from fission.
1.10 HYDROPOWER
• India has significant scope to expand its use of hydropower: Its current 45 GW of installed capacity (of
which over 90% is large hydro) represent a little under a third of the assessed resource. Much of the
remaining potential is in the north and northeast. A further 14 GW are under construction. If developed
prudently, hydropower can bring multiple benefits as a flexible source of clean electricity, and also as
a means of water management for flood control, irrigation and domestic uses, its can also enable variable
renewable to make greater contribution to the grid.
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However, its development has lagged well behind thermal generation capacity, leading to a consistent
decline in its share of total electricity output. High upfront costs, the need for long-term debt (Which is
quite limited in India's capital markets) and consequent difficulties with financing have been major
impediment to realizing India's hydropower potential.
• Some hydropower projects have faced very long environmental clearance and approval procedures, as
well as significant public opposition arising largely from resettlement issues and concern over the impact
on other water users. Some of these concerns can be reduced by undertaking small-scale project: India
has an estimated potential 20 GW of small hydro projects (up to 25 MW capacities). As of 2014, 2.8
GW of small hydro (less than 10MW) had been developed. Such projects are particularly well-suited to
meet power requirements in remote areas.
Other Renewable resources in India:
The total potential for renewable power generation in the country in 2014 is estimated at 147615 MW.
This includes wind power potential of 102772 MW (69.6%), SHP (small-hydro power) potential of 19749
MW (13.38%) Biomass power potential of 17,538 MW (11.88%) and 5000 MW (3.39%) from bagasse-
based cogeneration in sugar mills.
Sourcewise Estimated Potential of Renewable Power
in India as on 31.03.14
Cogeneration
bagasse
3% Waste to Energy
Biomass 2%
power
12%
Small Hydro Wind Power

power 70%
13%
Total Reserves = 147615 Mega Watt

• Wind and Solar From a low base, modern renewable energy (excluding hydropower) is rapidly gaining
ground in India's energy mix as the government has put increasing emphasis on renewable energy,
including grid-connected and off-grid systems.
• Wind Power has made the fastest progress and provides the largest share of modern non-hydro renewable
energy in power generation to date. India has the fifth-largest amount of installed wind power capacity
in the world, with 23 GW in 2014, although investment has fluctuated with changes in subsidy policies
at national and state level.
• Solar power has played only a limited role in power generation thus far, with installed capacity reaching
3.7 GW in 2014, much of this added in the last five years. However, Indian began to put a much stronger
emphasis on solar development with the launch in 2010 of the Jawaharlal Nehru Nation Solar Mission,
the target of which was dramatically upgraded as national solar Mission in 2014 to 100 GW of solar
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installations by 2022, 40 GW of rooftop solar photovoltaic's (PV) and 60 GW of large and medium-scale
grid-connected PV projects (as part of broader 175 GW target of installed renewable power capacity
by 2022, excluding large hydropower).
• The dependence of national targets on supportive actions taken at state level is underlined by the fact
that four states (Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) account for over three-quarters
of today's installed capacity.
• The larges wind power generating state is Tamil Nadu accounting for nearly 30% of installed capacity,
followed in decreasing order by Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka.
1.11 BIO-ENERGY
Bio-energy accounts for roughly a quarter of India's energy consumption, by far the largest share of
which is the traditional use of biomass for cooking in households. This reliance gives rise to a number
of problems, notably the adverse health effects of indoor air pollution. India is also deploying a range of
more modern bio-energy applications, relying mainly on residues from its large agricultural sector.
 There was around 7 GW of power generation capacity fuelled by biomass in 2014, the largest share is
based on bagasse (a byproduct of sugarcane processing) and a smaller share is cogeneration based on
other agricultural residues. The remainder produces electricity via a range of gasification technologies
that use biomass to produce syngas, including small-scale thermal gasifiers that often support rural small
businesses.
Although modern bio-energy constitutes only a small share of energy use at present, Indian policy has
recognized - with the launch of a National Bio-energy Mission the potential for modern bio-energy to
become a much larger part of the energy picture especially in rural areas, where it can provide a valuable
additional source of income to farmers, as well as power and process heat for consumers.
 Bio fuels are another areas of bio-energy development in India, supported by an ambitious mandatory
blending of 5% in petrol has started in 2009, that anticipates a progressive increase to a 20% share for
bio ethanol and biodiesel by 2017. Implementation has thus far been slower than planned: the present
share of bio ethanol mostly derived from sugarcane- remains well under 5% and progress with bio diesel
has been even more constrained.
The main concern over bio fuels - and some other forms of bio energy - is the adequacy of supply: land
for bio fuels cultivation can compete with other uses, as well as requiring water and fertilizers that may
limited and is required in other sectors.
1.12 GEO THERMAL ENERGY
According to some ambitious estimated, Indian has 10,600 MW of potential in the geothermal provinces
but it still needs to be exploited. India has potential resources to harvest geo thermal energy. India has
six geo thermal provinces:
• Himalayan Province (Tertiary Organic belt)
• Aravalli belt, Naga-Lushi, West coast regions and Son-Narmada (Areas of Faulted blocks).
• Andaman and Nicobar arc. (Volcanic are)
• Cambay basin in Gujarat (Deep sedimentary basin)
• Surajkund, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand, (Radioactive Province)
• Cratonic province (Peninsular India)
India has about 340 hot springs spread over the country.
India identified six most promising geo thermal sites for the development of geo thermal energy.

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These are, in decreasing order of potential:

• Tattapani in Chhattisgarh
• Puga in Jammu & Kashmir
• Cambay Graben in Gujarat
• Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh
• Surajkund in Jharkhand
• Chhumathang in Jammu & Kashmir
India plans to set up its first geo thermal power plant, with 2-5 MW capacity at puga in Jammu &
Kashmir.
1.13 TIDAL WAVE ENERGY
• Tidal energy technologies harvest energy from the seas. The potential of tidal wave energy become
higher in certain regions by local effects such as shelving, funneling, reflection and resonance.
• India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its potential to harness tidal energy is significant.
• Energy can be extracted from tides in several ways. In one method, a reservoir is created behind a
barrage and then tidal waters pass though turbines in the barrage to generate electricity. This method
requires mean tidal differences greater than 4 meters and also favourable topographical conditions to
keep installation costs low.
• One report claims the most attractive locations in India, for the barrage technology, are the Gulf of
Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch on India's west coast where the maximum tidal range is 11 m and 8
m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23 m respectively.
• The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans, west Bengal is another possibility, although with significantly less
recoverable energy; the maximum tidal range in Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal
range of 2.97 m. The report claims, barrage technology could harvest about 8 GW from tidal energy in
India, mostly in Gujarat.
• The barrage approach has several disadvantages, one being the effect of any badly engineered barrage
on the migratory fishes, marine ecosystem and aquatic life. Integrated barrage technology plants can be
expensive to build.
• In 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India and the Renewable Energy
Development Agency of Govt. of Bengal jointly approved and agreed to implement India's first 3.75 MW
Durgaduani mini tidal power project. Indian government believes that tidal energy may be an alternative
solution to meet the local energy demands of this remote delta region.
• The annual wave energy potential along the Indian coast is between 5 MW to 15 MW per meter,
suggesting a theoretical maximum potential for electricity harvesting from India's 7500 kilometer coast
line may be about 40 GW. However, the realistic economical potential, the report claims, is likely to be
considerably less.
Installed Electricity Generation in India: Installed Capacity - 303 GW (Non-Renewable - 72% &
Renewable - 28%)
Conventional & Non-Renewable:
• Thermal - 210 GW (From Coal-185GW, Gas-24 & Diesel-1GW)
• Nuclear - 5.78GW
Conventional & Renewable:
• Hydro - 42GW
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Non-Conventional & Renewable Source
(43GW)
• Wind - 27GW
• Solar - 7GW
• Biomass - 5GW
• Small Hydro - 4GW
• Geothermal - Very Less
• Ocean - Very Less
Percapita Generation of electricity-1010 kwh
Sector wise Electricity Consumption in India:
• Industrial - 42%
• Domestic - 24%
• Agriculture - 20%
• Commercial - 9%
• Miscellaneous - 5%
Problem with India's power sector:
 Inadequate last mile connectivity
 A system of cross-subsidization
 Intraday load and demand Variations
 Unreliable Coal supplies
 Poor pipeline connectivity and infrastructure
 Environmental Clearance
 Lack of clean and reliable energy sources
Recommendations of Ashok Chawla Committee on Natural Resources
• Creation of national database of natural resources
• Allocation of natural resources, if possible through e-auction
• Measures for benefit of stakeholders in mineral rich areas
Need for Conserving Energy Resources
• Are limited in supply and cannot be renewed easily.
• Due to populations explosion, modernization and industrialization the demand for energy resources
is increasing day by day
• To control energy crisis there is need to conserve conventional energy resources.
• There is also an eminent need to explore alternative sources of energy
Energy Crisis
• A solution in which resources are less than the demand
• In the past few decades due to high demand, there is shortage of energy resources, which has
created energy crisis
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• Major cause for Energy Crisis:

 Rapid industrialization
 Over population
 Transfer losses
 Rise in oil prices
 Problems in Middle east
 Wastage of energy resources
1.14 ENERGY SECURITY OF INDIA
• Energy is the prime mover of a country's economic growth. Availability of energy with required quality
of supply is not only key to sustainable development, but the commercial energy also have a parallel
impact and influence on the quality of service in the field of education, health and, In fact, even food
security.
• With the growing GDP of 8%, India is moving parallel to China in terms of development, but the energy
consumption is catching up as well. But the country is finding it increasingly difficult to source all the
oil, natural gas, and electricity it needs to run its booming factories, fuel its care, and light up its homes.
• According to a report by IEA (international Energy Agency), India needs to invest a total of 800 billion
dollars in various stages by 2030 to meet its energy demand. India accounts to around 2.4% of the annual
world energy production, but on the other hand consumes 3.3% of the annual world energy supply. And
this imbalance is estimated to surpass Japan and Russia by 2030 placing India into the third position in
terms of annual energy consumption. Therefore, after summing up all the energy issues, energy security
has been identified as the only tool to overcome the energy concerns.
• Even though domestic production of energy resources is projected o increase, the import dependence is
expected to maintain high levels. Import of crude oil is currently about 80% percent of total crude
demand in the country.
1.14.1 Issue of Energy Security
1. Import of Fossil Fuels
The energy requirements of Indian economy are estimated to increase substantially in the next two
decades. According to Integrated Energy Policy, for a 9% growth over a sustained period, imports of
crude oil in 2031-32 may be between 362-520 million tones with import dependence of 91%-94% for
natural gas, it may be 25-135 (Mtoe), which means an import dependence of 20%-57% of supply, Coal
imports may be between 300-736 (Mtoe), which may be an import dependence may be 34%-67%. Total
import dependence may be 58%-67%, as against the current level of 25%, with imports estimated at the
higher end at 1,382 (Mtoe). Clearly, the two major fuels- oil and coal may require large imports in the
next two decades.
2. Lack of Exploration and Production
In India, there was hardly any investments in the activities of exploration and production in past two
decades. There are small oil fields that are been explored which can barely fulfill our oil demand. The
KG-Basin case is the only significant achievement.
3. Shortage in the Storage Facilities
The Threat of energy security not only arises from the lack of supply, but also due to the uncertainty
of availability of imported energy. Domestic production may also harm energy security. As the major
sources of energy are imported, there is a threat due to lack of storage facilities in India.

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4. Rural Electrification
India is suffering from a deficit of around 12% on an average in terms of electricity and major share
of this deficit is due to the lack of electricity in rural areas. The per capita energy consumption in India
is around 1000 KW which is far more less than China which is our competitor. Due to lack of capability
to pay high tariffs, private player in the power sector have ignored setting up a power plant near the rural
areas. REC Ltd. (Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd.), the only PSU in India, was set up for rural
electrification. Village electrification level India as on 2008 was 85.2%
5. Transmission and Distribution Losses
Our country is already suffering from electricity deficit and fuelling this concern is the hurdle of T &
D losses up to 30% of generation. This has also laid to higher tariffs that are to be faced by the local
consumers.
6. Unutilized renewable resources
India has a potential of around 45000 MW from Wind Power, close to 15000 MW from small Hydro,
16000 MW from Biomass and can produce 20 MW/sq km of Solar Power. But out of the above numbers,
only 30% of the renewable potential have been utilized. The electricity generation mix India comprise
of around 10% of the renewable.
7. Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation
The concept of efficiency can be applied in energy extraction, transportation, conversion, as well as in
consumption. The major areas where it can be make a substantial impact are mining, electricity generation,
electricity transmission, electricity distribution, transport equipment pumping water industrial production
and process, mass transport, building design, construction, lighting and household appliances, heating
ventilation and air conditioning.
1.14.2 Strategies for Energy Security in India:
1. Acquiring Energy Resource Assets:
• Oil and Gas Sector:
The important policy for assure availability of energy is investing in energy assets abroad and developing
domestic infrastructure for receiving LNG. OVL has been leading this initiative. As part of the investment
policy, a joint venture has been set up in Oman for producing fertilizers. It will be useful to set up similar
projects in Qatar, Australia, Egypt, Kazakhstan, Vietnam, Venezula, Turkmenistan and Mozambique of
other countries, if gas available.
• Coal Sector:
The import requirement of coal at this juncture are limited but are slated to expand rapidly. Both US and
China have large domestic coal reserves. India, however, will have to import in the coming years large
quantities of coal as mentioned earlier. Though Coal Videsh under the Ministry of Coal has been formed,
it has done very little business so far. A number of private players have invested in mines in Indonesia
and Australia. There is a need to give a very strong push to the mining investments abroad.
• Nuclear Energy:
Similar arrangements for investments can be worked out for uranium mining. France and Japan had 60%-
70% of their power from uranium. They have development mining source from different countries like
Kazakhstan, South Africa, Australia and Niger. The investment in these provides security for uninterrupted
operations. In the view of environmental and security issues, nuclear energy option must be carefully
promoted.

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2. Diversifying Sources:
• In respect of oil, for example, we can tap markets in Venezuela, Columbia, Brazil, Africa, countries of
the Middle East and South America. This will enable flexibility in acquisition. Similarly, sourcing of natural
gas and LNG needs to be from a host of source. This may include Qatar, Australia, Middle East, Iran,
Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Some of the pipeline from Iran and Turkmenistan may pass via Afghanistan
and Pakistan. We will have to find innovative ways to meet our security concerns.
• The exploration and production of shale gas in the United States (US) has been a game changer, making
the country self-sufficient in natural gas over the last few years. This has created considerable excitement
globally, particularly in Europe, India is also looking at exploring shale gas domestically to fill in the supply-
demand gap.
• The solar energy potential in India is immense due to its convenient location near the Equator. India
receives nearly 3000 hours of sunshine every year, which is equivalent to 5000 trillion kWh of energy
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) has set the target of 100 GW by 2022. The target
will principally comprise of 40 GW Rooftop and 60 GW through Large and Medium Scale Grid Connected
Solar Power Project. As the nation is facing an increasing demand - supply gap in energy, it is important
to tap the solar potential to meet the energy needs.
3. Improving Storage Facilities
• Crude Oil:
The third policy initiative is the development of crude oil/gas storage capacities for meeting exigencies.
Also given the different nature of products and nature of government control on pricing of various oil
products, the possibility of cess and its realization in the overall costs may raise problems, Cess of this
magnitude should be adequate to meet the inventory costs of the oil for 90 days.
• Nuclear Fuel:
There is clearly a need for such reserves of nuclear fuel at atomic power plants. It may be possible to
develop extra stocks of uranium in the power plants to meet the eventuality of disruption in supplies. This
will add very marginally to the cost but will ensure continuity and uninterrupted power in generation.
While setting up new atomic power plants, this must be strategic part of our operation.
4. Maximizing domestic reserves :
• Oil & Gas Sector:
In the oil sector, India has adopted an aggressive policy to expand domestic production by developing a
transparent regime for award of oil blocks. Exploration of oil and gas are long term investments.
• Coal Sector:
To augment coal production, more coal blocks were awarded to private players. There have also been
problems with environment clearances. These issues will need to be addressed. Most countries of the
word exploit their coal reserves and the coal fields are thereafter developed and re-forested. We have
taken a very restrictive policy in the recent time. No country can afford to let its mineral resources go
unused and hope to grow economically. A policy permitting exploration and re-forestation of the areas
already mined would be necessary. This is an area of very serious concern.
• Nuclear Energy:
The domestic exploration of uranium mines has been confined, so far, primarily to Jharkhand and Andhra
Pradesh. The quality of uranium has been poor and the domestic production has not picked up significantly.
Exploration on this so far has not led to discovery of any major deposits. While deposits were discovered
in Meghalaya, there have been other issues which have clouded the development of mines.
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A more aggressive policy for discovering more uranium and mining it will be necessary to augment our
resources. India has the largest reverses of thorium in the world. Part of the requirements of energy may
be met by developing thorium based atomic plants.
5. Domestic Demand and its Management:
• Energy Intensity:
The primary concern of management of domestic demand is to develop and energy efficient economy
so that the energy intensity of the GDP goes down. In the context of climate change, so far this has
assumed major importance.
• A National Mission on Enhance Energy Efficiency has been a component of National Action Plan on
Climate Change. It envisages setting up to specific energy consumption goals for specific plants and
performance, achievement and trade (PAT) mechanism so that those who fail to achieve the target can
compensate their failure by buying the permits from those who do so.
• Energy efficiency in domestic lighting, municipal, agricultural and commercial building sectors. It is also
proposed to make energy efficiency standards mandatory for equipment and appliances used in domestic
sector, hotel equipment, office equipment, transport equipment, industrial products etc.
• It also mandates technology improvement programme. Energy conservation building code and disseminating
measures for generally creating a climate of energy efficiency. This is clearly a step in the right direction.
• One of the major component of the programmes is introduction of super critical boilers in power plants
and promoting energy efficiency in existing plants. The average energy efficiency of coal in the Indian
power plants is around 30%-33%. With the introduction of super critical technology, it is possible to
increase this to 40% or more.
• Around 80% of the coal is consumed in the power sector. If energy efficiency in this sector can be
improved substantially, the requirement of coal imports can be reduced drastically, thereby reducing
domestic demand.
• Similarly, IGCC (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle) technology and promoting energy efficiency in
existing plants, many of which are quite old, is important. Introduction of advanced super critical boilers,
which have energy efficiency higher than above, is another important step.
6. Reducing Transmission and Distribution Losses:
A Major initiative for improving energy efficiency can come from reduction in Transmission and Distribution
(T&D) losses. Efforts are being made to reduce losses through Accelerated Power Development and
Reforms Programme (APDRP) and activities by National Electricity Fund. Several states are also
undertaking privatization of distribution utilities or giving these utilities to a franchisee. Privatization has
helped in reducing losses to some extent but it needs more encouragement and incentives.
7. R&D in Hybrid Vehicles:
The major consumers of transport fuel are the cars, trucks and railway engines. There have been some
R&D initiatives like the use of hydrogen and electric cars. Unless energy efficiency in this sector, which
consumes about 30% of the total requirement, is improved, it will be difficult to manage the domestic
demand. This must be supplemented by a strong Public Transport System and fewer private cars per
thousand of population. This is another area where a strong policy intervention is required.
8. Social Equity:
Today, we have nearly 40% of the population below the poverty line based on estimates of the World
Bank. Large numbers of them do not have access to minimum energy. One of the guidelines in this
regard has been the government policy to provide minimum of 30 KWH of energy to every citizen. In
addition, a certain minimum facility for cooking of 6 kg LPG has also been suggested.
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1.15 ENERGY POLICIES AND ACTS IN INDIA

An act to provide for efficient use of energy and its conservation and for matters connected there with.
The bureau (government department) established for the purpose of this act is called BEE (bureau of
Energy Efficiency)
Features:
The Act empowers the Central Government and in some instances, State Government to:
• Specify energy consumption standard for notified equipment and appliances;
• Direct mandatory display of label on notified equipment and appliances;
• Prohibit manufacture, sale, purchase and import of notified equipment and appliances not conforming
to energy consumption standard;
• Notify energy intensive industries, other establishments, and commercial buildings as designated
consumers;
• Establishment and prescribe energy consumption norms and standards for designated consumers;
• Prescribe energy conservation building codes for efficient use of energy and its conservation in new
commercial building (having connected load ?500kW)
1.15.1 New & Renewable Energy Schemes
1. Wind Power Programme
• The broad based Wind Power Programme of the Ministry aims to catalyze commercialization of grid
interactive wind power.
• The present wind power installed capacity in the country is nearly 26.7 GW sharing around 9% of total
installed capacity.
• Globally India is at 4th position in terms of wind power installed capacity after China, USA, and Germany.
• The Government of India has set an ambitious target of achieving 175 GW power capacity from
renewable energy resources by 2022 and out of this 60 GW to come from wind power.
• The wind power potential in the country is assessed by the National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE)
at 100 meter above ground level, which is estimated to be over 302 GW.
• Most of this potential exists in 8 windy States namely Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Telangana.
Scheme for Setting up of 1000 MW CTU (Central Transmission Utility)- connected Wind Power Projects
through Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI).
• The Scheme will be implemented for setting up 1000 MW capacity of CTU connected Wind Power
Project Developers on build, own operate basis.
1.16 NON RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICES
1. Cost
• Coal is the mainstay of India's energy and 59% of primary energy supply and 70% of power generation
is the countries are coal based India ranks third in coal production globally after china and USA.
• Coal the most important and abundant fossil fuel in India, accounts for more than half of the country
energy need. It is apparent that coal will retain its predominant role in India's future energy mix scenario.
India, like other emerging economies, looks set to remain dependent on coal in the short to medium term
for its economic growth.
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Coal mining policy
• The parliament passed the coal mines (Special Provisions) bill 2015 on 20th March Under the provisions
of the coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act 2015 the central Government has so far successfully auctioned
in three branches 31 coal mines and allotted 42 coal mines/blocks to central or state Government
Companies.
• The objective of this act is to empower the government to allocate the coal mines on the basis of
competitive bidding to ensure continuity in coal mining operations and promote optimum utilization of coal
resources.
Go-zone/no-go zone
• The environment ministry had in 2009 classified the country heavily forested regions into Go and No-Go
regions and a ban was imposed on mining in No-Go zones through an indicative categorization on
environmental grounds.
• A no go zone is a densely forested area where mining will not be allowed at any cost.
• Nine major coalfields have been taken up for identification of prima facie "go/no go" area for coal mining
from the point of view of forestry clearnance. They are North Karanpura (Jharkhand), IB Vallay (Orissa,
Chattisgarh), Sirgaurali (MP,UP), Talcher (Orissa) West Bokaro(Jharkhand) Wardha (Maharashtra),
Mandraigarh (chattisgarh), Hasdio (Chhatisgarh) and Shoagpur (Chhatitsgarh,Mp)
• Thirty five percent of coal mining areas fall in "no go areas" where mining will not be allowed but even
in the go areas, projects will have to go through the due environmental and forest clearance process
before being approved "Go does not mean green signal. Go area prima facie means that the ministry will
only consider the proposal for approval or rejection. It is possible that a mine in a go area after inspection
turns out to be a no go mine.
Coal cess
• In a move to reduce its carbon footprint it has been decided that India will pay more to consume energy
produced from coal, petrol and diesel. Raw coal and lignite miners have to shell out Rs400 per tone of
coal and lignite mined in India for the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) The cess on coal production
increased from Rs 200 per tone to Rs 400 per tone and the Clean Energy cess could be renamed as
Clean Environment cess.
• This was the third time the cess was doubled, since being introduced as Rs 50 per tone in the 2010 budget
the NCEF fund was created to use the carbon tax and clean energy cess for funding research and
innovative projects in clean energy technologies, in both and private sector.
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill,2016
• The Bill amends the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 the regulates the
mining sector in India and specifies the requirement for obtaining and granting mining leases for mining
operations.
• The bill adds a new Fourth Schedule to the Act. It includes bauxite, iron ore, limestone and manganese
ore and are defined as notified minerals. The central government may notification amend this schedule.
• The bill creates a new category of mining license i.e. the prospecting license cum mining lease, which
is a two stage concession for the purpose of undertaking prospecting operations (exploring or proving
mineral deposits) followed by mining operations.


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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of 6. The government of India has recently made it
sustainable energy why? mandatory for oil marketing companies to blend
1. They use living organisms as catalysts to 5% ethanol with petrol. Which of the following
generate electricity from certain substrates. is/are the likely consequence of the policy?
2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as 1. Lowers India's dependence on the fossil oil
substrates. 2. Reduce fuel import bill
3. They can be installed in waste water (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
treatments plants to cleanse water and
(c) 1 and 2 both (d) Neither 1 nor 2
produce electricity.
Which of the following statements given above 7. With reference to two non conventional energy
is/are correct? sources called coal bed methane and shale gas
consider the following statement:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
1. Coal bed methane is the pure methane gas
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3
extracted from coal seams while shale gas
2. In the context of alternative sources of energy,
is a mixture of propane and butane only that
ethanol as a viable bio fuel cab ne obtained
can be extracted from fine grained
from
sedimentary rocks.
(a) Potato (b) Rice
2. In the India abundant coal bed methane
(c) Sugarcane (d) wheat sources exist but so far no shale gas sources
3. Considered the following statements: have been found
1. Maize can be used for the production of Which of the statements given above is/are
starch correct?
2. Oil extracted from maize can be a feedstock
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
for biodiesel.
(c) 1 and 2 both (d) neither 1 nor 2
3. Alcoholic beverages can be produced by
using maize. 8. With reference to the usefulness of the
byproducts of sugar industry which of the
Which of the statements given above is/are
following statements is/are correct?
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 1. bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for
the generation of energy.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2, and 3
4. Which one of the following is not a constituent 2. Molasses can be used as one of the
of biogas? feedstock for the production of synthetics
chemical fertilizers.
(a) Methane (b) Carbon dioxide
3. Molasses can be used for the production of
(c) Hydrogen (d) Nitrogen dioxide
ethanol.
5. What does water gas comprise of ?
Select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) Carbon monoxide and hydrogen
below.
(b) Carbon dioxide and hydrogen
(c) Carbon monoxide and methane
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Carbon dioxide and methane

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9. Given below are the names of four energy crops, 11. Which one of the following is a non renewable
which one of them can be cultivated for ethanol? resource?
(a) Jatropha (b) Maize (a) Solar energy (b) Coal
(c) Pongania (d) sunflower (c) Water (d) Wind
10. Among the sources of energy listed below
which one is non-conventional in present day

rural India?
(a) Fuel wood (b) cow dung cake
(c) Biogas (d) Hydel
ANSWER SHEET
1. Ans. (d) 7. Ans. (d)
2. Ans. (c) 8. Ans. (c)
3. Ans. (d) 9. Ans. (b)
4. Ans. (d) 10. Ans. (c)
5. Ans. (a) 11. Ans. (b)
6. Ans. (c)

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Energy & Environment Ecosystem 39
ECOSYSTEM
THEORY
INTRODUCTION
The Earth is the only planet known to support life as we know it. It supplies us with all the resources,
the materials we use and the food that we eat or drink. All living organisms have a specific surrounding
or medium with which they continuously interact, from which they derive sustenance and to which they
are fully adapted. This surrounding is their environment.
CONCEPT OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Prior to 1950s, for most people the term environment meant the set of conditions at home or in their work
places. In the years that followed, with the publication of Rachel Carson’s landmark book “Silent
Springs” (1960) as well as the occurrence of major environmental events such as the spilling of oil
northern coast of France, the death of fish and other organisms in thousands in Swedish lakes due to
long range air pollution and the much publicized threats of extinction of many species, the concept of the
environment gained widespread acceptance.
At present there are three points on which there is general agreement with regards to the
environment:
1. The environment is a common concern for both industrial and developing countries although problems
resulting from poverty and affluence are different.
2. The solution of environmental problems can only be achieved through international cooperation.
3. Integration of economic growth and environmental protection must be done according to the sustainable
development approach.
• Thus we can define Environment as “The sum total of living and non-living components, influences
and events surrounding an organism”. The living components are called the biotic components while
the non-living are called abiotic or physical components.
Components of the environment
ABIOTIC BIOTIC
 Light (Energy, Radiation)  Microbes
 Atmospheric gases and wind  Plants
 Temperature and heat flow  Animals (including human beings)
 Water
 Gravity
 Topography
 Geological Substratum
 Soil
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40 Ecosystem General Studies
The physical components set the condition for the survival of the biotic components which in turn take
care of the maintenance of the environment. Thus linkages among components of the environment are
pathways for the flow of energy and cycling of materials.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS:
• Recall the definition of the environment, and consider a fish living in a natural pond. It’s external
environment will be the water in the pond which it primarily inhabits. The water would contain nutrients,
oxygen and other organisms that the fish requires to sustain its life. As opposed to the external environment,
the body cavity within the fish provides an internal environment quite separate from the outside
environment. The body surface acts as an exchange barrier between the internal and the external
environment of the fish. The internal environment is relatively stable as compared to the external
environment. However, illness and injury or even environmental stress can upset it. But when the cause
of the upset is removed, the internal environment comes back to its original condition. The pond which
the fish inhabits is a natural environment. Examples of such natural environments on land include forests,
grasslands, savannah, deserts, etc. In any of these natural environments the climate, physiological, edaphic
(soil-related) and biotic factors interact with each other and influence the life forms.
Natural Environment Ocean Man-modified Environment Man-made Environment
Ocean, lakes/ponds, rivers, Orchards, plantations, Industries, cities, towns, crop

forest, grasslands, deserts etc. sanctuaries, parks fields, artificial lakes, dams
CONCEPT OF BIOSPHERE AND ECOSYSTEM

• The relatively thin zone of air, soil and water where life exists is known as the biosphere. It extends from
the depths of the oceans to about 10 km high up in the atmosphere and includes all the rivers, lakes, ponds
as well as the solid sediments that exchange material with living beings.
Air
(25%)
Minerals
(45%)
Water
(25%)
Organie
(5%)
Life in this zone depends on the Sun’s energy and on the circulation of heat and essential nutrients. The
only exceptions are the life forms found in the deep-sea hydrothermal vents that depend on the energy
from the Earth. This energy is used and given off as materials are recycled. Since living organisms need
essential elements for survival like air, water and land, the biosphere includes parts of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Soils
The thin layer of disintegrated rock particles, organic matter, water and air that covers most of the land
surface is known as soil. It supports life but requires living organisms for its formation as well. All soils
are formed of four main ingredients. These are present in different proportions and that determines what
the particular soil is like and for what purpose it would be suitable.

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Atmosphere
Plants absorb carbon
dioxide (the main climate-
altering gas) and produce
log ical cycle)

oxygen instead
Dead leaves Trees and

and plants Biosphere other plants
add nutrients slow the
to the soil. flow of
Insects and rainwater
dro
animals burrow, to rivers, acting
helping the soil as a natural
hy
breathe flood control
e(
cl
e r cy
Wat
• The first concept was that plants and animals formed a natural association, each with distinctive
members.
• The second concept was the realization that organisms are linked, both directly and indirectly by means
of their feeding relationships.
Arising from these, the concept of the ecosystem was formulated. A system is a collection of interdependent
parts that function as a unit and involve inputs and outputs.
An ecosystem represents the sum of all natural organisms and the non-living life supporting substances
within an area. It was considered as an open system with a series of major inputs and outputs and these
effectively “drive” the internal dynamics of the system. The ability to recognize distinctive ecosystems
in the biosphere gave ecologists a convenient scale with which to consider plants and animals and their
interaction. This is because it is more localized and thus more specific than the whole biosphere.
WHY SHOULD WE BE CONCERNED ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT
However, broadly there are three prevailing viewpoints regarding the environmental concerns:
1. The environmental concern is a conspiracy of the developed First World against progress in the Third
World and that environment will become an issue of importance only when the underdeveloped countries
reach the levels of production and consumption of the industrialized nations.
2. The second viewpoint argues strongly that the emphasis on preserving for instance, the tiger and the
aesthetic beauty of green belts is diverting the attention from the problems of the poor and that environment
has nothing to do with providing a better deal to the large and ever-growing population.
3. The third, in a paradoxical turn, holds this very same, large and ever growing population responsible for
the environmental crisis, maintaining that there is too little of everything except people.
Environmental levels of organization
• Let us start at the level of the whole organism, such as a plant or an animal. This is called organismal
level. Take an example of a human being as an organism. All human beings of your family, locality, city,
state, country and the world form one kind of individuals, they can potentially interbreed and produce
fertile young ones, thus they are one species. Individuals of a species occupying a definite space or area
at a given time constitute population. Thus there can be a population of frogs in a pond, population of
squirrels in a garden, or population of peepal trees in a forest, etc.
• Any population of individuals cannot live independently. Can we live without domestic animals, crops or
plants?
• When you look in a pond, you may see plants like lotus, hydrilla and algae. You may also see frogs, fish,
water fleas and some other insects. There are different kinds of organisms (populations) in that area.
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All these organisms are interdependent and live together forming a community. A community of living
organisms is called biotic community. We have learnt earlier that no biotic community can exist in the
absence of abiotic factors (water, air and light). The interdependence of the two types of factors occurs
in an ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM:
Biomes are functional units of the biosphere. They provide an optimum framework for understanding and
examining the complex interactions in the living world, with its myriads of species, and the physical
environment, for it is easier to understand and interpret these relationships in a smaller component of the
biosphere.
Concept of Ecosystem:
• The word ecosystem is derived from the greek word “oikos meaning home and system a meaning
system”. Eco means the habitat and “system” means a complex set of interconnected components or
processes forming a whole. The word system also indicates a functional property and hence an ecosystem
is considered as a functional unit of nature. Sir Arthur Tansely in 1935 was the first ecologist who used
the term ecosystem to explain the tangible relationships that exist between organisms in the biological world.
• Ecosystems are found throughout the biosphere, which is the zone where life exists. Within the biosphere,
ecosystems exist, on a spatial scale from a crack in a rock to rainforest or oceanic systems covering
areas of thousands of kilometres on the surface of the earth.
ENVIRONMENT – BIOME –
ECOSYSTEM –ECOLOGY:
Difference?
• Environment – All Factors that surround and
affect an individual or population.
• Ecology – It is the science of study of
interrelationships between individual
organisms and between organisms and their
Biotic and Abiotic environments.
• Ecosystem – A self sustaining, self regulating
and fundamental unit of organisms
interacting with one another and with the
surrounding environment.
• Biome – An ecosystem becomes Biome when
all plants, animals and soils studied
collectively. It is generally considered as
biotic component of Ecosystem.
• Ecosystems can be broadly divided into two main categories as Terrestrial and Aquatic ecosystems. The
biosphere’s major terrestrial or land ecosystems such as grasslands, forests and deserts are called biomes.
• Major ecosystems that are associated with water such as ponds, lakes, rivers, estuaries, oceans, coastal
and inland wetlands etc., are collectively termed aquatic ecosystems.
• Individual ecosystems such as lakes, forests etc., do not exist in isolation. They continuously exchange
both living organisms and non-living matter such as nutrients with their neighboring ecosystems. A stream
ecosystem, for example, is strongly influenced by the terrestrial ecosystems through which the stream flows.
• The exchange of materials between ecosystems can take two pathways.
(a) Exchanges from the surrounding environment into the ecosystem, which are termed as inputs.
(b) Exchanges from inside the ecosystem to the surrounding environment, which are termed as outputs.
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Radiant energy of the sun, gaseous substances like carbon dioxide, oxygen, water and nutrients are the
inputs into ecosystems. In addition there will also be living organisms moving into ecosystems form
neighbouring ecosystems even dead and decaying organic material may come from neighbouring
ecosystems. The outputs from ecosystems include nutrients, gaseous substances, water and living organisms
and release of heat in cellular respiration, or heat of respiration.
wave
Long tion Space
Sun Solar
r adiatio radia
n
ECOSYSTEM Environment
Plants Dispe
rsal Heat
Plants Consumers Dispersal

Plant
ation Migra
Migr tion
Animals Decomposers
d
on an Erosi Animals
Erosi ing on
Soil organic leach leach and
ing
matter Soil organic
matter
Schematic diagram of an ecosystem
On the basis of inputs and outputs, ecosystems can be classified as open and closed ecosystems. An
ecosystem that receives inputs from the surrounding is called an open ecosystem whereas, the one
without inputs is called a closed ecosystem. For example, our Earth can be considered a closed system
with regards to exchange of nutrients and minerals but is considered an open system with regards to
exchange of gases with the atmosphere. All ecosystems are open systems as there is continuous input
of solar radiation and atmospheric gases.
Two attributes of an ecosystem:
I. Structure of and Ecosystem (Architectural Process)
II. Function of and Ecosystem (Working Process)
STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The components of any ecosystem can be categorised into two main types. They are:
1. Abiotic components, which consist of chemical substances and physical conditions that support
life in the ecosystem, and
2. Biotic components, which include all living organisms.
Ecosystem
Abiotic Components Biotic Components
Climatic Edophic Producers Consumers Decomposers

or or or
Rain Soil Autotrophs Heterotrophs Saptrotrophs
Light pH
Wind Minerals
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
Temperature Topography Consumers Consumers Consumers Consumers
or or or or
Herbivores Primary Large Omnivores
Carnivores Carnivores
Schematic Representation of the Structure of an Ecosystem
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Abiotic Components:
• The abiotic components that form the physical environment of an ecosystem include factors such as
energy, elements, inorganic compounds, dead organic matter and climate, natural ecosystems are fuelled
by the energy of the sun, which includes both heat and light. The energy of the sun is the driving force
for all the processes within the ecosystem.
• The inorganic elements and compounds found in the ecosystem consist of all nutrients such as nitrates,
phosphates and sulphates, water, carbon dioxide and oxygen etc. Some of these are macronutrients,
which the plants need, in relatively large amounts and others are micronutrients that are required in trace
amounts. There are macronutrients: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (the three elements found in all organic
compounds), and nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. Some examples of
micronutrients are: iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum and boron.
• The organic compounds that form a part of the abiotic components are largely the by products resulting
from the different activities of organisms or their death and decay. All inactive or dead organic matter
and dissolved organic matter are derived either from plants or animals. Such dead organic matter is
critical to the internal cycling of nutrients in an ecosystem.
Decomposing organic matter releases nutrients along with the formation of humus, which is important for
the fertility of soil. New humus is added as old humus gets converted into mineral elements. Now it
should be clear to you that it is in this abiotic background taht organisms interact in, forming a single
interactive system.
Biotic Components
• The biotic components of ecosystems include the plants, animals and microbes i.e., total living community.
They can be classified into two main groups of organisms the Autotrophs (producers) and the Heterotrophs
(consumers) Autotrophs.
• They can be classified into two groups Photo Autotrophs (Mostly) & Chemo Autotrophs (very very less).
• Photo Autotrophs are mainly the green plants. They all have the ability to synthesize their own food from
simple inorganic compounds like CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight, through the process of
photosynthesis and oxygen is given off as a byproduct. During photosynthesis radiant energy of sunlight
is converted into chemical energy and is stored in the chemical bonds of the compounds made by the
plants. Hence the autotrophs are also called producers and they form the energy-capturing base of the
ecosystem.
6CO2 + 12H2O + energy from sunlight  C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
• In addition to plants, certain bacteria and algae are also included in autotrophs.
Ex: cyanobacteria
Chemo Autotrophs
Chemosynthetic bacteria synthesize organic molecules from inorganic materials using chemical energy.
They obtain energy by oxidation of inorganic substances such as sulphur compounds, ammonium ions and
iron.
Examples:
• sulphur-oxidizing bacteria can convert sulphur compounds to sulphuric acid. They are important in agriculture,
since the soil pH is reduced by them.
• nitrifying bacteria present in soil are another example (Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus, Nitrobactor)
Heterotrophs
They feed on the organic materials already prepared by the autotrophs. Such organisms include all
animals and fungi, most bacteria and protoctists, and even a few plants.

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There are two modes of heterotrophic nutrition.

• holozoic nutrition (Macro Consumers)
• saprotrophic nutrition (Micro Consumers)
1. Holozoic nutrition:
• This involves feeding on solid organic material obtained from other organisms. This is an exclusive
method of feeding in animals.
• Depending on the nature of the food or diet, the holozoic animals can be categorized into three groups,
such as herbivores, carnivores and omnivores and they are morphologically, physiologically as well as
behaviourally adapted to their particular food habits.
• The consumers are those that feed on the living tissues of plants or animals or both. Based on this there
are three types of consumers.
• Herbivores, or primary consumers : In terrestrial ecosystcm typical herbivores are insects, birds and
mammals. Two important groups of herbivorous mammals arc rodents and ungulates. Primary consumers
also include parasites (fungi, plants or animals) of plants. In aquatic ecosystems (freshwater and marine)
the typical examples of herbivores are: small crustaceans and mollusks and some fish. Most of these
organisms such as water fleas, copepods, crab larvae, mussels and clams are filter feeders and extract
the minute, primary producers from water.
• Carnivores, are the meat eaters and form the secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
• Omnivores, are animals that have flexible food habits as they eat plants, (therefore are herbivores or
primary consumers) and animals (therefore are carnivores or secondary and tertiary consumers). Humans
are good examples of omnivores.
2. Saprotrophic nutrition:
There are of 2 Types of organisms that use saprotrophic nutrition.
• Decomposers (Reducers): They Recycle the material held up in the detritus. They Breakdown to
get nutrient inorganic substances into water, soil. They are Most important community after producers.
Ex: Bacteria & Fungi
• Detritus Feeders: Small Animals feed on the partially decomposed organic material
Ex: Earthworms, Mites, Termites (@ Land); Crabs & Molluscs(@Aquatic) Decomposer organisms
obtain their energy and nutrients by degrading dead organic matter. When plants and animals die,
their bodies are still a source of energy and nutrients. These organic remains are decomposed by
micro-organisms, namely fungi and bacteria which grow sparophytically on these remains. Fragments
of decomposing organic material are called detritus, and many small animals feed on these,
contributing to the process of breakdown. They are called detritivores.
Difference between detritivore and decomposer:
Detritivore Decomposer
Detritivore is an Decomposer is an
organism that breaks organism, which does
down the detritus into enzymatic degradation
smaller particles, i.e., of detritus into simpler
fragments. inorganic substances.
Eg. Earthworm Eg. Some bacteria and
some fungi.

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• Sapro  Rotten/Decaying
Detritus  Remains of Dead organisms & fragments & wastes of living organisms
Detritivores  Feed on Detritus
• Some typical detritivores are: earthworm, woodlice, millipedes and other smaller animals such as mites,
springtail, nematodes and Scavangers.
• Scavengers: Feed on Dead plants & Animals, but not falling strictly into the above categories 2 Types:
 Animal Scavengers  Vultures, Gulls, Beetels
 Plant Scavengers  Indian Pipe, Beechdrops
• Generally Decomposition goes through 3 Processes:
(a) Leaching: as water moves through dead organic matter, it dissolves and carries with it the water-
soluble components.
(b) Fragmentation processes break organic material into smaller pieces, exposing new surfaces for
colonization by microbes.
(c) The chemical alteration of dead organic matter is primarily achieved through bacterial and fungal
action.
• The rate of decomposition is governed by three sets of factors— the physical environment (temperature,
moisture and soil properties), the quantity and quality of the dead material available to decomposers, and
the nature of the microbial community itself.
MICRO ORGANISMS IN SOIL
• Soil is the home of a greater variety of micro organisms than any other environment. One of the most
striking features is its diversity.
Fungi 3%
Most common species of
Algae 0.2% Actinomycetes bacteria are those of
Aerobic 13%
bacteria Bacillus,Clostridium,
68.8% Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas,
Anaerobic bacteria Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
14% Nitrobacter
• Bacteria are the most abundant group of organisms in soils. Bacteria tend to grow as individuals or
microcolonies on the surfaces of soil particles and roots. They are of great importance in various soil
processes such as cycling and transformation of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and other minerals. They are
also responsible for much of the decomposition of cellulose, protein etc. Some of them are harmful either
competing with plants for nutrients or causing diseases of plants and other soil organisms. Many bacteria
are rod shaped.
• Most bacteria are heterotrophs including those which can use many organic compounds such as sugars,
cellulose, chitin, organic acids, alcohols and hydrocarbons. Some are autotrophs which include nitrifiers,
sulphur oxidisers and iron bacteria. Many are aerobes and some are anaerobes.
• Cyanobacteria are often primary colonisers and play a key role in the transformation of bare rocks to
soil. This group is of special interest because many of them are nitrogen fixers and thereby contribute
to soil fertility.

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• Actlnomycetes arc present in surface soil and also in the lower horizons to considerable depths. In
abundance, they are second only to bacteria Actinomycetes are abundant in neutral or alkaline soilds but
they cannot toelrate acid conditions.
Actinomycetes include
specides of Nocardia,
Streptomyces and
Micromonospora
• Fungi: They usually tolerate acid conditions better than bacteria and for this reason are more important
than bacteria in acid soils. Most soil fungi contribute to the essential processes of decomposing complex
organic constituents of plant tissue in soil such as cellulose, lignin and pectin. Best known macrofungi
are the basidiomycetes which include mushrooms, toadstools, puff balls, stinkhoms, birdsnest fungi and
others. Most of them are saprophytes playing an important role in litter and wood decay.
Some of the more common

species of micro fungi are
Penicillium, Mucor, Rhizopus,
Cladosporium, Fusarium
• Algae are found most abundantly either on the soil surface or just below the surface, provided that the
soil is sufficiently moist. In desert, denuded and other barren soils algae contribute to the accumulation
of organic matter in the soil. They also have the ability to corrode and weather rocks. One of the major
algal functions is the generation of organic matter from inorganic substances They bind together soil
particles and by forming surface bloom reduce erosion losses. Viruses do not ‘live’ or multiply in soils.
They only survive by some means in the soil. Some of the more stable plant viruses, e.g., tobacco mosaic
virus may remain infective in the soil for several months or longer. Root-infecting plant viruses are
actively transmitted through the soil by vectors organisms such as nematodes and fungi (e.g., tobacco
rattle virus by nematodes and tobacco necrosis by fungi).
Some protozoa are classified on

the basis of their means of
locomotion. Some move about
by virtue of flagella (e.g.,
Tetramitus) others by means
• Protozoa do not constitute a large portion of the biomass of the microbial community. They are found
in greatest abundance near the surface of the soil. The vast majority of these protozoa are phagotrophic
i.e., they directly feed upon microbial cells or other particulate matter.

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• Micro-organisms are very important and useful in the decomposition process and also the end product
of the decomposition process is the organic matter. Soil organic matter from living or dead plant and
animal residue is a very active and important portion of the soil. It is the nitrogen reservoir, it furnishes
large portion of soil phosphorus and soil sulphur; and protects soil against erosion; and it loosens up the
soil to provide better aeration and water movement. In fact, the organisms of the soil might be divided
into two distinct and, in some repects, opposing groups– (1) those that supply organic residues, and (2)
those that are engaged primarily in decomposing such residues. Plant roots are important representative
of the first group, while millipedes, springtails, Earthworms, bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes are main
organisms in the second type of activity.
• Macro-organisms in soil: The larger animals resident in the soil are:
(1) insects; (2) millipedes and centipedes; (3) woodlice; (4) mites and spiders; (5) slugs and snails; (6)
Earthworms; (7) rodents and insectivora.
• The activity of rodents results in the pulverization, granulation, and transfer of very considerable quantities
of soil. Not only do these animals incorporate much organic matter into soils but also their burrows serve
to aerate and drain the land. One of the most important macroanimals of the soil is the ordinary
Earthworm. The amount of soils that these creatures pass through their bodies annually may amount to
as much as 15 tons of dry Earth per acre. During the passage through the worms, not only the organic
matter, which serves the Earthworm as food but also the mineral constituents are subjected to digestive
enzymes and to a grinding action within the animals. Earthworms are unporta in other ways. The holes
left in the soils to increase aeration and drainage, an important consideration in soil development. Moreover,
the worms bring about a notable transportation of the lower soil to the surface.
Without a doubt, Earthworms have definitely increased both the size and stability of the soil Agates,
especially in virgin soils.
FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
• There is a continuous interaction between the living and the non-living components, i.e., between plants,
animals and their environment. They continuously produce and exchange materials.
• The interactions between living and nonliving components of an ecosystem involve input, transfer, storage
and output of energy and essential materials through the system. Each of these processes is energy-
dependent. As a result of these complex interactions,the ecosystemhas to adjust to these changes and
attains a state of equilibrium. An ecosystem,therefore, is a system that is self-regulatory based on feed-
back information about the population, and the limiting factors which control the living and non-living
components.
• This means, that there are mechanisms for continuous absorption of materials by organisms for the
purpose of production of organic materials and their conversion back into the inorganic form, much of
which is then released back into the environment
• Hence, The function of an ecosystem involves Transformation, Circulation
and Accumulation of Matter and Energy to sustain life forms. It can be understood by 3 concepts
involved in Functioning of an ecosystem.
I. Trophic Level Interaction (Energy Flow: Linear)
• How the members of an ecosystem are connected based upon nutritional needs.
II. Biogeochemical cycles (Material Flow: cyclic)
• How materials move in an ecosystem.
III. Ecological Regulation (changes in components of an Ecosystem)
• How changes in characteristics and composition of members of an ecosystem over a period of time
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I. Trophic Level Interaction (Energy Flow)

• It deals with who eats who and is being eaten by whom in an ecosystem.
• Autotrophs like green plants manufacture their own food which becomes source of food energy for
herbivores which would become a food source for carnivore and so on.
• This means that not only is the chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are
transferred into herbivores but a host of other nutrients as well. This process continues upto the
decomposer level through the carnivores.
SUN
Eaten by Eaten by
Producer Herbivore Carnivore

Nutrients
re-subsorted
Decay Urine and droppings
Return
to soil
Another feature of the process is that the energy trapped by green plants when transferredfrom one food
level or trophic level to another also depicts energy losses at each transfer along the chain.
on
on
on
ati
ati
ati
pir
pir
pir
gy
gy
gy
res
res
res
ner
ner
ner
in
in
in
de
de
de
ost
ost
ost
lise
lise
lise
yl
yl
yl
uti
uti
uti
erg
erg
erg
Un
Un
Un
En
En
En
Incoming
Solar Autotrophs Herbivore Carnivore
Energy
De
De
De
com
com
com
po
po
po
siti
siti
siti
on
on
on
From the above diagram, we can conclude the following:

• Energy movement is unidirectional that is, the initial energy trapped by an autotroph does not revert back
to solar input.
• Energy that passes from herbivore to carnivore does not pass back to herbivore from carnivore. As a
consequence of this unidirectional and continuous energy flow, the ecosystem maintains its entity and
prevents collapse of the system.
• Energy Flow in an Ecosystem can graphically represented in 3 ways:
1. Food Chain,
2. Food Web and
3. Ecological Pyramids

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(1) Food Chain
• The transfer of Food energy from the producers through a series of organisms with repeated eating
& being eaten is called a Food Chain
• For Example, plants are eaten by insects, who are eaten by frogs, these frogs are eaten by fish,
who are eaten by human beings
• The producers & Consumers are arranged in the ecosystem in a definite manner & their
interrelationships along with population size are expressed together as Trophic Structure.
• Each specific stage of Food Chain is known as Trophic Level.
• The amount of living matter at each trophic level is known as Standing Biomass/Standing crop
Sample Food Chains
Trophic Grassland Pond Ocean

Level Biome Biome Biome
Primary grass phyto

algae
Preducer plankton
Primary grasshopper mosquito zoo

Consumer larva plankton
Secondary rat
Consumer
Tertiary
snake seal
Consumer
Quaternary racoon
hawk white shark
Consumer
Characteristics of a Food Chain.

1. 1st trophic level is occupied by Producers only, later levels are occupied by consumers. How about
Decomposers??
2. Fewer no. of organisms in the succeeding levels.
3. Carnivores Tend to be more generalised in their feeding habits than herbivores.
4. Carnivores have relatively large habitat requirements & Wide geographical distributions.
5. Food chains are diagramatic representations & Consists of arrow which means “is consumed by” and
indicates progression of trophic levels
6. Food chains ‘end’ with top predators, animals that have little or no natural enemies.
Types of food chains (2 types)
1. Grazing Food Chain
2. Detritus Food Chain
1. Grazing food chain starts with green plants which are the producers. The green plants or producers
are grazed by herbivorous animals which are further eaten by carnivores.

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Primary producers (Autotrophs)  Primary consumers (Herbivores) Secondary Consumers (Carnivores)

1. The chain begins with green plants (producers) at the first trophic level
2. Energy for this food chain comes from the sun
3. Food chain adds energy into the ecosystem
4. The food chain fixes inorganic nutrients
5. It consists of all macroscopic organisms
• Examples of Pood chains on Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Plant  Squirrel  Snakes  Bird  Man
• Examples of Food chains on Aquatic Ecosystem
• Diatoms  Mosquito  Fish  Kingfisher
Table 39.1 : Typical examples of food chains in different ecosystem

Type of Producers Herbivores Primary Secondary Tertiary
Ecosystem Carnivores Carnivores Carnivores
Grassland Grasses Insets Frogs Snakes Predatory
Ecosystem Rat and Mice Snakes Predatory birds
Grazing Cattle Carnivore birds
mammals
Aquatic Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons Small fishes Large fishes
Ecosystem
Forest Trees Phytophagous Lizards, Birds Predatory Lions,
Ecosystem insects Foxes birds Tiger
Herbivora Wolves
mammals
Dessert Shrubs, bushes Rats and Mice Snakes Predatory
Ecosystem Grasses and some birds
tree
2. Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter generated at each level of grazing food chain.
This dead matter (detritus) is rich in energy and nutrients. This detritus is eaten by animals which
in turn are eaten by other animals in the soil. A large amount of energy flows through the detritus food
chain.
Ultimately the organic matter is decomposed.
1. The chain begins with detritivores (decomposers) at the first trophic level
2. Energy for this food chain comes from remains of detritus
3. This food chain take up energy from the detritus, ensuring maximum utilization and minimum wastage
4. The food chain helps in fixing inorganic nutrients
5. It consists of sub soil organisms.
Examples for Detritus Food Chain:
1. Litter  Earthworms  Chicken  Hawk
2. Detritus  Decomposers  Detritus Feeders  carnivores @ grazing food chain
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• Detritus Food chain is instrumental in completing the mineral cycles
• The distinction between these two food chains is the source of energy for the first level consumers. In
the gazing food chain the primary source of energy is living plant biomass while in the detritus food chain
the source of energy is dead organic matter or detritus.
• The two food chains are linked. The initial energy source for detritus food chain is the waste materials
and dead organic matter from the grazing food chain.
Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain

In this food chain energy flows from plants In this food chain in which energy flows from
to herbivores and then through carnivores. photosynthetic organisms through detrivores and
decomposers.
This begins with producers as the first This begins with detritivores and decomposers as the
trophic level. first trophic level.
Sun’s energy is fixed by producers and is Energy from the organic matter is used up by
made available to consumers. decomposers and detritivores. The nutrients are made
available for reuse by the producers.
It supports detritus food chain It supports grazing food chain by providing inorganic
nutrients.
Food Web:
• A food chain describes how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem. Food chain is a linear
feeding relationship. But rarely species eat just one type of food. Similarly a organism at one level may
be a food for more than one species. For example, grasses may serve food for rabbit or grasshopper
or goat or cow. Similarly a herbivore may be food Source for many different carnivorous species.
• Also food availability and preferences of food of the organisms may shift seasonally eg. we eat watermelon
in summer and peaches in the winter. Thus there are interconnected networks off feeding relationships
that take the form of food webs.
• Food web is a complex network of Food chains in an ecosystem. A food web illustrates, all possible
transfers of energy and nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem, whereas as food chain traces
only one pathway of the food.
Quaternary
Carnivore Carnivore
consumers
Tertiary
Carnivore Carnivore
consumers
Secondary
Carnivore Carnivore
consumers
Primary Zooplankton
Herbivore
consumers
Primary
Plant Phytoplankton
producers
A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain

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• Bioaccumulation occurs within a trophic

• Biomagnifications: It is the increase in level, and is the increase in concentration of a
concentration of a substance that occurs in a substance in certain tissues of organisms'
food chain as a consequence of bodies due to absorption from food and the
 Persistence (can’t be broken down by environment.
environmental processes) Ex: Minamata disease
 Food chain energetics • Bioconcentration is defined as occurrs when
 Low (or nonexistent) rate of internal uptake from the water is greater than
degradation/excretion of the substance
excretion.
(often due to water-insolubility)
• Thus bioconcentration and
Ex: DDT and other Persistent organic
bioaccumulation occur within an organism,
Pollutants (POP)
and biomagnification occurs across trophic
• Three main criteria must be met for a
pollutant to biomagnify: (food chain) levels.
1. The pollutant must be long lived. • Biodilution is also a process that occurs to all
trophic levels in an aquatic environment; it is
2. The pollutant must be concentrated by the
producers. the opposite of biomagnification, thus a
pollutant gets smaller in concentration as it
3. The pollutant must be fat-soluble.
progresses up a food web.
Ecological Pyramids
• Food Chains and Food Webs are Qualitative representation of trophic levels
• Ecological Pyramids quantitative representation of feeding relationships and Patterns of energy flow in
an ecosystem.
• The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic way are referred as ecological pyramids. The
food producer forms the base of the pyramid and the top carnivore forms the tip. Other consumer trophic
levels are in between
vel Tertiary Hawk

tro phic le Carnivore consumer
Fourth vel
tr op hic le Secondary
Third Carnivore consumer
Second trophic Primary Snake
level consumer
Herbivore
Decomposer
Grass Mouse
First
Producer Grass
trophic
level
• In any Ecosystem, Producers have following characteristics

 Highest rates of Energy uptake
 Largest no. of Individuals
 Greatest no.of Species
 Greatest Biomass
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These characteristics successively lowers in the subsequent trophic levels.
• Ecological pyramids are Proposed by Charles Elton in 1927
Definition: Ecological Pyramids are Quantitative Diagrammatic representations of the feeding relationships
and energy transfer through the biotic components of the ecosystem.
• 3 Types of Ecological Pyramids
1. Pyramid of Numbers
2. Pyramid of BioMass
3. Pyramid of Energy
• Pyramid of Numbers:
 It is the graphic representation of the No. of Individuals at successive trophic levels per unit area
at any time.
 Shape:
Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of numbers may not always be upright, and may even
be completely inverted
 Grassland/Pond Ecosystem: Upright Shape
 Forest Ecosystem: Spindle Shape
 Parasitic Food Chain/Aquatic Food chain: Inverted Shap.
• Upright pyramid of Numbers @ Grassland Ecosystem/Pond Ecosystem
Top
carnivore Hyperparasities
Secondary Parasites
carnivore
Primary Herviores
carnivore
Herbivores
Producers
Producers
A B
Inverted pyramid of number
Upright Pyramids of Numbers (A) In a Grass Land
(B) In a Pond Parasitic Food Chain
• Partly Upright (Spindle) pyramid of Numbers @ Forest Ecosystem:

It is seen in the forest ecosystem where the number of producers are lesser in number and support a
greater number of herbivores and which in turn support a fewer number of carnivores.
Carnivore
Herbivores
Producers
Partly Upright Pyramid of Number

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• Inverted Pyramid of Number @ Parasitic Food chain/ Aquatic Food Chain:

This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food chain where one primary producer supports
numerous parasites which support more hyperparasites.
Carnivore 2
12 gm/m
Herviores 2
8 gm/m
2
Producers 4 gm/m
Inverted pyramid of number

Aquatic Ecosystem
• Pyramid of Numbers helps in making Comparisons between the structure and food web diversity but it
does not take into account the fact that the size of organisms being counted in each trophic level.
Moreover, It is very difficult to count all the organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of
number does not completely define the trophic structure for an ecosystem.
Pyramid of Biomass:
• To overcome the shortcomings of pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass is used.
• It is the graphic representation of the No. of Individuals at successive trophic levels per unit area at any time.
• Biomass is the total Dry Weight of the living organisms in an area at a given time. This overcomes the
size difference problem because all kinds of organisms at a trophic level are weighed. Biomass is
measured in g/m2.
• Shape:
 Grassland Ecosys  Upright
 Pond Ecosys  Inverted
 Forest Ecosys  Upright
 Parasitic Ecosys  Upright
• Sometimes Open Oceans where the productivity is at Max level, Shape could be Upright instead of
Inverted especially during Spring Blooms. Here Phytoplanktons have very short life cycle.
• Pyramid of Biomass is useful to understand the productivity of an Ecosystem. But It does not consider
the following features.
 Climatic Variations (Deciduous Forest has more biomass during spring than in Autum)
 Life span of individuals is not considered
 Biomass may not true representation of Energy content/flow
Pyramid of Energy:
• The Energy pyramid expresses the total amount of energy used at each level per unit are per unit
time(expressed as Kcal/m2/Year) It measures the rate of flow of energy per unit area in the food web
across trophic levels unlike no. of individuals (Numbers Pyramid) or dry weight per unit area(Biomass
Pyramid). Pyramids of Numbers and Biomass are measurements at a particular moment of time but
Pyramid of Energy is a measurement over a period of time.
• Shape: Always Upright
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Ten Percent Law by Lindeman
• According to this law, during the transfer of energy from organic food from one trophic level to the next,
only about ten percent of the of energy from organic matter is stored as flesh. The remaining is lost
during transfer, broken down in respiration, or lost to incomplete digestion by higher trophic levels. Hence,
Energy available at 3rd or 4th trophic level is very, very less. So, the number of trophic levels in a food
chain generally does not exceed 4-5 levels.
SUN
990 Joules 9 Joules 0.9 Joules
energy lost to energy lost to energy lost to
environment environment environment
1000 Joules of
Light Energy
10 Joules 1 Joules
Energy Energy
10 Joules energy 1 Joules energy 0.1 Joules energy

available as food available as food available as food
(Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore)
Progressive Loss of Energy in Food Chain
Advantages
 Overall Picture of the functional role of communities
 Easy to compare different ecosystem (Intake, Metabolism, waste, conversions)
 Always Upright
Drawbacks
 Difficult to measure and represent
 Energy consumption pattern varies with the time esp. due to interactions between organisms
Not all the Energy fixed by Producers is available to Consumers. WHY??
 Plant’s own needs: metabolic activities through
Respiration (Reverse of Photosynthesis)
 Similarly energy is transferred to the organisms in the Food chains/ Food Webs
 Finally energy is transferred to decomposers where chemical energy is converted into heat.
 Energy flow in any ecosystem is Unidirectional & Non-Cyclic(Not for Reuse)
Energy Flow in the Ec osystem
1. The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystems) is the sun.
2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat.
3. Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food chain as one organism eats
another.
4. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.
5. Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not.

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Pyramid of Numbers
Shows the relative
Pyramid of Energy number of individual
Shows the relative amount of organisms at each
energy available at each trophic trophic level.
level. organisms use about 10
per cent of this 0.1% Third-level consumers
energy for 1% Second level consumers
life processes. 10% First level consumers
The rest is lost 100% Producers
as heat.
50 grams of
Pyramid of Biomass human tissue
Represents the amount of 500 grams
living organic matter at each of chicken
trophic level. Tyipically, the 1500 grans
greatest biomass is at the of gain
base of the pyramid.
Ecosystem Productivity
• It is the amount of organic matter accumulated in any unit time.
• There are two types of Ecosystem Productivity.
1. Primary productivity (By Autotrophs):
 It is the rate at which energy is stored or trapped by the producers in the form of organic matter
from solar energy.
 Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)  Total Intake by Green Plants (~0.2% Insolation)
 Net Primary Productivity (NPP)  Amount of energy converted into organic matter, which is food
for Heterotrophs, the next trophic level species. (~20-50% of GPP)
 NPP = GPP – Respiration by the plants.
 Productivity of different Ecosystems:
1. Deserts : <1-2%
2. Deep Oceans: < 4%
3. Grass Lands, Deep Lakes, Mt Forests & Agri: 2-12%
4. Continental Shelf Waters: 2-12%
5. Moist Forests, Moist Grass Lands, Agro Lands, Shallow Lakes: 12-40%
6. Estuaries, Springs, Corral Reefs:50-100%
 Highest levels of Ecosystem Productivity is found at the Boundaries between different types of
Ecosystems. Ex: Boundaries of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems like Alluvial Plains, Estuaries &
Corral Reefs has highest levels of Productivity.
2. Secondary productivity (By Heterotrophs)
 It is the Rate of Production of animal Tissue by the consumers per unit area per time
 20 Productivity in Consumers = Food Consumed from Autotrophs – {Excreta + respiration} elements
of the soil, atmosphere, etc. of a region are converted into the organic substances of animals or
plants and released back into the environment.”
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II. BIOGEO CHEMICAL CYCLES (Material Flow: Cyclic)
• However, transfer of nutrients along with chemical energy does not indicate loss of nutrients like that
of energy. This is because the fecal matter, excretory products and dead bodies of all plants and animals
are broken down into inorganic materials by decomposers and eventually returned to the ecosystem for
reuse by the Autotrophs.
• An ecosystem is, therefore, a system, of regularly interacting and interdependent components forming a
unified whole. The interaction of its components involves the flow of energy and cycling of materials
Mineral movement (cyclic)

Sun Energy movement (non-cyclic)
Producer Herbivore Carnivore
Nutrient pool Decomposer
• The movement of these nutrients in a cyclic manner in the environment constitutes the biogeochemical
cycles. Thus, a “biogeochemical cycle is the cycle in which nitrogen, carbon, and other inorganic elements
of the soil, atmosphere, etc. of a region are converted into the organic substances of animals or plants
and released back into the environment.”
• Energy flows through ecosystem enabling the organisms to perform various kinds of work and this energy
is ultimately lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of the system. On the other hand, nutrients
of food matter never get used up. They can be recycled again and again indefinitely.
• The complete path a chemical takes through the four major components – or reservoirs – of Earth’s
systems
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere
• Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two types of cycles namely Gaseous and sedimentary
cycle.
 Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere(water, carbon and
nitrogen Cycles)
 Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is the earth’s crust.
Water Cycle:
 Water as an important ecological factor determines the structure and function of the ecosystem. Cycling
of all other nutrients is also dependent upon water as it provides their transportation during the various
steps. It acts as solvent medium for their uptake of nutrients by organisms.
• The hydrologic cycle is the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system which is
driven by solar energy. Water on our planet is stored in major reservoirs like atmosphere, oceans, lakes,
rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water moves from one reservoir to another by the
processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration and
groundwater flow.
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Condensation
Precipitation
Transpiration Evaporation
Percolation
The Carbon Cycle
• Carbon is minor constituent of the atmosphere as compared to oxygen and nitrogen. However, without
carbon dioxide life could not exist, because it is vital for the production of carbohydrates through
photosynthesis by plants. It is the element that anchors all organic substances from coal and oil to DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid; the compound that carries genetic information)
• Carbon is present in the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon cycle involves
a continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms. Carbon from the atmosphere
moves to green plants by the process of photosynthesis, and then to animals. By process of respiration
and decomposition of dead organic matter it returns back to atmosphere. It is usually a short term cycle.
• Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in the peaty
layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments of aquatic systems which take a
long time to be released.
• In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried for millions of years till geological movements may lift
these rocks above sea level. These rocks may be exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide,
carbonates and bicarbonates into streams and rivers.
ss ATMOSPHERE
ma
d bio Volcanic emissions
an
tat ion ing Atmosphere
s n
ore bur
Def on Carbon dioxide
p irati (CO2)
res Dec
ls ion om
rat p
a
i
im
sp
os
An
iti
re
on
nt
Fossil fuel
Pla
burning
CO2 fixation Direct
Tree (by aquatic plants) absoption
LITHOSPHERE
Carbonates, CO2
Dead organic
matter CO2 release
Hydrosphere
(organic
carbon) Microbial
action
A Carbon Cycle
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• Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are organic compounds that were buried before they
could be decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time and geological processes into fossil
fuels when they are burned the carbon stored in them is released back into the atmosphere as carbon-
dioxide.
The Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein and is a basic building block of all living tissue. It constitutes
nearly 16% by weight of all the proteins.
 There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmosphere but the elemental form cannot be used
by most of the living organisms.
 Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’, that is, converted to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before it can be taken
up by plants.
 There are five main processes which essential for nitrogen cycle are elaborated below.
1. Nitrogen fixation:
• This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by
plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by the following three methods:
(i) Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic activity help in the fixation of nitrogen.
(ii) Industrial fixation: At high temperature (400°C) and high pressure (200 atm.), molecular nitrogen
is broken into atomic nitrogen which then combines with hydrogen to form ammonia.
(iii) Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria:
(i) Symbiotic Bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants.
e.g. Rhizobium
(ii) Freeliving Bacteria can combine atmospheric or dissolved nitrogen with hydrogen to form
ammonia, e.g.
1. Nostoc
2. Azobacter
3. Cyanobacteria
2. Nitrification:
• It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus
bacteria respectively. Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can covert nitrate into nitrite.
3. Assimilation:
• In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA
etc. These molecules make the plant and animal tissue.
4. Ammonification:
• Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric acid.. These waste products
as well as dead remains of organisms are converted back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria This
process is called ammonification. Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.
5. Denitrification:
• Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria like
Paracoccus live deep in soil near the water table as they like to live in oxygen free medium. Denitrification
is reverse of nitrogen fixation.
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Nitrogen cycle
N2
Fixation Denitrification Fertilizer factory

(lightning)
Bacteria in
N fixing bacteria nodules
NO3 Plants Animals

Nitrate Bacteria
NO2 Decay and Waste
Nitrate Bacteria
+
NH4 Decomposers
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmsopheric nitrogen to ammonia.
Azotobacter
Nitrogen gas Ammonia (NH3)
The roles of Nitrogen fixation/Ammonification

bacteria in
nitrogen fixation Nitrosomonas*
Nitrification is the process of
converting ammonia into nitrates
–
Nitrates (NO3 ) Nitrites (NO2– )
Nitrobacter*
Assimilation
Plants cannot directly
absorb and assimilate *Bacteria can be chemoautotrophs deriving
nitrogen. It must be energy (for carbon fixation) from the bonds
in the compounds they convert.
first converted to
compounds such as
nitrates and ammonia.
Sedimentary Cycle
Phosphorus, Sulfur, calcium and magnesium circulate by means of the sedimentary cycle. The element involved
in the sedimentary cycle normally does not cycle through erosion, sedimentation, mountain building,
volcanic activity and biological transport through the excreta of marine birds.
(a) Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic ecosystems and water quality. Unlike carbon and nitrogen,
which come primarily from the atmosphere, phosphorus occurs in large amounts as a mineral in phosphate
rocks and enters the cycle from erosion and mining activities. This is the nutrient considered to be the
main cause of excessive growth of rooted and free-floating microscopic plants in lakes.
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PO4 Rocks and Soil
leaching and Nutrients
runoff Consumption
Absorption
photosynthetic organisms; heterotrophic Animal waste

bacteria, algae plants Decomposition organisms
Bacteria
Decomposition
Bacteria
PO4
(b) Sulphur Cycle
Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of sulphates is take up by plants and incorporated through a
series of metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the proteins of
autotroph tissues. It then passes trough the grazing food chain.
Sulphur bound in living organism is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas
through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
The sulfur cycle

Atmosphere
Volcanic COS, SO2 Emission
release
Deposition Gasification
Fertilizers
Deposition
Wasterwater
Erosion run-off Oceans
Sediments Land and
S4 SO SO42–
Biosphere
SO2
Sedimentary cycle
Hydrologic cycle
The Bio-geochemical cycles discussed here are only a few of the many cycle present in the ecosystem.
These cycles usually do not operate independently but interact with each other at some point or the other.
II. Ecological Regulation and Development (changes in components of an Ecosystem)
• Biotic and Abiotic components in any Ecosystem are not constant forever. They change over a period
of time. Ecosystem is a self sustaining entity that undergoes certain changes.
• It. can be understood by the following concepts:
 Ecological Interactions
 Ecosystem Stability
 Ecological Succession
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(1) Ecological Interactions:

• As you move across the landscape, the physical and biological structures of the community change. Such
changes reffered as Zonation.
• In considering transitional zones and their communities, ecologists define two terms. First is the edge and
the second is the ecotone. Edge is where two or more vegetation communities meet. An ecotone is
where two or more communities not only meet but also integrate.
• Some edges have ecotones and yet others do not have ecotones.
• Ecotones contain a mix of species o f the two adjacent communities. They may also be characterized
by a unique species or group of species not occurring in either community. Highly adapted species
colonize the edge. Plant species are often intolerant of shade and tolerant of dry environments, which
have a high rate of evapo-transpiration, reduced soil moisture, and fluctuating temperatures. Animal
species of the edge are usually those that require two or more vegetation communities. But there may
be species of animals only found in edges as well.
• The variety and density of life is often greatest in and about edges and ecotones. This phenomenon has
been called the EDGE effect.
• The individuals of the population interact with each other for food, shelter and for reproduction. These
interactions include competition, both within species and among species; predation including parasitism;
co evolution and adaptations. Such interactions between individuals of the same species are termed intra-
specific interactions, while interactions between species are termed interspecific interactions.
1. Intra -Specific Interactions:
• Occur when a population grows in number & strive to obtain the same limited resources.
• The most prominent type of intra-specific interactions among members of a population is competition.
• Intra-specific competition is found to occur in two different ways in nature. Scramble competition
and contest competition.
(i) Scramble competition: no individual receives enough of the resources for growth and
reproduction as long as the population remains dense.
(ii) Contest competition: Some individuals have access to enough resources while denying
others their share.
2. Inter-Specific Interactions:
• Living in close association, different species interact or share resources such as food, light, space
or moisture. One species may depend on the other for food, or they may provide mutual aid or they
may have no direct effect on each other.
• Such interactions that occur between species could be grouped to three categories.
(a) Competition:
This is an association where two or more species seek a resource, is in short supply and the species
are affected adversely. Usually in such competition we consider the association to be between two
species.
• Like in intra-specific interactions, inter-specific competition takes two forms:
(i) Interference competition: Like in contest competition it is direct and aggressive. One competitor
interferes with the access to a resource, e.g., Alleopathy in plants.
(ii) Exploitative competition: This is similar to scramble competition. It reduces the abundance of
shared resources. Each species indirectly reduces the abundance of the other species. The outcome
depends on how effectively each of the competitors uses the resources.
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The are the important principles with regard to competition.
1. Competition among different species is greatest between organisms that obtain food in a similar way. For
example, green plants compete with other green plants, meat eating animals with other meat eating
animals.
2. Competitive exclusion-this states that when two species are competing with one another for the same
limited resource in a special location, the species able to use that resource most efficiently will eventually
eliminate the other species in that
• Plants not only compete for sunlight but also for soil nutrients. For example, roots of one species will
out-compete another species. Species may secrete poisonous substances that depress the growth of other
plants e.g., sage plants in California.
• Alleopathy: @ plant species, the process of competing by production of toxins. (This-ve interaction is
called as Amensalism).
A species ecological niche is its unique functional role in an ecosystem. It is a description of all the
biological physical and chemical factors required by the species to survive remain healthy and reproduce.
Both barnacle species have separate niches and thus avoid competition.
If one species is competitively superior, it will eventually exclude the other species from the habitat,a
phenomenon referred to as Gause's Principle of Competitive Exclusion.
Results of competition:
1. Competitive exclusion: 1 species is eliminated from the community because it is worse at getting the
resource.
2. Reduced niche size: Species lives in a more limited environment than it can actually tolerate.
3. Character displacement: Competitors evolve slight differences so they no longer compete for the same
resource.
4. Resource partitioning: Species share resources by using different parts
(b) Predation
• It is the fundamental interaction (Predator-Prey) and symbolized as (+–).
• Predation between species could take two forms:
1. Camivory - animals feeding on other animals e.g., hawk feeding on mouse.
2. Herbivory - animals feeding on vegetation such as grasses, weed, herbaceous plants, flowers fruits,
seeds etc.
• Predation is more than a transfer of energy.
• Who controls who?? The number of predators depends upon the abundance of their prey. In other
words the population of prey could be controlled by its predator.
• Predators are often important in maintaining community structure, predators sometimes prevent or
greatly reduce competitive exclusion by limiting the population of one of the competing species.
• Another char is plant-herbivore coevolution: Herbivores change and adapt to plants on which they
feed all the time. To avoid being eaten certain plants have hard parts or are unpalatable for
herbivores. For example, plants contain silica that makes them too tough to be eaten. However,
certain herbivores have developed strong grinding teeth and powerful jaws to feed on such plants.
• Following are its important roles of Predator-prey relations:
(1) Predation helps to channelize through different trophic levels the energy fixed by photosynthetic plants.
But for predation, the ‘grass-deer-tiger’ food chain would not obviously exist! Remember, the grass
‘considers’ deer as its predator; in this sense, to a plant the sparrow that eats its seeds is also a predator.

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(2) Predators can bring down the intensity of interspecific competition in a community by selectively preying
on the competitively superior species and keep their densities low. This permits the weaker species to
persist in the habitat.
(3) Predators also ap@ar to be responsible for maintaining a high species diversity in many biological
communities. Experimental removal of all predators from a community has been known to lead to the
elimination of some species and a general decline in species diversity.
(4) Predators in some cases can regulate the population densities of their prey. Predation is obviously not
beneficial to the individual organism that is killed and eaten as food, but to the prey population as a whole,
the predator could be very beneficial. In an ideal situation, the prey and predator populations show what
are called ‘coupled oscillations’ over a period of time.
• What makes a good predator more effective?
 Speed
 heightened senses like hearing, vision
 Claws or teeth for grabbing and shredding
 Camouflage (to sneak up on prey)
 Revenge of the prey - how do they survive?
 Prey animals may develop speed, heightened awareness, colonial living, camouflage or mimicry
 Plants can’t run and hide, so how do they protect themselves?
• Plants can have physical defenses like thorns, needles, tough leaves. They can also have chemical
defenses that are poisonous, irritating or bad-tasting.
(c) Symbiosis
• Symbiotic relationships are those in which two different species of organisms live together in close
association. All symbiotic relationships provide the potential for coevolution between organisms.
• Here co-evolution is the key basis for symbiosis.
• Major types of Symbiosis:
1. Commensalism: One species benefits and the other species neitherbenefits nor is harmed.
2. Mutualism: Both participating species benefit.
3. Parasitism: One species benefits but the other (the host) is harmed.
Commensalism
• Many examples of the one sided relationship of commensalisms exist in nature. Often the individuals
deriving benefit are physically attached to the other species in the Relationship plants called epiphytes
grow on the branches of other plants. The epiphytes derive their nourishment from the air and rain not
from the plants to which they attach for support. Epiphytic orchid plant growing on the branches of a
mango tree is a common example of commensalisms.
• Yet another example is the relationship between certain small tropical fish, the clown fish and the sea
anemone, marine animals that have stinging tentacles. The fish have developed an adaptation that allows
them to live among the deadly tentacles of the anemones. These tentacles quickly paralyze other species
of fish, protecting the clown fish against predators scavengers who feed on dead things (Is it a true ex
of commensalisms?)
Mutualism
• Mutualism occurs when both species benefit from the close relationship between two organisms.
• Most familiar example of mutualism is pollination in which the plant benefits by getting cross pollination
accomplished by the bee and the bee benefits from the nectar that the plant offers in return.
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• A striking example of mutualism is found in the association between the stinging ants and the Latin
American plant genus Acacia. The modified leaves of Acacia plant appear as paired hollowed thorns.
These thorns provide a home for the ants, protecting themand their larvae. In addition the ants eat the
nectar which the plants produce. In turn, the ants attack any herbivore that lands on the branches or
leaves of the acacia and clear away vegetation that comes in contact with their host shrub, increasing
the plant’s ability to survive.
Proto Co-operation: Both are mutually benefited & can live independently.
Ex:
Birds and Cattle  Birds feed on ticks and Lice present on the body surface of the Cattle.
Cattle get rid of Ectoparasites and Birds get food.
Birds and crocodiles Plover birds enter into the mouth of Crocodile and feeds on the parasitic leeches
and intum crocodile get rid of blood sucking parasites.
Is Mutualism = Proto Co-operation??
Though Both species mutually benefitted, In Mutualism, They cannot live separately; but in Pro cooperation,
they can live independently.
Parasitism
• Parasitism is sometimes considered a form of predation. However, unlike a true predator, the successful
parasite does not kill its host but evolves a mutual tolerance, although parasites may regulate some host
populations, lower their reproductive success and modify their behavior.
• Parasites include viruses, many bacteria, fungi and an array of invertebrates. A different species of
organism, larger than the parasite itself, is home for a parasite.
• During the intimate relationship between the parasite and the host, the parasite derives nourishment and
the host is harmed.
• A well-known parasitic example is the intestinal hookworm of man. A person is infected when walking
barefoot in soil containing hookworm larvae. These larvae are able to penetrate the skin entering the
blood stream. The blood carries the larvae to the lungs. From there they are able to migrate up the
windpipe into the oesophagus. The larvae are then swallowed and reach the intestines. After growing
into adult worms, they attach to the inner lining of the intestines. They remain attached here, feeding on
the blood of the host.
• An example of plant parasitism is that of the dodder plant. It has lost its chlorophyll and leaves in the
course of its evolution and is unable to manufacture food. Instead, it obtains food from the host plants
on which it grows.
• Kinds of interaction possible by designating ‘±’ for beneficial, ‘’ for harmful and ‘O’ for neutral.
Species A Species B Name of Interaction

+ + –Mutualism
O O –Neutralism
+ O –Commensalism
+ – –Predation, Prasitism
– – –Competition
O – –Amensalims

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(2) Ecosystem Stability:

• Ecosystems are capable of maintaining their state of equilibrium. They can regulate their own species
structure and functional processes. This capacity of ecosystem of self regulation is known as Homeostasis.
• In ecology the term applies to the tendency for biological systems to resist changes. For example, in a
pond ecosystem if the population of zooplankton increased, they would consume large number of the
phytoplankton and as a result soon zooplankton would be short supply of food for them. As the number
zooplankton is reduced because of starvation, phytoplankton population starts increasing. After some time
the population size of zooplankton also increases and this process continues at all the trophic levels of
the food chain.
• Note that in a homeostatic system, negative feedback mechanism is responsible for maintaining stability
in an ecosystem. However, homeostatic capacity of ecosystems is not unlimited as well as not everything
in an ecosystem is always well regulated. Humans are the greatest source of disturbance to ecosystems.
Habitat & Adaptations
• Every living organism lives in a specific environment. A place or a set of environmental conditions in
which a particular organism lives is called its habitat. The habitats of different plants and animals are
different, but at the same time many plants and animals share the same habitat.
• Organisms that live in a specific habitat have some important characteristics that help them to adjust and
to live successfully. This adjustment is called adaptation. The organisms adapt so that they can:
(i) successfully compete for food,
(ii) defend themselves from attack by other organisms (enemies),
(iii) find a mate to reproduce/find favourable conditions to reproduce, and
(iv) respond efficiently to the change in environment
Aquatic adaptations in Plants
• Plants that live in water hydrophytes. They have characteristics:
• Poorly developed root system: As they can easily absorb water and minerals from the plentifully
available water.
• Thin and narrow leaves (Hydrilla) or long, flat and ribbon-shaped leaves, as this helps to withstand water
currents.
• In a lotus plant, the leaves float on water with their broad upper surface coated with wax. This wax acts
as water repellant.
Aquatic adaptations in Animals
Vertebrates that live in water have the following characteristics:
• The body is streamlined
• (pointed at both ends)
• that helps in reducing
• friction and allows swift
• movement in water.
• Gills help the animal to breathe in water.

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• Fins help to swim, steer and maintain balance.
A whale (a mammal) has flippers to swim.
• Poorly developed root system: As they can easily absorb water and minerals from the plentifully available
water.
• Pupil of the eyes is large as compared to other vertebrates. It allows more light to enter for clear vision
in water.
• Some fish have swim bladders that act as floats and allow the organisms to float in water.
• The body surface gives out some secretions, which lubricate the scales and help the animal slip away
and escape from enemies.
• There are numerous other kinds of aquatic animals with varying adaptations, such as Hydra, water flea
and some worms.
Terrestrial adaptations in Plants
Some plants live on land and require moderate (neither low nor high) supply of water and temperature.
These plants are called mesophytes (meso: moderate). Examples: neem, papaya, banayan, mango,
wheat, tomato, etc.
Some plants live on land under extreme water scarcity and high temperature conditions. These are called
xerophytes (xeros: scarce water). Examples: cactus (Opuntia), Babool (Acacia)
Fig Xerophytic plants
Adaptations in land plants

Part Mesophytes Xerophytes
Roots Well Developed Extensively developed
to draw much to draw water from
water greater depths.
Stem Well-developed, Flattened, fleshy and

solid and green to store water
branched and function as leaves
Well-developed, Reduced (modified)

Leaves numerous, of into spines, stoma if
various shapes present reduced in
and number to prevent loss
of water.
Terrestrial adaptations in Animals

Most animals you see around are those living in a moderate type of a habitat. These are different types
of animals. Examples of some terrestrial mammals and reptiles are given below :
Mammals: tiger, lion, deer, bear, squirrels and many others
Reptiles: lizards and snakes Terrestrial animals may be of different types according to their mode of
locomotion. Such animals have well-adapted toes.
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These are:
• Runners: deer and antelopes
• Climbers: monkeys and squirrels
• Burrowers: rats, moles and snakes
• Fliers: bats and birds
All vertebrate terrestrial animals breathe through lungs.
Xerophytic adaptations in organisms: Animals found in the xeric (dry) conditions show certain special
types of adaptations.
Extreme heat and scarcity of water: These animals have very scaly skin, resistant to drying and show
many adaptations to conserve water.
Examples: camel, snakes, spiders and scorpions.
Extreme cold and scarcity of water: These animals have oily hairs that provide thick winter coat.
Examples: polar bear, reindeer.
Aerial adaptations in organisms
Besides insects, organisms, such as birds, mainly use air as a medium to fly. Birds show the following
adaptive features that help them to fly: streamlined body to steer through the air, wings that help to
fly are modified forelimbs, strong flight muscles, body covered with feathers, which trap air to keep
the body warm and help the bird to fly, and light weight because of hollow bones along with reduction
in the number of bones.
Fragile Ecosystems
Mangroves
• Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines.
• Mangroves are plants that survive high salinity, tidal regimes, strong wind velocity, high temperature and
muddy anaerobic soil-a combination of conditions hostile for other plants. The mangrove ecosystems
constitute a symbiotic link or bridge between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. They are found in the
inter-tidal zones of sheltered shores, estuaries, creeks, backwaters, lagoons, marshes and mud-flats.
• They require high solar radiation and have the ability to absorb fresh water from saline/brackish water.
It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions.
Pneumatophores help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment, stabilize the
coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes.
• Leaves are thick and have salt secreting glands.
• Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients, prevents coastal soil erosion, protects coastal lands
from tsunami, tidal storms and floods etc.
• The mangrove cover in the country is 4740 km2. India is home to some of the best mangroves in the
world. West Bengal has the maximum mangrove cover in the country.
Top five states with maximum Mangrove cover are as follows:
1. West Bengal (2106)
2. Gujarat (1107)
3. Andaman & Nicobar Island (617)
4. Andhra Pradesh (367)
5. Odisha (231)
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List of Mangroves in India
State/Union territories Mangrove areas

West Bengal 1. Sunderbans
Orissa 2. Bhaitarkanika
3. Mahanadi
4. Subernarekha
5. Devi-Kauda
6. Dhamra
7. Mangrove Genetic Resources Centre
8. Chilka
Andhra Pradesh 9. Coringa
10. East Godavari
11. Krishna
Tamil Nadu 12. Pichavaram
13. Muthupet
14. Ramnad
15. Pulicat
16. Kaznuveli
Andaman & Nicobar 17. North Andamans
18. Nicobar
Kerala 19. Vembanad
20. Kannur (Northern Kerala)
Karnataka 21. Coondapur
22. Dakshin Kannada/Hannavar
23. Karwar
24. Manglore Forest Division
Goa 25. Goa
Maharashtra 26. Achra-Ratnagiri
27. Devgarh-Vijay Durg
28. Veldur
29. Kandalika-Revdanda
30. Mumbra-Diva
31. Vikroli
32. Shreevardhan
33. Vaitama
34. Vasai-Monori
35. Malvan
Gujarat 36. Gulf of Kutchh
37. Gulf of Khambhat
38. Dumas-Ubharat
They are destroyed for conversion of area for agricultural purpose, fuel, fodder and, salinization, mining,
oil spills, aqua cultural, use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, industrial purposes.
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Coral Reef
• Coral reefs are the skeletons of stony coral polyps cemented together. They occur in shallow tropical
areas where the sea water is clean, clear and warm. Reef building corals are a symbiotic association
of polyps (coral animals) and zooxanthellae (microscopic algae).
• There are two types of corals: hard corals and soft corals. Only hard corals build reefs. In coral reef
ecosystem, many invertebrates, vertebrates, and plants live in close association to the corals, with tight
resource coupling and recycling, allowing coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and biodiversity,
such that they are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans’. Coral reef forms the most
dynamic ecosystem, providing shelter and nourishment to marine flora and fauna. They act as natural
protective barriers against erosion and storm surge.
The four major coral reefs areas identified for intensive conservation & management in India are:
(i) Gulf of Mannar;
(ii) Gulf of Kachchh;
(iii) Lakshadweep; and
(iv) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Coral reef ecosystems world-wide have been subject to unprecedented degradation over the past few
decades. Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and natural events. Recent accelerated
coral reef decline seems to be related mostly to anthropogenic impacts (overexploitation, overfishing,
increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading. Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral
reefs include violent storms, flooding, high and low temperature extremes, EI Nino southern Oscillation
(ENSO) events, subaerial exposures.
Coral Bleaching:
Bleaching, or the paling of coral colour occurs when
(i) The densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or
(ii) The concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.
Ecological causes of coral bleaching:
(i) Temperature: Bleaching is much more frequently reported from elevated sea water temperature.
(ii) Solar Irradiance: Bleaching during the summer months, during seasonal temperature and irradiance
maxima often occurs disproportionately in shallow-living corals and on the exposed summits of colonies.
(iii) Sub aerial exposure: Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during events such as
extreme low tides or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
(iv) Sedimentation: Relatively few instances of coral bleaching have been linked solely to sedimentation.
(v) Fresh Water Dilution: Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm generated precipitation and runoff has
been demonstrated to cause coral reef bleaching.
(vi) Inorganic Nutrients: Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, an increase in ambient elemental nutrient
concentrations (e.g. ammonia and nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae densities 2-3 times.
(vii) Xenobiotics: Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure of coral to elevated concentrations of various
chemical contaminants, such as Cu, herbicides and oil.
(viii) Epizootics: Pathogens can also induce bleaching, which is different from other forms of bleaching as the
diseases cause patchy or whole colony death resulting in a white skeleton.

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WETLANDS
• Wetlands are areas intermediate in character between deepwater and terrestrial habitats, also transitional
in nature, and often located between them.
• A wetland is a place where the land is covered by water, either salt, fresh or somewhere in between.
Marshes and ponds, the edge of a lake or ocean, the delta at the mouth of a river, low-lying areas that
frequently flood and therefore support plants and animals specifically adapted to such shallow flooding
or water logging.
• Wetlands help in nutrients recycling, water purification, floods mitigation, ground water recharging, buffer
shores against erosion etc.
• Major pressure on wetlands includes fragmentation of hydrological regimes, urbanization, siltation from
degraded catchments, pollution, spread of invasive species and over-harvesting of resources.
• The destruction of wetlands is a concern because they are some of the most productive habitats on the
planet. They often support high concentrations of animals—including mammals, birds, fish and
invertebrates—and serve as nurseries for many of these species. Wetlands also support the cultivation
of rice, a staple in the diet of half the world’s population.
• To control degradation and conserve wetlands, the National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP)
was initiated in 1987 and financial assistance is being provided to the State governments for implementing
action plans for conservation and management of identified wetlands.
• As a commitment for conserving potential wetlands, India became signatory to the Ramsar Convention
in 1982. As per this convention, India is committed for International Cooperation and to take national
action for conservation and wise use of wetlands. At present there are 26 Ramsar sites in India.
The Wetlands (conservation and management) rules 2010
• The ministry has initiated the process of revising the existing wetland rules for more effective conservation
& management of wetlands in the country and to enable a greater role and ownership by state governments
in management of wetlands.
• Each year, world wetland day is celebrated on 2nd February for increasing awareness and spreading need
for conservation and wise-use of wetlands all over the world.
• In 2016, the world wetland day with the theme ‘wetlands for our future: sustainable livelihoods’ was
celebrated at Sunderban wetlands in collaboration with the government of West Bengal.
ARCTIC ECOSYSTEM
• The Arctic ecosystem has a unique, complex food web that is fashioned by its distinctive plankton, animal
species, and environmental factors.
• Great polar bears roam the Arctic ice and swim the Arctic seas. Supporting these top predators is a
complex ecosystem that includes plankton, fish, birds, seals, walruses, and even whales. At the center
of this food web, supporting all of this life, are phytoplankton and algae that produce organic material
using energy from the sun.
• The Arctic is of special interest as indications suggest that the effects of climate change will appear here
first. Due to the fragility of the Arctic ecosystem, climate change may lead to profound negative
consequences for the biological diversity. Many scientists warn that climate warming in the Arctic will
have effects which extend far beyond the region, as changes in ice cover and deep water circulation may
affect global climate patterns.
• As the sea-ice recedes, oil companies are seeing an opportunity to move into the Arctic and try to exploit
the oil reserves- both onshore and offshore. In addition, the particularities of the Arctic make oil drilling
more dangerous than usual. For instance, collisions of icebergs with oil platforms are a very real
possibility. The oil industry’s way of dealing with icebergs seems careless in comparison with the threat.
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• Changes in the food web not only threaten life in the Arctic region, they also could have impacts on
Earth’s climate. Populations of Arctic plankton for example, not only provide food at the base of the food
web, they also convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into organic matter that eventually sinks to
the ocean bottom-effectively extracting a heat-trapping greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.
ANTARCTIC ECOSYSTEM
The Antarctic ecosystem is among the worlds most fragile. Both on land and at sea, the ecosystem in
the frozen south is highly simplified and intensely susceptible to perturbation. The primitive nature of life
on the continent, coupled with the simple character of the food chain in circumpolar waters, make the
Antarctic ecosystem especially vulnerable to intensive ecological disruptions.
The main threats facing Antarctica:
1. Climate change / Global warming, resulting in a warming of the sea and loss of sea ice and land-based
ice, this is greatest long-term threat to the region. Already some ice shelves have collapsed and ice slopes
and glaciers have retreated. Oceanic acidification (from extra dissolved carbon dioxide) is already leading
to the loss of some marine snails thought to have a significant part to play in the oceanic carbon cycle.
The breeding populations and ranges of some penguin species have been altered.
2. Fishing, both legal and illegal. Much of the world’s oceans are over-fished, the chances are that if
investments into the kinds of boats and fishing gear needed for Antarctica are made, then it too will suffer
this same fate. Fishing for krill most abundant fish in Antarctica) could be particularly significant as these
are at the bottom of many Antarctic food chains. There are already illegal fishing boats that ignore
current regulations.
3. Invasive species. Organisms that are not native to Antarctica are being taken there on ships, attached
as seeds to boots and clothing. Some of these that are able to now survive there as a consequence of
global warming. Rats in particular are a threat to Antarctica’s ground nesting birds which are particularly
vulnerable as there are no native ground based predators for them to be experienced in defending
themselves against.
4. Tourism, with the accompanying pollutants that accompany ships and aircraft, the possibility of oil spills
and the effects of lots of people and infrastructure on wildlife and the wider environment.
5. Pollution, CFC’s and other ozone depletors are responsible for the ozone hole that has appeared over
Antarctica for over 30 years, chemicals produced thousands of miles away are found in Antarctic ice
and in the bodies of wildlife. Discarded equipment, chemicals and oil can degrade the landscape. Fishing
nets, plastic, lines, hooks etc. carried by the sea can result in great suffering or loss of life by birds, fish
and marine mammals.
7. Exploration and exploitation of mineral reserves, oil and gas. Not currently economically viable, but as
the need becomes greater and as technology advances, this will become an increasing threat. The
Antarctic Treaty bans all mining and mineral exploitation indefinitely, though this comes up for review in
2048 (in other words, it isn't really banned indefinitely at all).
8. Direct impacts associated with the development of infrastructure for scientific bases and programmes.
The construction of buildings and related facilities such as roads, fuel storage, runways etc.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people
obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called
supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories. The following
lists represent the definition and samples of each according to the MA:

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Supporting services
Ecosystem services “which are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services”. These
include services such as nutrient recycling, primary production and soil formation. These services make
it possible for the ecosystems to provide services such as food supply, flood regulation and water
purification.
Provisioning services
“Products obtained from ecosystems”
• food (including seafood and game), crops, wild foods, and spices.
• raw materials (including lumber, skins, fuel wood, organic matter, fodder, and fertilizer).
• genetic resources (including crop improvement genes, and health care).
• water
• minerals (including diatomite)
• medicinal resources(including pharmaceuticals, chemical models, and test and assay organisms)
• energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)
• ornamental resources (including fashion, handicraft, jewelry, pets, worship, decoration and souvenirs like
furs, feathers, ivory, orchids, butterflies, aquarium fish, shells, etc.)
Regulating services
“Benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes”
• carbon sequestration and climate regulation
• waste decomposition and detoxification
• purification of water and air
• pest and disease control
Cultural services
“Nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development,
reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences”
• Cultural (including use of nature as motif in books, film, painting, folklore, national symbols, architect,
advertising, etc.)
• spiritual and historical (including use of nature for religious or heritage value or natural)
• recreational experiences (including ecotourism, outdoor sports, and recreation)
• science and education (including use of natural systems for school excursions, and scientific discovery)


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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the following is the best description 5. Which one of the following is the correct
of the term “ecosystem”? sequence of ecosystems in the order of
(a) A community of organisms interacting with decreasing productivity?
one another (a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves
(b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by (b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes
living organisms (c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(c) A community of organisms together with the (d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands
environment in which they live. 6. With reference to the food chains in Ecosystems
(d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area. which of the following kinds of organism is/are
known as decomposer organism/ organisms?
2. Which one of the following is the process
involved in photosynthesis ? 1. Virus
(a) Potential energy is released to form free 2. Fungi
energy 3. Bacteria
(b) Free energy is converted into potential Select the correct answer using the codes given
energy and stored below.
(c) Food is oxidized to release carbon dioxide (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
and water (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide and 7. Which one of the following sets of elements
water vapour are given out was primarily responsible for the origin of life
on the Earth?
3. Which of the statements given above is/are
correct? (a) Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium
(b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen
1. With reference to food chains in ecosystems,
consider the following statements. (c) Oxygen, Calcium, Phosphorus
2. A food chain illustrates the order in which a (d) Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium
chain of organisms feed upon each other. 8. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes
the following major categories of ecosystem
3. Food chains are found within the population
services-provisioning, supporting, regulating,
of a species.
preserving and cultural. Which one of the
4. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each following is supporting service?
organism which are eaten by others.
(a) Production of food and water
(b) Control of climate and disease
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
(c) Nutrient cycling and crop pollination
4. In the grasslands, trees do not replace the grasses (d) Maintenance of diversity
as a part of an ecological succession because of
9. Among living organisms, which one of the
_____?
following is the most responsible factor for
(a) Insects and fungi bringing about the origin of a new species?
(b) Limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients (a) Isolation (b) Mutation
(c) Water limits and fire (c) Natural Selection (d) Sexual Reproduction
(d) None
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10. Which of the following pairs is incorrect ? 17. In the bioaccumulation of DDT in the aquatic
(a) Kiwi — Bird (b) Alligator — Crocodile food chain_of Plankton  Clams  Fish 
Fish-eating birds, which group of organisms
(c) Bat — Mammal (d) Fish — Pisces
exhibits highest concentration of DDT (in their
11. Lichens is an association of two types of bodies)?
organisms. They are
(a) Plankton (b) Clams
(a) Algae and fungi (b) Algae and virus (c) Fish (d) Fish-eating birds
(c) Fungi and virus (d) Virus and bacteria 18. A transition zone or region separating two biomes
12. When a person moves from poles to the equator, is known as
the population of plants and animals will (a) ecocline (b) ecological niche
(a) Increase (c) ecotone (d) ecotype
(b) Decrease 19. “Ecological niche” refers to the
(c) Remain unchanged (a) amount of autotrophs available for
consumption of the grazing population.
(d) Not show any consistent behavior
(b) relationship of an animal with the surrounding
13. Which one among the following is the correct
animals.
order of living organisms from producer to
(c) position of an animal with reference to its
tertiary consumers?
species composition.
(a) Grass—Grasshopper-Hawk—Lizard
(d) positional and functional relationship of an
(b) Grass-Hawk-Grasshopper—Lizard organism in an ecosystem.
(c) Grass—Lizard—Grasshopper—Hawk 20. Which of the following National Parks is unique
(d) Grass—Grasshopper—Lizard—Hawk in being a swamp with floating vegetation that
14. A camel adapts easily in a desert due to supports a rich biodiversity?
(a) Bhitarkanika National Park
(a) hump with stored food as fats.
(b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
(b) water cells in stomach to store metabolic water.
(c) Keoladeo Ghana National park
(c) nucleated Red Blood Cells.
(d) Sultanpur National park
(d) hair growth near eyes and nostrils.
21. The 2004 Tsunami made people realize that
15. Statement I: Autotroph plants contain the mangroves can serve as a reliable safety hedge
pigment chlorophyll for meeting their requirement against coastal calamities. How do mangroves
of carbon and energy. function as a safety hedge ?
Statement II: Photosynthesis is the process of (a) The mangrove swamps separate the human
coverting water into food using sunlight and settlements from the sea by a wide zone in
oxygen. which people neither live nor venture out
(a) I is true, II is false (b) The mangroves provide both food and
(b) I is false II is true medicines which people are in need of after
any natural disaster.
(c) I & II are true
(c) The mangrove trees are tall with dense
(d) I & II are false canopies and serve as an excellent shelter
16. Which of the following is not a micronutrient for during a cyclone or Tsunami.
a plant? (d) The mangrove trees do not get uprooted by
(a) Iron (b) Magnesium storms and tides because of their extensive
(c) Molybdenum (d) Manganese roots.

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22. Higher plants take up Nitrogen as (a) (A) & (R) are true and (R) is the correct
(a) Nitrites only explanation of (A)
(b) Nitrates only (b) (A) & (R) are true and (R) is not the correct
explanation of (A)
(c) Nitrates and ammonia
(c) (A) is true and (R) is false
(d) Urea
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true
23. Which one of the following organisms has a role
in converting ammonia into nitrates? 26. The pyramid of numbers is inverted in the case
of
(a) Rhizobium (b) Nitrobacter
(a) parasitic food chain
(c) Nitrosomanas (d) Pseudomonas
(b) Grassland ecosystem
24. Which one among the following groups is the
most abundant in terms of number of species (c) Forest ecosystem
identified? (d) lake ecosystem
(a) Fungi (b) Green plants 27. The pyramid of ener gy in terrestrial
(c) Bacteria (d) Insects ecosystem is
25. Assertion (A): Carbon dioxide in air is (a) upright
necessary for sustaining life. (b) inverted
Reason (R): Carbon dioxide is assimilated in (c) spindle shaped
carbohydrates in photosynthesis (d) irregular


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ANSWERS SHEET
1. Ans. (c) 9. Ans. (b) 17. Ans. (d) 25. Ans. (b)
2. Ans. (b) 10. Ans. (b) 18. Ans. (c) 26. Ans. (a)
3. Ans. (a) 11. Ans. (a) 19. Ans. (d) 27. Ans. (a)
4. Ans. (c) 12. Ans. (a) 20. Ans. (b)
5. Ans. (d) 13. Ans. (d) 21. Ans. (d)
6. Ans. (b) 14. Ans. (a) 22. Ans. (b)
7. Ans. (b) 15. Ans. (a) 23. Ans. (c)
8. Ans. (c) 16. Ans. (b) 24. Ans. (d)

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Energy & Environment Biodiversity 79
BIODIVERSITY
THEORY
INTRODUCTION
 Biological diversity or biodiversity in short, is the sum of all the different species of microorganisms, fungi,
plants and animals living on Earth and the variety of habitats in which they live. Since the natural
ecosystems vary horizontally i.e., from equator towards the poles and vertically i.e., from sea levels
upward and from sea level downward and hence different biomes have developed having distinct physical
and biological characteristics. Thus the number of varieties of species plants and animals is very significant
indicator of the health and wealth of a nation. This biological variety forms the basis of biological diversity
or simply biodiversity.
 The role of man in accelerating the loss of biodiversity is now well established, and it has prompted the
world community to take serious steps towards conserving the rich living resource on Earth consequently,
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has been adapted by 169 countries. The study of biodiversity
includes the following aspects :
 Meaning and concepts of biodiversity,
 Types of biodiversity,
 Benefits of biodiversity,
 Causes of the loss of biodiversity, and
 Conversion of biodiversity
BIODIVERSITY : MEANING AND DEFINITIONS
 Biodiversity or biological diversity is derived from the words bio and diversity. It is the diversity of and
in living nature.
 Diversity, at its heart, implies the number of different kinds of objects, such as species. However, defining
biodiversity or measures of biodiversity, is not so simple.
 The term biological diversity, was coined by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980, while the word biodiversity itself,
was coined by the entomologist E.O. Wilson in 1986.
 There are many different definitions of biodiversity among which the one used under the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) is one of the most frequently cited :
 "Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems."
ELEMENTS AND TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
There are three levels of diversity viz. genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. In effect, these levels
cannot be separated. Each is important, interacting with and influencing the others. A change at one level can
cause changes at the other levels.
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80 Biodiversity General Studies
1. Genetic Diversity
 Genetic diversity is the "fundamental currency of diversity" that is responsible for variation. This is
the diversity of basic units of hereditary information which are passed down to generations found
within a species (e.g. different varieties of the same species). Genetic diversity underlies the
variability (differences) among individuals of a given species.
 For example no two individuals even in the same family are identical, unless of course they are
identical twins with the same genome (i.e. complete genetic makeup).
 The differences in the genetic makeup of organisms also form the basis for variation within a
population, or between populations, of that species. Thus, genetic diversity within a species will
increase with the number of individuals of a given species.
 It is genetic diversity that allows a species to adapt to changing environmental conditions such as
a lower rainfall, a higher temperature year round, etc. Genetic diversity is, thus, important for the
preservation of species diversity, and hence biological diversity.
 Knowledge of the variability of genes also allows us to understand how closely individuals or species
are related to each other. Genetic diversity between species becomes greater with increasing
distance in the relationship of species. Isolated population such as those on ocean: islands or in small
patches of habitats cut off from the surrounding environment tend to have less genetic variation,
hence more susceptible to extinction.
2. Species Diversity
 Species diversity means the differences between species (both domesticated and wild). It is the
most visible component of biodiversity. It denotes the variety of species in different habitats on
Earth, and it represents the range of evolutionary and ecological adaptations of species to particular
environments.
 The distinct ecological importance of species supports functional diversity and has a direct bearing
on the species composition of the site, and therefore on overall biodiversity. For example a keystone
species will be more important than other species for conserving overall biodiversity.
3. Ecosystem Diversity
 Ecosystem diversity means the variation between different types of ecosystems. Different species
of animals, plants and micro-organisms interact with each other and their physical environment
(such as water or minerals).
 These systems help maintain life processes vital for organisms to survive on earth. Different
combinations of species and physical conditions (such a sunlight, climate, soil and water) and their
varied interactions give rise to variation among ecosystems.
 For example, the physical conditions in a coral reef are very different to those in a tropical forest.
Accordingly, the species in a coral reef differ from the species in a tropical forest.
 It is believed that there is a positive relationship between species diversity and an ecosystem's
stability and resilience (i.e. ability to resist disturbances).
An ecosystem having higher diversity means the number of species and interactions between them which
constitute the food web, is large. In such a situation, the elimination of one species would have little effect on
ecosystem balance. In sharp contrast, the number of species in the food web of a simple ecosystem is small.
So loss of any one species has far more serious repercussions for the integrity of the ecosystem.

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Measuring Species Diversity

There are many ways by which species diversity is measured i.e. species richness, taxonomic diversity, and
species-diversity indices.
(1) Species richness
 This is the most widely used measure of species diversity. In simple terms it is a count of the total
number of species in a given area. It gives equal weightage to all species and does not take into
account the number of individuals that represent a particular species.
 To describe the complex spatial patterns of biodiversity, ecologists and biogeographers have found
it useful to express species richness into four major categories :
 Point richness - refers to the number of species that can be found at a single point in space.
 Alpha () richness - refers to the number of species found in small, homogenous area. Alpha
diversity refers to the diversity in a particular area or ecosystem and is usually expressed by the
number of species (i.e. species richness) in that ecosystem.
 Beta () richness - refers to the rate of change in species composition across habitats and 
diversity refers to diversity between the ecosystems.
 Gamma () richness - refers to the rate of change across larger landscape gradients and gamma
diversity is a measure of the overall diversity for different ecosystems in a region.
 However, species richness based on numbers alone is inadequate. Other parameters such as
species evenness (relative abundance of species) are also evaluated.
(2) Taxonomic diversity
 Taxonomic diversity is relative abundance of a species as well as the ancestor descendant relationships
of species to each other. For example, an area with two species of mammals and one species of
reptile has greater taxonomic diversity than an area of similar size with only three species of
mammals although both have three species each. Similarly, an area with a large number of closely
related species is not as diverse as distantly related.
Methods of Measuring Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity needs to be measured through some complicated processes as given below :
 Protein electrophoresis - Protein electrophoresis shows the variations in the proteins produced, thereby
indicating the diversity of genes that coded for them.
 DNA fingerprinting - This method makes use of a common, but peculiar, group of DNA sequences known
as 'mini satellites'. High levels of variation in the numbers of these repeated units are used in "DNA
fingerprinting" to identify relationships that range from distantly related taxonomic groups to closely related
individuals within a population.
Biomes-Distribution of Biodiversity
Spread of biodiversity is not uniform or specific. Global distribution of biodiversity varies with the type of biome
namely Terrestrial and Aquatic biomes.
The Terrestrial Biomes
 Primary factors that influence the formation of these biomes are Climatic, like precipitation, temperature,
seasonal extremes and winds; Vegetation; Oceans; River water; Mountain ranges; interaction between
species etc.
 However, topography and light are also important factors. Of all these, precipitation is the chief limiting
factor that determines whether a biome would be a forest or a desert or grassland.

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 If the average annual precipitation in the region is less than 25 cm the place would be a desert containing
little vegetation. This would be true regardless of average temperature, light and quality of soil.
 If a region has moderate average precipitation, and 25-75cm a year, grasslands would be formed. A region
would be a forest if the average annual precipitation is more than 75 cm. The combination of average
temperature and average precipitation, however, decides the type of desert, forest or grassland present
in a region.
 Let us study briefly the main characteristic of each major world biome. Starting with the tundra, which
is the least complex of all biomes.
Tundra
 The northern most biome on our planet is the arctic tundra. It is a treeless wet circumpolar band between
the polar ice caps and the forests to the south. The predominant plants are lichens, grasses, sedges and
dwarf woody plants. Despite the lack of trees, animals are found on land, in air and nearby oceans.
 Similar communities are found at high mountains of all latitudes forming the alpine tundra. The climate
is very cold with a short growing season. The soil is frozen for most part of the year and only to top 0.5
meter melts during the short summers in the arctic tundra. The permanently frozen soil below is known
as permafrost.
 Some of the common permanent residents are musk ox, polar bear, grizzly bear, wolves, snowy owl, arctic
hare, weasels, minks, etc. Tundra is a very fragile ecosystem as the rate of organic matter decomposition
is very slow. On account of harsh climate plants grow very slowly and the tundra takes a long time to
recover from any disruptions.
Coniferous Forests and Taiga
 The taiga is a land of lakes, bogs and marshes. The climate is cold with long winters and short summers.
The dominant trees are confiers like spruce, pines and firs with needle like leaves that can survive
extremely cold winters.
 It stretches across North America to Eurasia; this region is called taiga, a word derived from Russian
word meaning primeval forest. Typical animals found in this region include moose, wolves, lynx, bears,
gray jays. Many of these rely on their stored body fat for survival during the cold months.
Temperate Deciduous Forests
 These regions experience moderate temperatures on average that change during four distinct seasons.
They have long summers, not too severe winters and abundant precipitation spread over the whole year.
 These regions are dominated by broad leafed deciduous trees such as oak, hickory, maple, poplar, beech,
sycamore, etc., that can survive the winter by dropping their leaves and going into a dormant state.
Temperature regions are the most productive areas of the world with the best agricultural lands.
Temperate Shrub lands
 These are areas where woody shrubs predominate rather than trees. In regions with a Mediterranean type
of climate i.e., hot dry summers and cool wet winters, shrubs grow close together having typically leathery
leaves. Fires are of common occurrence and plants and animals have developed adaptations to these
special habitat features.
Grasslands
 In the northern hemisphere grasslands are found over large area in huge plains. Such grasslands are
known as prairie in North America, steppes in Asia and pampas in South America. In Asustralia grasslands
cover an area almost equal to the area of the desert in the country.

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 Grasslands often fade away into deserts. Annual rainfall in areas dominated by grasslands is between 25-
100 cm depending on temperature and seasonal distribution - (grasslands occur where rainfall is less to
support forest and more than desert).
 Another factor that prevents penetration of forests into grasslands is the frequent occurrence of natural
fires. Grasslands provide natural pastures for grazing animals. The soils under grasslands are rich fertile.
Deserts
 Deserts bring up the image of inhospitable places but actually they are quite varied. The world's largest
desert is the Sahara followed by the Great Australian desert.
 These have the driest environment with less than 30 cm rainfall (sometimes higher but, unevenly distributed).
 In deserts day temperatures are high, rainfall and humidity is low, but there are cool northern deserts too
where winter snows are common e.g. Tibet and Bolinia. However, all deserts exhibit dramatic day and
night temperature variation. The soil is sand or salty.
Three plants life forms are most adapted to the desert environment.
i) Annuals that avoid drought and grow when there is adequate moisture.
ii) Succulents - (e.g. cactus), that have adaptation for water storage and avoid water loss.
iii) Hardy desert shrubs - having short stem, number of branches and thick leaves.
 The animals of deserts are primarily arthropods, reptiles, birds and mammals. Large animals are uncommon.
Small rodents are the most common mammals, along with small foxes. Among the herbivores, insects are
dominant. A number of insectivorous lizards are very common. However, most animals restrict their
activity to early morning or after sunset.
 Desert soils are rich in nutrients but water is a serious limiting factor. If water is supplied or made
available to desert biomes, they can attain very good production because sunlight is abundant.
Tropical Savannas
 It is a combination of grassland with scattered or clumped trees. These special kinds of grasslands often
border tropical rain forests. The climate is warm having 100-150 cm annual rainfall, with prolonged dry
season in which fires are common. The rains are erratic.
 These grasslands have scattered trees that do not form canopy in any part of savanna. Trees are up to
20cm height, which thick, deciduous or evergreen leaves. Grasses may attained height of 1-1.5m and
support a great variety of grazing animals.
 The largest savanna is found in the African continent. They also occur in Australia and South America
and cover nearly 8 percent of the earth's land. The most prominent animals of this biome are large grazing
animals such as giraffes, antelopes, elephants, buffalo and predators such as lions and cheetahs.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
 These are also known as monsoon forests found in South East Asia, in Central and South America,
Northern Australia, Western Africa and the Pacific.
 Rainfall is high, sometimes higher than tropical rain forests but seasonal. There are pronounced wet and
dry periods, and so are winter and summer seasons. The soils are brown in colour and rich in nutrients.
 Vertical stratification in the vegetation is somewhat simple with a single under storey tree layer. The trees
lose leaves in one season but ground vegetation remains evergreen.
 'Teak' and 'sal' forests are good examples of this type of biome. Trees are of 20-30m height, sometimes
reaching a height over 40 m in this biome. Bamboo is also one of the climax shrubs in these areas.

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Tropical Rain Forests
 This tropical region abounds with life and thousands of species of plants and animals can be seen, though
no species predominates.
 Tropical rain forests cover about 7 percent of the earth's surface but house approximately 40 percent of
the plant and animal species. Tropical rain forests are found on both sides of the equator in South East
Asia, Africa, South and Central America, North East Australia.
 Both temperature and humidity are very high and constant. Rainfall exceeds 200cm a year and is
distributed over the year. Soil is nutrient poor because in spite of the high rate of decomposition the
nutrients do not remain in the soil.
 They are absorbed rapidly by plants or the rains wash them away thus making the soil virtually useless
for agriculture.
 There is a distinct stratification of vegetation in rain forests. The dominant plants in these forests are tall,
25-30 meters high with slender trunks that branch only near the tops forming a dense canopy of leathery
evergreen leaves. The canopy blocks out most of the light, therefore, the forest floor is fairly open.
THE AQUATIC BIOMES

 Most of the earth's surface is covered by the waters of the oceans (about 71%). Beneath the water
surface is a fascinating world of a wide variety of habitats and living communities comparable in diversity
to the terrestrial biomes but different enough from them to seem to belong to a different world altogether.
 The main factors affecting the type and numbers of organisms found in aquatic ecosystems are water
salinity and depth to which sunlight penetrates; amount of dissolved oxygen and temperature of water.
 Salinity levels are used to distinguish the waters on the earth into two categories, freshwater and marine.
1) Freshwater Biomes
 The salt content of resh water is about 0.005 percent. The freshwater biomes consist of inland
bodies of standing water like lakes, reservoirs, ponds and wetlands as well as the flowing waters
of the streams and rivers. Their nature does not depend as much on global climate, but on the
individual site where they occur.
 A lake or a body of standing water can be divided into three zones according to penetration of
sunlight in the water body i.e., littoral, limnetic and profundal. Each of these has their own physic-
chemical features and characteristic array of living organisms.
 The littoral zone is the area where light penetrates to the bottom. Aquatic life is the littoral zone
consists of free floating and rooted plants, many aquatic insects, snails, amphibians, fish, turtles and
water brids.
 The open water zone is called the limnetic zone. This represents the zone or depth of the water
upto which sunlight can penetrate. Phytoplankton along with algal forms, various zooplankton species
and fish abound in this zone.
 The deep water zone is called the limnetic zone. This represents the zone or depth of the water
upto which sunlight can penetrate. Phytoplankton along with algal forms, various zooplankton species
and fish abound in this zone.
 The deep water zone lying below the limnetic zone is called profundal zone. It is relatively cool and
dark, having low dissolved oxygen content and is inhabited by fish which can tolerate such stressful
conditions. The bottom of the lake is inhabited by bacteria, fungi, blood worms and other decomposers
which live on dead plants, organic matter including remains of animals and their metabolic wastes.
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Pond as an ecosystem
A pond is an example of a complete, closed and an independent ecosystem. It works on solar energy and
maintains its biotic community in equilibrium. Following components are found in a pond ecosystem.
(a) A biotic components
(i) Light : Solar radiation provides energy that controls the entire system. Penetration of light depends on
transparency of water, amount of dissolved or suspended particles in water and the number of plankton.
On the basis of extent of penetration of light a pond can be divided into euphotic (eu = true, photic = light),
mesophotic and aphotic zones. Plenty of light is available to plants and animals in euphotic zone. No light
is available in the aphotic zone.
(ii) Inorganic substances : These are water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and a few other elements
like sulphur depending on the location of the pond. The inorganic substances like O2 and CO2 are in
dissolved state in water. All plants and animals depend on water for their food and exchange of gases
- nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and other inorganic salts are held in reserve in bottom sediment and inside
the living organisms. A very small fraction may be in the dissolved state.
(iii) Organic compounds : The commonly found organic matter in the pond is amino acids and humic acids
and the breakdown products of dead animals and plants. They are partly dissolved in water and partly
suspended in water.
(b) Biotic components
(i) Producers or autotrophs : Synthesize food for all the heterotrophs of the pond. They can be categorized
into two groups :
(a) Floating microorganisms (green) and plants are called phytoplankton ("phyto" - plants, "plankton"
- floating). They are microscopic organisms. Sometimes they are so abundant in pond that they
make it look green in colour. E.g. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Diatoms, Volvox.
(b) Rooted plants : These are arranged in concentric zones from periphery to the deeper layers. Three
distinct zones of aquatic plants can be seen with increasing depth of water in the following order:
 Zone of emergent vegetation : e.g. Typha, Bulrushes and Sagittaria
 Zone of rooted vegetation with floating leaves. E.g. Nymphaea
 Zone of submergent vegetation : e.g. All pond weeds like Hydrilla, Rupia, musk grass etc.
(ii) Consumers/Heterotrophs are animals which feed directly or indirectly on autotrophs. E.g. Tadpole,
snails, sunfish, bass etc.
Pond animals can be classified into the following groups
(a) Zooplanktons are floating animals.
Cyclops, Cypris
(b) Nektons are the animals that can swim and navigate at will e.g. fishes
(c) Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers : beetle, mites, mollusks and some crustaceans.
(iii) Decomposers : They are distributed throughout the entire in the whole pond but in the sediment most
abundant. There are bacteria and fungi. (Rhizopus, Penicillium, Curvularia, Cladosporium) found at the
bottom of the pond.
2) Marine Biomes
 The marine biomes consist of the earth's oceans and its associated areas like the shorelines, islands, coral
reefs and estuaries. The marine waters contain about 3.5 percent salt, mostly sodium chloride and the
organisms inhabiting these waters are profoundly adapted to these salty conditions.

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 Oceans
The oceans play a major role in determining the climate and sustaining life on earth. Oceans help to
redistribute the solar energy, through ocean currents and evaporation; they are huge reservoirs of carbon
dioxide, oxygen and other minerals and help to regulate the ambient temperature and also help in maintaining
atmospheric composition and serve as sources of various natural resources.
 Most marine life is found in the shallower regions of the ocean and seas along the continental shelves,
coral reefs and oceanic islands. Life at greater depths is limited by darkness, cold temperatures and
pressure. Animal life at great depths comprises mainly of scavengers and predators that feed on the
detritus and dead organic matter. The food that supports the large and diverse communities of the ocean
is produced in the open water by phytoplankton in upper regions of the ocean where sunlight can reach.
The average depth of the lighted zone of the sea is 200 meters in clean areas.
 Ocean shorelines include rocky coasts and sandy beaches that are particularly rich in diverse life forms.
Rocky shorelines support a diversity of organisms that grow attached to some solid substratum. Sandy
shorelines provide home to organisms that can live in burrows in sandy substratum.
 Oceanic islands are interesting and somewhat specialized biomes. Islands which have broken away from
the main continents have similarity of flora and fauna related to the continental source, volcanic and coral
islands show results of chance colonization.
 Coral reefs form in clear warm tropical seas and are particularly well developed in the South Pacific.
They are formed by accumulation in calcareous skeletons of tiny colonial animals called corals over
generations. Co9ral reefs usually form along the shallow submerged shelves and they are limited to a
depth up to which sunlight can diffuse. Coral reef communities in terms of species diversity, number of
organisms, brilliance of colours and interesting life forms are comparable with tropical forest communities.
 Wetlands and estuaries are transitional biomes. Land that remains flooded either part of the year or
permanently with fresh or salt water is known as wetland. The internationally accepted definition of
wetlands is: Areas of fen, peatland or water whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, static
or flowing, fresh, brackish or marine water, the depth of which does not exceed six metres. Bogs,
swamps, marshes are covered by freshwater and found inland. These are known as island wetlands, those
found on the coast and covered by seawater are known as coastal wetlands.
 Wetlands provide a variety of fish and wildlife and are major breeding, nesting and migration staging areas
for water brids and shorebirds. Importance of wetlands cannot be underestimated as they act as traps
and filters for water that move through them reducing flooding. As a result, sediments are deposited and
chemical interactions in wetlands neutralize and detoxify substances in water and slow seeping of water
into the ground helps to replenish underground water reserves.
 Estuaries are enclosed or semi closed bodies of water formed where a river meets the sea forming an
area of mixed fresh and sea water. Estuaries usually contain rich sediment forming mud flats. Estuaries
are very productive areas with high species diversity. They are important nurseries for ocean fish including
all economically important fish and mollusks. The estuaries extend inland to form the coastal wetlands.
In temperature areas, coastal wetlands usually consists of mix of bays, lagoons and salt marshes, while
in tropical areas we find mangrove swamps dominated by mangrove trees, the mangrove forests consist
of evergreen, broad - leaf trees growing in brackish water in tropical areas.
BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS
 Biogeographic regions are large areas that contain characteristic assemblages of animals and plants,
delineated on account of natural barriers such as oceans, mountains and deserts. A biogeographic region
is generally characterized by high levels of species endemism (i.e. species which are restricted to a
specific region only). Wallace in 1876 proposed six biogeographic regions based on distribution of animals
: Nearctic, Neotropical, Palearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental and Australian.
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 Nearctic realm - includes North America and extends southwards covering half of Mexico. It includes
Greenland in the east. It is separated from all other regions by sea, except for the narrow strip of land
connection it has with the Neotropic region.
 Neotropical realm - It covers the whole of South America, most Mexico and the West Indies. It is
connected with the nearctic by the Central America.
 Palearctic realm - This relam includes the northern part of the old World. It covers the whole of the
Europe, the erstwhile USSR to the Pacific coast, Northern China and Japan. In the South, it includes the
Mediterranean Sea coastal strip of Africa and part of the North of Arabia.
 Ethiopian realm - The whole of the continent of Africa, South of the Atlas Mountains and Sahara, including
the southern coverner of Arabia, makes the Ethiopian region.
 Oriental realm - The oriental region covers India, Indochina, South China, the whole of south-east Asia,
the greater part of the Indonesian archipelago and the Philippines. It is bounded by the Himalayas and
the Tsinling Shan in the north and to the south and east by the Indian and Pacific oceans.
 Australian realm - This region includes Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea and the easternmost islands of
the Malay Archipelago, as demarcated by Weber's/Wallace's lines. This region is unique in not having land
connection with any other region.
Boundaries between biogeographic regions are called 'biogeographic lines'.
Examples are :
 Wallace's line between Southeast Asia and Australia - This line runs between the Philippines and the
Moluccas in the north, between Borneo and Celebes in the south west and between Bali and Lombok
in the South.
 Weber's line - It is based mainly on the distribution of molluscan and mammalian fauna of the area.
Weber's line runs between the Moluccas and Celebs and between Kei islands and Timor. The islands
failing between the oriental and Australian regions and is referred to as Wallacea.
 Kangar-Pattini line between India and Myanmar.
BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS

 Hot spots are areas that are extremely rich in species, have high endemism and are under constant threat.
 The British biologist Norman Myers coined the term "biodiversity hotspot" in 1988 as a biogeographic
region characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and by serious levels of habitat loss.
 According to Conservation International (CI), to qualify as a hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria:
it must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.55 of the world's total) as endemics, and
it has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat collectively, these areas held as endemics about 44$
of the world's plants and 33% of terrestrial vertebrates in an area that formerly covered only 11.8% of
the planet's land surface. These areas shrank to great extant and cover only 2.3% of the Earth's land
surface. Currently there are 35 biodiversity hotspots.
World's 35 Biodiversity Hotspots
I. Africa
1. Cape Floristic Region
2. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
3. Eastern Afromontane
4. Guinean Forests of West Africa

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5. Horn of Africa
6. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
7. Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
8. Succulent Karoo
II. Asia-Pacific
9. East Melanesian Islands
10. Himalaya
11. Indo-Burma
12. Japan
13. Mountains of Southwest China
14. New Caledonia
15. New Zealand
16. Philipines
17. Polynesia-Micronesia
18. Southwest Australia
19. Forests of Eastern Australia (new)
20. Sundaland
21. Wallacea
22. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
III. Europe and Central Asia
23. Caucasus
24. Irano-Anatolian
25. Mediterranean Basin
26. Mountains of Central Asia
IV. North and Central America
27. California Floristic Province
28. Caribbean Islands
29. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
30. Mesoamerica
V. South America
31. Atlantic Forest
32. Cerrado
33. Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests
34. Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena
35. Tropical Andes
 Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed across the globe. Species diversity increases in warm areas and
decreases with increasing latitude. Reptile species diversity increases towards the subtropics and tropics,
and the diversity of birds and mammals also increases towards the equator. As such, tropical areas have
more species in a given land area than a similar sized area in the temperature zone.

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 Though, Diversity is also greater in areas of high rainfall compared with drier areas. In terrestrial
ecosystems diversity generally decreases with increasing altitude although in some tropical forests, diversity
is higher at mid-altitudes-giving rise to what is called as "mid-altitude bulge". In coastal aquatic environments
biodiversity declines when salinity declines from normal sea water (i.e. salinity 35 ppt). In contrast,
biodiversity declines in fresh water habitats when salinity levels are > 2 ppt (parts per thousand).
CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFYING BIODIVERSITY HOT SPORTS

The essential criterion to be met with in qualifying as a global "hot spot" is the
(i) Presence of at least 0.5% of 1,500 of the world's 300,000 vascular plant species as endemics.
(ii) The threat criterion which decrees that a hot spot should have lost 70% or more of its natural vegetation.
(iii) The presence of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians and their endemism serve as a back-up to
further facilitate comparison among the "hot-spots".
Megadiversity and Megadiversity centres
 It was found that 60-70% of the total global biodiversity could be found in just 17 out of the over 200
countries of the world. Such large concentration of biodiversity in small parts of the world gave rise to
the concept of megadiversity, which was first proposed at the Smithsonian's Biodiversity Conference in
1988.
 The megadiversity countries or centres are Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Zaire, Madagascar,
Indonesia, Malaysia, India, China and Australia, Papau new guinea, Phillippines, South Africa, USA,
Venezula.
THE BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES OF INDIA AND THEIR BIODIVERSITY

India has been divided into ten biogegraphic zones: Trans-Himalayas, Himalayas, Indian Desert, Semi-Arid,
Western Ghats, Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic Plains, North-East India, Islands, and Coasts. In addition, each of
these ten zones indicates a distinctive set of physical, climatic and historical conditions.
Characteristics of biogeographic zones of India
Biogeographical Zone Biotic Province
A) Palaeoarctic a) Ladakh
1) Trans-Himalayan b) N.W. Himalaya
c) W.Himalaya
d) Central Himalaya
2) Himalayan e) East Himalaya
B) Paleotropical: a) Kutch
African b) Thar
3) Desert
4) Semi-Afrid a) Punjab
b) Gujarat-Rajwara
C) Paleotropical : a) Malabar Coast
Indo-Malayan b) Western Ghats
5) Western Ghats a) Deccan Plateau
(South)
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1) Tamil Nadu Plants
6) Deccan Peninsula 2) Eastern Ghats
(South)
3) Karnataka
b) Central Plateau
(North)
1) Maharashtra
2) Telangana
c) Eastern Plateau
1) Eastern Ghats
2) Chatisgarh &
Dandakaranya
d) Chhota-Nagpur
1) Chhota Nagpur
Plateau
2) Garhjat Hills
e) Central Highlands
1) Satpura-Maikal
2) Vidhya-
Bagelkhand
7) Gangetic Plain a) Upper Gangetic Plain
b) Lower Gangetic Plain
8) North-East India a) Brahmaputra Valley
b) Assam Hills
9) Coasts a) West Coast
b) East Coast
10) Islands a) Andaman Islands
b) Nicobar Islands
c) Lakshadweep
Islands
Zone 1 : The Trans-Himalayas
 This zone covers mainly Ladakh and Lahul-Spiti at the high altitude mountainous terrain which is between
4,500-6,000m. This zone represents an extremely fragile ecosystem, because of its harsh climatic conditions
and the inhospitable terrain.
 The vegetation of Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti is largely a sparse alpine steppe. In addition, several endemic
species also occur here. This area within India, alongwith Pakistan and Tibet has the richest wild sheep
and goat communities in the whole world. There are eight distinct species and sub-species of sheep, the
familiar ones are: Urial or Shapu, Argali or Nayan, Marco Polo Sheep, Markhor and Blue Sheep. The
flatter plateau have a distinct grazing community comprising of Wild yak, Tibetan Ass, Tibetan Gazelle,
Ibex and Tibetan Antelope.
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 In addition to these herbivores, there is an equally distinctive set of carnivores including Snow Leopard,
Indian Wolf, Pallas's Cat, Fox and smaller animals like Marbled Pole Cat, Pika and Marmot. Of these
the Pallas's Cat is endemic to this area. The lakes and marshes too, have a distinctive avifauna including
the spectacular Black-necked Crane, which is a migratory bird. Avifauna refers to the birds of an area
collectively.
Zone 2 : The Himalayas
 The Himalayan mountain ranges in India stretch for over 2,000 km. The environment here is extremely
harsh, as there are steep slopes, unconsolidated soils and intense slopes, unconsolidated soils and intense
rainfall. Moreover, the pressures of human habitation, and the demand for timber, firewood and food are
intense. All these factors have led to rapid degradation of this ecosystem that has taken toll of the
biological resources occurring here. There are more endangered species in the Himalayas than anywhere
else in India.
 The Himalayan zone is one of the richest areas of India in terms of habitat and species diversity. It shares
its boundaries with many other ecosystems (EDGE Zone). The wildlife is so diverse that we need to look
at it along its altitudinal and longitudinal ranges, and also along is east-west axis.
 First let us look at the wildlife within the altitudinal range of Himalayas. These are :
(i) The lower sub-tropical foot-hills. These have typical mixed deciduous community merging into
Chir Pine and then Ban Oak. The fauna consists largely of Sambar, Muntjac, Wild Boar, Black Bear,
Goral and Kalij Pheasants. Deciduous community refers to plants that shed their leaves seasonally.
(ii) The temperate areas : These lie below 3,500m. This zone has a complex mixture of vegetation
types with forests of Maples and Valnuts, Moru and Oak a variety of confiers such as the Blue
Pine, Fir and Spruce. All these grow in an altitudinal sequence. The fauna consists of Musk Deer,
serow, Koklas and Monal pheasants. In winters, the high altitude fauna such as Tahr move to these
areas.
(iii) The sub-alpine area : This area has forest and scrub vegetation of Birch and Rhododendrons
interspersed with grasslands with several kinds of herbs. These communities merge into the alpine
communities, with sparser cover to over 5,000m, where only rocks and snow dominate. Here, Musk
Deer, Serow and Tahr share the lower ranges with Bharal, and in the west lbex are more common
at higher levels. Along with altitude, the Pheasants of wooded areas give way to the Snowcock.
The panther gives way to the Snow Leopard and Wolf. The Black Bear is replaced by Brown Bear.
 On moving along the east-west axis characteristic communities can be seen as well. We divide this axis
in three sub zones, i.e., the western, central and the eastern zones.
(i) The Western Zone : This is a comparatively drier area with Deodars and Blue Pines. In addition,
there are vast expanses of grassy meadows. Several species of bovids are typical of this area.
These include the Bharal, Ibex, Markhor, Goral, Serow and Tahr. The Tahr is now missing from
Kashmir. The Hangul which is a sub-species of Red Deer is restricted to this area.
(ii) The Central Zone : There is a poor representation of large herbivores. The Ibex, Markhor and
Hangul populations have dwindled to nil. The Sikkim Stag is now thought to be extinct in the Indian
territory.
(iii) The Eastern Zone: The Brown Bear, Bharal and Tahr found in other areas are absent here.
Mishmi Takin a herbivore, is found here. This areas has a higher tree line, and supports arboreal
forest animal at higher altitudes. The Binturong, Red Panda and Lesser Cats are the characteristic
eastern faunal elements found here. The Orchids are profuse and the alpine areas have an abundance
of dwarf Rhododendrons that are shrubby.

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Zone 3 : The Indian Desert
 This zone is located in the western part of the country and is also known as the Thar desert. Because
of the extreme seasonality of rainfall and extreme livestock pressures, it is a fragile ecosystem.
 The wildlife of the desert zone is peculiar not because of its great diversity of density, but because of
the extraordinary ecological adaptations to the desert conditions. Several of the species are endemic to
the Thar Desert. A distinct sub-species of Wild Ass is confined to the Rann of Kutch, its populations in
Pakistan have dwindled away. Besides this, the Desert Fox, Desert Cat, Houbara Bustard and some Sand
Grouse species are restricted only to the Thar area.
 This region also has exclusive breeding sites of birds like the Flamingoes in the Indian sub-continent breed
chiefly in the Rann of Kutch. In addition, there are many species, that are in the endangered species list.
For example, the Chinkara, Blackbuck, Wolf, Caracal and Great Indian Bustard, have significantly numbered
populations in this zone.
Zone 4 : The Semi-Arid
 This zone has strong biological links with western Asia, primarily with Pakistan, Iran, Middle-east and
Northern Africa. Many of the plants found here show African affinity, e.g., Acacia sp., Balanites sp.,
Capparis sp., and Grewia sp. One can see pure gregarious forests of Anogeissus pendula along the gentler
slopes of Aravalli and associated hill ranges. This is the only area where it occurs in this form. Outside
this area, A pendula occurs in north Madhya Pradesh, mixed with teak.
 The fauna consists of larger herbivores - Blackbuck, Chowsingha, Gazelle and Nilgai. The Sambar is
restricted to the wooded hills and Chital to the moist valley areas. Amongst the carnivores, the Asiastic
Lion is restricted to a small area in Gujarat whereas Cheetah is now extinct. Many of the species found
here area in very low densities, and these are of conservation interest, e.g., Caracal, Jackal, Wolf, Sloth
Bear, Blackbuck, Great Indian Bustard, Lesser Florican, Flamingoes and both resident and migratory
species of waterfowl. The rivers and lakes too have prominent forms such as the Crocoddile Mugger and
Gharial, and turtle populations.
 The largest population of Star Tortoise is seen in this zone. Meghalaya is known for its botanical value,
most of which are high altitude Oak forests of Shillong-Cherrapunji plateau. The area near Tripura-
Mizoram border has exceptional wildlife species diversity with four rare primate species : Hoolock Gibbon,
Leaf Monkey and both Pigtailed and Stump-tailed Macaque.
Zone 5 : The Western Ghats
 The Western Ghats represent one of the major tropical evergreen forest regions in India. The tropical
evergreen forests occupy about one third of the total area of this zone. In recent years, a large chunk
of the forest cover has been lost and this zone is now of great conservation concern, more so because
of its exceptional biological richness.
 About two-thirds of India's endemic plants are confined to this region. However, the potential of many
of these species is yet to be tapped. The Western Ghats constitute just 5% of the total land area! Of these
4,000 species, almost half of them (about 18,00 species) are endemic to this region. This zone also plays
an important role in maintaining the hydrological cycle.
 The well known species found exclusively in Western Ghats include the following:
 Among Primates - Nilgiri Langur and Lion-tailed Macaque.
 Rodents - Plataconthomys, the Spiny Dormouse of the southern ghats.
 Squirrels - Several subspecies of Ratufa indica with separate forms in Mahrashtra, Mysore, Malabar and
Tamil Nadu Ghats. The Grizzled Squirrel is restricted to two localities in the driver Tamil Nadu forest.

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 Carnivores - Malabar Civet is southern evergreen forests, Rusty spotted Cat in northern deciduous
forests.
 Ungulates - Nilgiri Tahr in Nilgiris to Agastyamalai montane grassland.
 Hornbills - Malabar Grey Hornbill.
 In addition to the above endemic species, the other species found are: Tiger, Leopard, Dhole, Sloth Bear,
Indian Elephant and Gaur.
Zone 6: The Deccan Peninsula
 This zone covers the largest area in India that amounts to about 43% of the total land mass. This zone
has deciduous forest, thorn forests and degraded shrublands. There are small areas of semi-evergreen
forests in the Eastern Ghats and, dry evergreen forests or thorn scrub on the coastal side of the plains
of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
 The Northern zone has forest dominated by the trees like Sal, espcially in the Northeast, Teak, and
miscellaneous species - (Terminalia - Anogeissus - Chloroxylon). The Sourthern half of the zone has dry,
thorn forests having Acaci - Albizzia amara and Hardwickia associations. The natural grasslands are rare.
 The faunal species are widespread throughout the whole zone, e.g., Chital, Sambar, Nilgai, Chowsingha,
Barking Deer, and Gaur. Some species such as the Blackbuck are restricted to dry open area. Small, relict
populations of species also exist e.g., Elephant (Bihar-Orissa and Karnataka-Tamil Nadu) and Wild
Buffalo (in a small area at the junction of Orissa, M.P. and Mahrashtra). The Hard Ground Swamp Deer
is now restricted to a single locality in M.P.
 The Gharial is restrictedto a few rivers flowing to the Ganges and one area in the Mahanadi river.
Amongst the carnivores, the Rusty Spotted Cat has few small populations in Central India. Low density
populations of Wolf are seen in the drier areas. The Tiger, Leopard, Sloth Bear, Gaur, Sambar, Chital,
Chowsingha, and Boar are present in sufficiently high densities, particularly in the deciduous areas.
 The valuable, endemic plant resources such as the Red Sanders and Sandalwood are of immediate
conservation concern. Similarly, there is also a need for conservation concern. Smilarly, there is also a
need for conservation measures for the species - Moist Teak, Southern and Coastal Sal, Umbrella Thorn,
and especially Orissa semi evergreen communities and dry evergreen forest.
Zone 7: The Gangetic Plain
 This zone has one of the most fertile areas in the world, and it supports a dense and growing human
population. The original vegetation found in most of the area is no longer here, as a major portion of this
area has been brought under cultivation. This zone is topographically homogeneous for hundreds of
kilometers. The natural vegetation and wildlife is found in the northern hilly and Tarai wet Belt. This zone
has a larger number of lakes and seasonal swamps. These have usually escaped drainage. This area is
the habitat for migrating waterfowl.
 Small relict populations of Nilgai, Blackbuck anand Chinkara, interspersed with dense cultivation peresently
exist in the western areas. Th northern Terai grasslands have populations of Swamp and Hog Deer in
a few places. The Rhinoceros, Bengal Florican, and Hispid Hare are found in low numbers in the Eastern
Terai of Duras. The Sambar-Chital community if found in the Bhabar forests, with Goral in the areas with
steeper slopes.
 The wetlands and rivers also contain Crocodile - Mugger and Gharial populations, reflict populations of
Gangetic Dolphin and a rich, fresh-water turtle community having over 20 species.

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Zone 8 : North-East India
 North-East India represents the transition (EDGE zone) between the India, Indo-Malayan and Indo-
Chinese regions as well as the meeting point of Himalayan mountains and Peninsular India. It is one of
the most important zones in the Indian Subcontinent for its rich biological diversity and a large number
of its species are endemic to this zone. It is not only the species of plants that are diverse, but also the
animals' exhibit species richness not found anywhere else in the world. It includes the states of Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. About 40% of this area is occupied by forests.
 The fauna consists of Rhinoceros, Buffalo, Swamp Deer, Hog Deer, Pygmy Hog and Hispid Hare. This
area also contains the largest elephant populations. This is also the fly-way for waterfowl and other birds
travelling between the warmth of the subcontinent and their summer grounds in Siberia and China.
 Within the Assam Hills, two further gradients of variations exist : an altitudinal gradient, and a rainfall
gradient.
(1) An altitudinal gradient encompasses tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, tropical moist deciduous
forest, subtropical hill forest and temperate forest communities. The higher reaches of Manipur virtually
show a sub-alpine shrub community.
(2) A rainfall gradient from exposed southern slopes, e.g., in south Meghalaya at Cherrapunji with average
annual precipitation of over 11,000 mm, to sheltered rain-shadow slopes with precipitation below 1,500 mm
p.a. Of the endemics, members of magnoliaceae occur in restricted area, whereas Balsiminaceae has
winder distribution.
 Meghalaya is known for its botanical value, most of which are high altitude Oak forests of Shillong -
Cherrapunji plateau. The area near Tripura - Mizoram border has exceptional wildlife species diversity
with four rare primate species : Hoolock Gibbon, Leaf Monkey and both Pig-tailed and Stump - tailed
Macaque.
Zone 9 : The Islands
 In this category we shall discuss the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands in the Bay of Bengal, and
the Lakshadweeps in the Arabian Sea.
 The Andaman and Nicobar islands are a long group of 348 islands north-south oriented stretching for
about 590 km. These islands are actually the extensions of the Arakan Mountain range of Burma and they
have several peaks over 500m. The Barren and Narcondam Islands are volcanic, and are matually the
extensions of the Arakan Mountain range of Burma and they have several peaks over 500m. The Barren
and Narcondam Islands are volcanic, and are believed to the still active. The Andamans exhibit
biogeographical affinity with Burma. And the Nicobar Islands that are about 90 km from Sumatra show
strong biogeographic closeness to South-east Asia. The Andaman and Nicobar islands are one of India's
three tropical moist evergreen forest zones.
 The zone possesses a unique kind of plant and animal life exhibiting a high degree of endemism. One finds
these islands with impoverished mammal fauna. This may be largely due to the isolation of Andaman and
Nicobar islands and the small island size. Amongst mammals, species of rodents and bats dominate.
Centuries back, pigs were introduced in these islands and these are now known as the 'Andaman Pigs'.
Besides these, some other species like the Spotted Deer, Hog Deer, Barking Deer, Goats, Elephant,
Sambar, Leopard and Palm-Civet are also present.
 Some of these species are flourishing very well on these islands, and are believed to be reducing the native
fauna that includes certain ground nesting birds and common rat. The indigenous mammal species that
need to be conserved include the Nicobar Macaque, also known as the Crab-eating Macaque, and a
distinctive race of the widespread Long-tailed Macaque, the Nicobar tree-Shrew, and the Dugong found
commonly in the coastal waters off the Andaman and Nicobar.
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 The avifauna consists of peculiar examples include a mound building bird found in low densities around
sandy shores and littoral forests, and the Micobar Megapode. It is highly endangered.
 Another interesting endemic avi-species is the Narcondum Hornbill that is restricted to 7 sq km volcanic
isaldn 'Narcondum' to the east of the Andamans. The Serpent Eagle, and the 'Andamans' or 'Grey Teal'
- a gregarious Duck of brackish and fresh water forest pools, is again restricted to Andamans and is highly
endangered. It has been seen that many endemic species are restricted to 'dense evergreen forests' like
the Nicobar Pigeon, Andaman Wood Pigeon, Nicobar Parakeet and the Nicobar Crested Serpent Eagle.
The conservation of these endemic species calls for immediate preservation of their original habitats.
 The islands have 4 species of Marine Turtle - Green, Ridley, Hawks Bill and Leathery. Of these, the only
nesting beach for Leathery Turtle over half of the Green Turtle nesting area is in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. The small population of Asiatic Box Turtle - a fresh water turtle, is a cause of concern.
These waters are said to have the richest fish and coral communities in India. Several species of Dolphins
are present an Whale sightings are frequent.
 The Lakshadweep islands comprise of some 25 islets, forming three main groups: Amindivi islands in the
north; Laccadive or Cannanore islands are of coral origin and have a typical reef lagoon system. These
islands are of coral origin.
 The reefs have excellent examples of tropical inshore marine ecosystems needing immediate protection.
The shallow sea laggons have marine angiosperm pastures that are Dugong's feeding grounds. These
islands are also major feeding grounds for Trutles and there are some Green Turtle nesting sites also.
Several oceanic bird species have resting sites on uninhabited islets. Some sea birds are so peculiar that
they have chosen only two islets as their nesting sites. These are Pitti and Baliapani.
Zone 10: The Coasts
 Indian has a vast coastal stretch of about 5689 km. On the west, the Arabian Sea washes the shores of
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala States. On the east, the Bay of Bengal washes the
coasts of Sunderbans in West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states. The southern
promontory of Indian Peninsula is bathed by the Gulf of Mannar and Indian Ocean, along the coasts of
southern portions of Tamil Nadu.
 Some of the interesting coastal wildlife species include; Dugong; Hump-back Dolphin of estuarine turbid
waters; Estuarine or salt-water Crocodile; Olive Ridley, Green, Hawksbill, Leather and Loggerhead sea
Turtles; the Estuarine Turtle - Batagur basker of Sunderbans and the huge Soft-shell Estuarine Turtle;
Pelochelys birbornii off the Utkal-bengal Coast fish - mud skippers or semi-terrestrial Gobies, small Crabs
in association with Anemones; avifaunal communities of mangrove, must flats and lagoons. In the higher
regions of mangroves, there are Spotted Deer, Pigs, Monitor Lizards, Monkeys, and the Sunderban Tiger.
Forestry in India
 Forestry is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and
scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources (Anon, 1966). It includes all thinking
and all actions pertaining to creation and management of forests, including harvesting, marketing and
utilization of all forest products and services. It includes not only management of existing forests but also
the creation of new forests.
 Different types of forests:
 India has a diverse range of forests: from the rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures
of Ladakh in the north, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to the evergreen forests in the
north-east Climate, soil type, topography, and elevation are the main factors that determine the type
of forest. Forests are classified according to their nature and composition, the type of climate in
which they thrive, and its relationship with the surrounding environment.
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 Forests can be divided into six board types, with a number of sub types.
(A) Moist tropical (D) Montane sub
tropical
1. Wet evergreen 9. Broad leaved
2. Semi-evergreen 10. Pine
3. Moist deciduous 11. Dry evergreen
4. Littoral and swamp
(B) Dry Tropical (E) Montane
temperate forests
5. Dry deciduous 12. Wet
6. Thorn 13. Moist
7. Dry evergreen 14. Dry
(C) Sub alpine (F) Alpine
15. Moist
16. Dry
(A) Moist tropical forests
(1) Wet evergreen
 Wet evergreen forests are found in the south along the Western Ghats and the Nicobar and Andaman
Islands and all along the north-eastern region. It is characterized by tall, straight evergreen trees that have
a buttressed trunk or root on three sides like a tripod that helps to keep a tree upright during a storm.
 These trees often rise to a great height before they open out like a cauliflower. The more common trees
that are found here are the jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango and hillock.
 The trees in this forest form a tier pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to the ground, flowed by the
short structured trees and then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of various colours and different varieties
of orchids grow on the trunks of the trees.
(2) Semi-evergreen
 Semi-evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghtas, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Eastern
Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and the moist deciduous tress. The
forest is dense and is filled with a large variety of trees of both types.
(3) Moist deciduous
 Moist deciduous forests are found throughout India except in the western and the north-western regions.
The trees have broad trunks, are tall and have branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the
ground.
 Some of the taller trees shed their leaves in the dry season. There is a layer of shorter trees and
evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth. These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with bamboo,
and rosewood.
(4) Littoral and Swamp
 Littoral and swamp forests are found along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
 It consists mainly of whistling pines, mangrove dates, palms and bulletwood. They have roots that consist
of soft tissue so that the plant can breathe in the water.

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(B) Dry tropical forests

(5) Dry deciduous forest
 Dry deciduous forests are found throughout the northern part of the country except in the North-East.
It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karanataka and Tamil Nadu.
 The canopy of the trees does not normally exceed 25 metres. The common trees are the sal, a variety
of acacia, and bamboo.
(6) Thorn
 This type is found in areas with black soil: North, West, Central, and South India. The trees do not grow
beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of this region.
(7) Dry evergreen
 Dry evergreens are found along the Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It has mainly hard-leaved
evergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a few deciduous trees.
(C) Sub alpine
 Sub alpine forests extends from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh between 2900 to 3500 metres. In the
Western Himalayas, the vegetation consists mainly of juniper, rhododendron, willow, and black currant.
 In the eastern parts, red fir, black juniper, birch, and larch are the common trees. Due to heavy rainfall
and high humidity the timberline in this part is higher than that in the West, Rhododendron of many species
covers the hills in these parts.
(D) Montane sub tropical forests
(8) Broad-leaved forests
 Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silent Valley.
There is a marked difference in the form of the vegetation in the two areas.
 In the Silent Valley, the poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant grass are predominant. In the
Eastern Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by the shifting cultivation and forest fires. These
wet forests consists mainly of evergreen trees with a sprinkling of deciduous here and there.
 There are oak, alder, chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There are a large variety of orchids, bamboo and
creepers.
(9) Pine
 Pine forests are found in the steep dry slopes of the Shivalik Hills, Western and Central Himalayas, Khasi,
Naga, and Manipur Hills. The trees predominantly found in these areas are the cir, oak, rhododendron,
and pine. In the lower regions sal, sandan, amla and laburnum are found.
(10) Dry evergreen
 Dry evergreen forests normally have a prolonged hot and dry season and a cold winter. It generally has
evergreen trees with shining leaves that have a varnished look.
 Some of the more common ones are the pomegranate, olive and oleander. These forests are found in the
Shivalik Hills and foothills of the Himalayas up to a height of 1000 metres.
(E) Montane temperate forests
(11) Wet
 Wet montane temperate forests occur in the North and the South. In the North, it is found in the region
to the east of Nepal into Arunachal Pradesh, at a height of 1800-3000 metres, receiving a minimum rainfall
of 2000 mm.

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 In the South, it is found in parts of the Niligiri Hills, the higher reaches of Kerala. The forests in the
northern region are denser than in the Sourth. This is because over time the original trees have been
replaced by fast-growing varieties such as the eucalyptus. Rhododendrons and a variety of ground flora
can be found here.
 In the North, there are three layers of forests: the higher layer has mainly coniferous, the middle layer
has deciduous trees such as the oak and the lowest layer is covered by rhododendron and champa.
(12) Moist
 This type spreads from the Western Himalayas to the Eastern Himalayas. The trees found in the western
section are broad-leaved oak, brown oak, walnut, rhododendron, etc. In the Eastern Himalayas, the rainfall
is much heavier and therefore the vegetation is also more lush and dense.
 There are a large variety of broad-leaved trees, ferns, and bamboo. Coniferous trees are also found here,
some of the varieties being different from the ones found in the South.
(13) Dry
 This type if found mainly in Lahul, Kinnau, Sikkim, and other parts of the Himalayas. There are predominatly
coniferous trees that are not too tall, along with broad-leaved trees such as the oak, maple, and ash. At
higher elevation, fir, juniper, deodar, and chilgoza can be found.
(F) Alpine
(14) Moist
 Moist alpines are found all along the Himalayas and on the higher hills near the Myanmar border. It has
a low scrub, dense evergreen forest, consisting mainly of rhododendron and birch. Mosses and ferns cover
the ground in patches. This region receives heavy snowfall.
(15) Dry
 Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres to about 4900 metres. Dwarf plants predominate, mainly
the black juniper, the drooping juniper, honey suckle, and willow.
 National Forest Policy of 1952, recommended that on the basis of Functions, all forest lands may be
classified into:
A. Protection Forests
B. National Forests/ production forests
C. Village Forests/social forests
National Commission of Agriculture (1976) proposed that forests can be classified into:
A. Protection Forests:
 The practices of managing the forests for their protection function are called Protection forestry. In
protection forestry, the object is to protect the site due to instability of terrain, nature of soil, geological
formations, etc. Such areas where manipulation of the forest cover is not desirable may be classed as
protection forests.
 The forests located on higher hill slopes, national parks and sanctuaries, preservation plots, biosphere or
nature reserves and wilderness areas may be included under protection forests.
 The practice of forestry with a view to conserving flora, fauna, soil and water, increasing water yields,
reducing floods and droughts, amelioration of climatic conditions, etc. is called Protection Forestry.
B. Production Forests :
 The practice of forestry with object of producing maximum quantity of timber, fuel wood and other forest
produce is called production Forestry. The production forestry can be further classified into:
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(i) Commercial Forestry: Commercial forestry aims to get maximum production of timber, fuel wood
and other forest products as a business enterprise.
(ii) Industrial Forestry: Industrial forestry aims at producing raw material required for industry. In
Production forestry, there is a greater concern for the production and economic returns.
(iii) Mixed Quality Forests
(iv) Valuable Forests
(v) Inaccessible Forests
C. Social Forests :
 Social Forestry is the practice of forestry which aims at meeting the requirement of rural and urban
population. The object of social forestry is to meet the basic needs of community aiming at bettering the
conditions of living through:
(i) Meeting the fuel wood, fodder and small timber requirements
(ii) Protection of agricultural fields against wind
(iii) Meeting recreational needs and
(iv) Maximizing production and increasing farm returns
Various forms of Social forestry are:
(a) Community Forestry : The practice of forestry of lands outside the conventional forest area for
the benefit of local population has been called community forestry, community forestry seeks the
involvement of community in the creation and management of such forests.
(b) Farm Forestry: Farm forestry is defined as the practice of forestry in all its aspect on farms of
village lands generally integrated with other farm operations.
(c) Extension Forestry: Extension forestry which includes the activity of raising trees on farm lands,
villages wastelands and community forest areas and on lands along the sides of roads, areas and
on lands along the sides of roads, canal banks and railway lines (Anon., 1976). More recently, there
has been emphasis on dynamic land use planning and efforts are made to maximize production on
farmlands under agro forestry.
(d) Agro-Forestry : Agro-forestry has been defined as a sustainable land management system which
increases the yield of the land, combines the production of crops and forest plants and/or animals
simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land and applies management practices that are
compatible with the cultural practices of the local population.
(e) Recreational Forestry : More recently, there has been considerable demand for Recreational
forestry, which is defined as the practice of forestry with the object of developing and maintaining
forests of high scenic value. Recreational forests are being developed near towns and cities. The
areas are being planted with flowering trees, shrubs and creepers to provide forest atmosphere near
towns and cities.
Conservation of forests
Conservation of resources, including forest resources aims at their rational and cautious use, so that they will
remain available for future generations. Forest conservation is intimately linked with the conservation of biodiversity
and wildlife. Thus, an integrated approach needs to be developed to obtain optimum results.
Forest Policy in India
India boasts of a forest policy dating back to 1894. This was revised in 1952 and agbain amended in 1988. The
National Forest Policy of 1988 emphasizes the concepts of protection, conservation and development of forests.

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Its main aims are,
(i) Maintenance of environmental stability through the preservation and restoration of ecological balance.
(ii) Conservation of natural heritage.
(iii) Control of soil erosion and denudation in catchment areas of rivers, lakes and reservoirs.
(iv) Check on extension of sand dunes in desert areas.
(v) Increase in forest tree cover through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes.
(vi) Meet requirements of tribal and rural populations of firewood. Fodder, minor forest produce and soft
timber,
(vii) Increase the overall productivity of forests for national needs.
(viii) Encourage efficient utilization of forest produce and optimum substitution of wood,
(ix) Encourage the participation of people in achieving these objectives.
National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP) - 1999
Its prime objective is to "achieve sustainable development and conservation of forest resources" through the
involvement of all stakeholders including the local community. NFAP prescribes that,
(i) Tribal must be involved in all aspects of forestry.
(ii) There should be active involvement of people in decision making process,
(iii) Integrated and multipurpose management should be adopted in preference to single-purpose monoculture.
(iv) There should be a 'national policy on grazing'.
(v) Tenurial security to forest dwellers and tribal communities need to be ensured, and
(vi) A system of benefit sharing with participating parties/people be established.
Joint Forest Management (JFM)
 The National Forest Policy, 1988 prescribes the creation of a massive people's movement through
involvement of village communities living a close to the forest for the protection and development of
forests. The Government of India, asked the State Governments to involve local communities in the
management of forests.
Forest Conservation Strategies
 Protection and maintenance of forest ecosystems could be done in situ(-at the site) or, if necessary, ex
situ(-off the site), by integrating it with the conservation of biodiversity.
 The major thrust in most of the conservation efforts still continues to be two-pronged-improve the canopy
cover in degraded forest by reforestation and convert non-forest and degraded wastelands into forests by
afforestation. Together, these two strategies have resulted in a net gain in the forest cover in many areas.
Reforestation
 The replanting of trees and the regeneration of a forest, in areas previously cleared of their forest cover
is referred to as reforestation. Many countries have aggressively pursued reforestation programmes with
positive results.
 For a long time, great emphasis was laid on encouraging large monoculture tree plantations as the sole
means of achieving reforestation targets. Large sized plantations employing single-species, single-use,
intensive cropping were readily adopted since they were more result oriented. These monoculture plantations
produce a high density of a single or a few species in a relatively short period.
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Monoculture Plantations and its Consequences

 In monoculture, natural forests and woodlands are replaced by plantations consisting of rows of trees
belonging to one a few species. The trees were chosen for their commercial value, and speed monoculture
forestry became the primary method in many result-oriented reforestation and aforestation programmes
due to the fast growth of these species. However, such monoculture plantations make a mockery of
ecological principles and eventually end up as ecological disasters. They suffer from the following
disadvantage and undesirable consequences :
(i) The tree populations completely lack diversity and have almost the same age :
(ii) Highly vulnerable to attacks by pests and pathogens. For example, bark beetles, which are not dangerous
in natural conifers, assume disastrous proportions in monoculture spruce plantations;
(iii) Alteration in soil structure,
 Production of a more-humus and fulvic acid which encourage podsolization.
 Reduction in the porosity of topsoil making it impermeable;
(iv) Modification of water cycle;
 Increased in run-off water;
 Increased loss of water due to evaporation;
(v) Effects on soil fauna, like earthworms, arthropods and decomposers;
 Decrease in earthworm population,
 Reduction in arthropod diversity,
 Reduction in bacterial decomposer activity;
(vi) Greatly, reduced density and diversity of bird life, due to the mono-specific and uniformly aged tree
populations;
(vii) Higher susceptibility to forest fire, especially in conifer forests;
(viii) Higher levels of input costs, in the form pesticides and fertilizers.
Afforestation
 The planting of trees on land hitherto unoccupied by trees or forest is called afforestation. Trees are
planted on available land, mainly public land. Ideally, areas contiguous with forestland are chosen for
afforestation, although it can be carried out on hill slopes, roadsides, and recreational parks, around and
along water bodies or even on wasteland.
 The potential areas on which forest cover can be expanded through afforestation in India are the
"culturable wastelands", covering 13.94 million ha and part of the "fallow land other than current fallows",
covering 9.89 million ha.
 However, afforestation may not succeed in every area, since it increases the demand for water and soil
nutrients. The effect it may have on the local conditions should be carefully assessed before launching
such programmes. Like in the case of reforestation, there is a tendency to adopt monoculture methods
in afforestation too, with similar consequences, most of which are undersirable. In India, the National
Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) undertakes the tasks of regenerating degraded forests
and afforestation.
 Afforestation programmes are area oriented and specifically target degraded forest area, lands contiguous
with forests, national parks and other protected areas, and ecologically fragile areas like the Western
Himalayas, Western Ghats etc.

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Types of Forestry Practices
 Based on the nature of a forest, the degree and type of its exploitation for human needs, and the level
of participatory management forestry practices can be divided into Protection forestry, Production forestry
and Community forestry (including social and Agrofestry). Accordingly, the management practices for
each forest system would vary considerably.
Protection Forestry
 This is practiced in areas where the forests are ecologically very fragile and are hence greatly endangered.
Such areas demand protection from any form of exploitation as even relatively minor disruptions by human
activity may result in serious imbalances. Therefore, no commercial exploitative activity is allowed in
protected forests.
 Areas in the country where the main regimes are located are examples of such forestry practices. IN
India, protection forestry is practiced by designating forests as reserve forests, and by having a network
of Protected Areas (PA), in the form of Biosphere Reserves, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Production Forestry
 Forests are capable of yielding many products on a sustainable basis. The traditional uses of forests, such
as tapping rubber, harvesting fruits, oils and medicinal plants, and practicing agroforestry, are non-destructive
in nature. If not overdone, they allow enough time for the forest to regenerate and provide continuous
yields over a long time.
 Many studies have shown that the economic returns from such traditional practices are much higher than
the return obtained from logging, shifting agriculture or cattle ranching. The total income from fruits and
latex in a tropical forest was 9 times as much as the income from its timber. Even timber can be harvested
on a sustainable basis by employing methods such as strip cutting.
Community Forestry
 This is diverse group of forestry practices, which primarily aims at achieving forest conservation with the
active participation of the local community.
 Community forestry is defined as "forestry designed and applied to meet local social household and
environmental need and to favour local economic development". The relevance of such practices lies in
the fact that there is a huge human population living in areas contiguous to or adjoining forests.
 Since they are dependent on the forests for their resources. In community forestry, professional foresters
and other experts help villages to develop woodlots and to regenerate degraded forests in order to achieve
sustainable local harvest to meet local needs. Forest conservation thus becomes a collective responsibility
as well as a participatory efforts.
Social Forestry
 Social forestry includes practices aimed at using public and common land to produce firewood, fodder and
small timber in a decentralized way in order to relieve the pressure on conservation of forests. It embodies
the virtues of community involvement and participation in achieving the goal of forest protection along with
the development of some degree of self-reliance for the local community. Social forestry, thus represents,
an acknowledgement of the rights of local populations.
 Social forestry programmes are designed to motivate large numbers of people to plant trees, to promote
trees which can supply firewood, small timber, grasses and income, and to provide increased benefits to
the poorer strata in society. These programmes are especially aimed at involving farmers and the landless.
 Social forestry can incorporate a wide variety of activities, including farmers growing wood to sell or use
for firewood, and individuals earning income from the gathering, processing and sale of minor forest
products such as fruits nuts, mushroorris, herbs and honey.
 While conventional production forestry focuses on the wood that trees produce, social forestry focuses
on people, on community involvement and on the trees that provide direct and indirect benefits locally. The
approach therefore is used to create immediate economic and social benefits -local people or communities
from their immediate locality.
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Agroforestry
 Agroforestry is a collective name for all land use systems and practices in which woody perennials are
deliberately grown on the same land management unit as crops and/or livestock with the aim of obtaining
output on a sustainable basis. It is a land-use approach that yields both wood products and crops, as it
integrates tree growing into farming systems. The main premise in its practice is that woody perennials
in the landscape can enhance the productivity and sustainability of agricultural practice.
Forest Report 2015
 State of Forests Report is published by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) on a biennial basis since 1987.
Forest cover of the country is mapped through indigenous RESOURCESAT -2 satellite data with a LISS
III sensor.
Canopy and Canopy Density
 The cover of branches and Foliage formed by the crown of trees is called Canopy. The percentage area
of land covered by the canopy of trees is called Canopy density.
Forest Cover
 All lands which are more than 1 hectare in area and with a Canopy density of more than 10% irrespective
of the ownership and legal status is called Forest Cover. Also it does not make any distinction whether
the forest is natural or manmade forest, government or private, recorded or not recorded. It includes
bamboo, orchards, palm etc.
Recorded Forest Area and Forest Blank
 The area recorded as "forests" in the Government records is called Forest Area or Recorded Forest Area.
The patches within the forest area which have little or no trees are called "Forest Blank".
 The recorded Forest Area denotes the legal status of the land. It is defined as the geographic area
recorded as forest in government records, state law or any local law. It is different from the forest cover
as forest area may include areas with less than 10% of tree canopy density and may exclude areas more
than 10% of tree canopy density.
E-Watch
 It is a web based GIS application developed for monitoring various activities funded under CAMPA
(Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority) CAMPA is meant to promote
afforestation activities in order to compensate for forest land diverted to non-forest uses).
Carbon Stock
 It is defined as the amount of carbon stored in the ecosystem of the forest especially in living biomass
and soil.
Types of Forest Covers
The degraded forest lands which have a Canopy density of less than 10% are called Scrubs. The Lands
with Canopy density of 10-40% are called Open Forests. The Land with forest cover having a canopy
density of 40-70% is called the Moderately Dense Forest (MDF). The Lands with forest cover having
a canopy density of 70% and more are called Very Dense Forests (VDF).
Key findings:
 Total forest cover in India: 7,01,673sq km (increase of 3775 sqkm)
 Total forest cover as percentage of geographical area: 21.34 per cent
 Total tree cover in India: 92,572 sq km (increase of 1306 sq km)
 Total tree cover as percentage of geographical area : 2.82 per cent
 State with largest total forest cover: Madhya Pradesh having 77, 462 sq km
 State having highest forest cover as % of its area: Mizoram (88.93 per cent)
 Increase in carbon sink:103 million tonnes CO2 equivalent

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 Top five states with maximum forest cover India's top five states with maximum forest cover (in km2)
are as follows:
1. Madhya Pradesh (77,462)
2. Arunachal Pradesh (67,248)
3. Chhattisgarh (55,586)
4. Maharashtra (50,628)
5. Orissa (50,354)
 Top five states with maximum forest cover as part of their area Top five states / UTs with maximum
forest cover as percentage of their own geographical area are as follows:
1. Mizoram (88.93%)
2. Lakshadweep (84.56%)
3. A&N islands (81.84%)
4. Arunachal Pradesh (80.30%)
5. Nagaland (78.21%)
Total Carbon Stock
 The total carbon stock has also increased by 103 million tonnes or an increase of 1.48 in percentage terms
compared to previous assessments.
 The total carbon stock in the country's forest is around 7, 044 million tonnes. The increase in the carbon
stock shows the commitment of the country towards achieving INDC target of additional carbon sink of
2.5 to 3.0 billion tonnes of CO2.
Deforestation in India
Deforestation refers to:
 the removal or cutting down of forest trees, and transformation of natural vegetation and forests into clear
land,
 Without making any arrangement for the replenishment or re-plantation of the forest trees.
 In simple words, deforestation refers to the deliberate process of destroying the forests, so that the clear
land may be put to other use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms,
ranches, or urban use. Tropical rainforests is where the most concentrated deforestation occurs. About
30% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests.
Causes of Deforestation
The most important causes of deforestation are human ignorance and greed. Besides uncontrollable degradation
of environment, forests in India were cleared for
 agriculture and farming,
 Population pressure for wood and forest produce
 Rapid urbanization
 Development projects like dams, industries, roads and Power Plants etc.
The harmful effects of Deforestation
 The exploitation of forests (deforestation) is has been done in the past in the name of so-called human
welfare and development.
 The past century saw massive deforestation in India. In India, many wild animals and birds are having
become rare species due to massive deforestation.

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 Forests are nature's protective shield, but this shield is being eroded by human folly and greed. Indiscriminate
cutting of trees leads to the following situation, viz.
 disturbs the ecological balance
 causes environmental pollution,
 soil erosion and landslides,
 floods,
 water sources may get dried,
 Climatic changes.
 Present scenario in India
 Due to deforestation, the forest cover of India has fallen below the minimum recommended level.
According to experts, forests should cover about one-third of the total area of country. But in India forests
covers around 24% of the total area.
 Although the total forest cover has seen an increase, around 2,510 square kilometre of very dense and
mid-dense forests have been wiped out since 2013
 States of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka and
Telangana have suffered huge loss of forest cover
 Around 2,254 square kilometre of mid-dense forest cover has turned into non-forest lands in the past two
years.
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
 Understanding the value of biological diversity is vital to maintain the enormous range of genes, species
and ecosystems that the earth supports. This can be looked at in many ways. One way would be to
understand the "resource" or "use" value of various components of biodiversity which are used by humans.
Biodiversity has also; however, great "non-resource" or "non-use" value such as maintaining ecosystem
functions. Biodiversity can also be viewed in terms of economic and non-economic values. The economic
value of a biological resource may be broken down into a range of use and non-use values that are of
direct or indirect benefit of humans.
Categories of values of biodiversity
Direct Use Value (Goods) Indirect Use Value (Services) Non-Use Value
Food, medicine, building Atmospheric and climate Potential (or Option Value) : Future
material, fibre, fuel regulation, pollination, nutrient value either as a good or a service
recycling
Cultural, Spiritual and Aesthetic Existence Value : Value of knowing
something exists
Bequest Value : Value of knowing
that something will be there for future
generations
Biodiversity produces goods and services for the most fundamental of our needs - clean air, fresh water,
food, medicines and shelter. It also provides people with recreational, psychological, emotional and spiritual
enjoyment. Some people belive we should protect and restore biodiversity because of its benefits to us.
Others believe that we have a moral responsibility to protect biodiversity simply because all organisms
have value, whether or not we understand their benefits to us.

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Ecosystem Goods Services

Terrestrial  Food crops  Maintain limited watershed functions
 Fibre crops (infiltration, flow control, partial soil
 Crops as genetic resources protection)
 Provide habitat for birds, pollinators, soil
organisms important to agriculture
 Sequester atmospheric carbon
 Provide employment
Coastal  Fish and shellfish  Moderate storm impacts (mangroves;
ecosystems  Fishmeal (animal feed) barrier islands)
 Seaweeds (for food and  Provide wildlife (marine and terrestrial)
industrial use) habitat
 Salt  Maintain biodiversity
 Genetic resources  Dilute and treat wastes
 Provide harbor and transportation routes
 Provide human and wildlife habitat
 Contribute aesthetic beauty and provide
recreation
Forest  Timber  Remove air pollutants, emit oxygen
ecosystems  Fuelwood  Cycle nutrients
 Drinking and irrigation water  Maintain array of watershed functions
 Fodder (infiltration, purification, flow control,
 Nontimber products (vines, soil stabilization)
bamboos, leaves, etc.)  Maintain biodiversity
 Food (honey, mushrooms,  Sequester atmospheric carbon
fruit, and other edible plants;  Moderate weather extremes and impacts
game)  Generate soil
 Genetic resources  Provide employment
recreation
 Drinking and irrigation water  Buffer water flow (control timing and
 Fish volume)
 Hydroelectricity  Dilute and carry away wastes
 Genetic resources  Cycle nutrients
 Maintain biodiversity
 Provide aquatic habitat
 Provide transportation corridor
recreation
 Livestock (food, game, hides,  Maintain array of watershed functions
fibr e) (infiltration, purification, flow control,
 Drinking and irrigation water soil stabilization)
 Genetic resources  Cycle nutrients
 Remove air pollutants, emit oxygen
 Maintain biodiversity
 Generate soil
 Sequester atmospheric carbon
recreation

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LOSS OF GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY

 As many as 500 million kinds of plants, animals and microorganisms have made earth their home since
life began, over 3.5 billion years ago. Presently, it is believed that there are only 5 to 10 million species
alive. A few species naturally become extinct over time and it is believed that however, during certain
periods of geological time, great numbers have been lost relatively quickly - on the scale of thousands of
years. Scientists have documented five mass extinctions since the emergence of life on this planet some
3.8 billion years ago.
 Asia's biodiversity is being gradually lost. While it is not possible to quantify rates of species loss very
precisely, high rates of land, fresh water and marine habitat degradation in this region is a reflection of
species loss.
Causes of loss of Biodiversity:
 The main causes of biodiversity loss include land-use changes, changing levels of atmospheric carbon
dioxide, changing climate, invasive species and nitrogen deposition (air pollution). The causes of biodiversity
loss are many and varied, and often interrelated.
(1) Habitat Destruction
 Habitat refers to the area where species seek food, get shelter, and reproduce. The greatest threat to wild
plant and animal species is due to destruction or alteration of their habitat. Consequently, it must compete
with the local population of the same species as well as other animals. The other option is that it must
migrate into a marginal habitat where it may succumb to predation, starvation or disease.
 Some habitats are more vulnerable to species extinction, these are called fragile habitats. Coral reefs,
oceanic islands and mountain tops are important fragile habitats.
(2) Over Exploitation of Resources
 People use some plant and animal species at a greater rate than the species can replace themselves,
which can lead to extinction.
 Nine of the world's major ocean fisheries are declining because of too much fishing as well as water
pollution and habitat destruction. Popular commercial species such as the southern blue fin tuna, the
Atlantic halibut and the Pacific and Atlantic salmon are now threatened.
 Current logging rates threaten to eliminate mahogany and other tree species that take many years to grow
and mature.
 Over harvesting of resources includes Poor land use planning, Selective removal of economically important
organisms, Replacement of indigenous varieties of crop species with new hybrids, hunting. Hunting and
Export The hunting and export of excessive numbers of certain animal species is another important factor
leading to dangerous reductions in numbers. There are three main types of hunting:
i) Commercial hunting - in which the animals are killed for profit from sale of their furs or other parts;
ii) Subsistence hunting - the killing of animals to provide enough food for survival; and
iii) Sport hunting - the killing of animals for recreation. Although subsistence hunting was once a major cause
of extinction of some species, it has now declined sharply in most areas.
(4) Selective Destruction
 The selective destruction of one species of an existing fauna can produce equally unfortunate results.
Extinction or near extinction can also occur because of attempts to exterminate pest and predator species
that compete with people and livestock for food.

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(5) Pollution
 Pollution comes in many forms - oil spills, acid precipitation, toxic chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides,
and urban and suburban sewage runoff, to name a few. Pollution may kill organisms outright or it may
weaken them by interfering with vital processes such as mobility and reproduction.
(6) Global Climate Change
 By burning fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal and by burning trees to clear forests, we have
dramatically increased the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. The changed atmospheric conditions that
result from global warming could create greater numbers of intense storms and prolonged droughts. The
expected speed of climate changes coupled with direct loss of natural habitat may prevent some species
from adapting quickly enough. They are likely to become extinct, locally or more broadly, and their roles
in natural systems will be lost forever.
(7) Invasive Species
 Purposely or accidentally, people often bring non-native species into new areas where the species have
few or no natural predators to keep their populations in check. These invasive species - also called alien,
introduced or exotic species - are considered the most important cause of biodiversity loss. They range
from microbes to mammals. Invasive species also cause economic and environmental havoc. Invasive
species can also alter fire cycles, nutrient cycling and the hydrology and energy budgets in native
ecosystems. The problem of invasive species will rise severely through climate change.
(8) Domestication
 It means that man has taken under his direct care the living beings which are useful to him. Through
extensive breeding programmes, he has modified them to derive maximum benefit of their products.
 During the process, the species have lost certain useful characteristics so much so that these forms cannot
survive on their own in nature. A very good example is corn, which is pampered so much by man that
if it is left on its own, it cannot survive.
Categorization of Species
Threatened Species
 India ranks second in terms of the number of threatened mammals and sixth in terms of countries with
the most threatened birds (IUCN, 2000). Many plant and animal species are threatened by the possibility
of extinction. However, the seriousness of the threat varies. For example, a species with fewer than 50
known survivors living in one small area is in much more critical condition than another with 5,000
individuals living in several areas.
 The Survival Service Commission (now called Species Survival Commission) of International Union of
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has established four categories of threatened species. These describe the
degree to which a species is threatened with extinction. These categories are: Threatened defected,
intermediate out of danger.
The Red Data Book
 It is a loose-leaf volume of information on the status of many kinds of species. This volume is continually
updated and is issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) located in Morges,
Switzerland, "Red" of course is symbolic of the danger that these species both plants and animals presently
experience - throughout the globe.
 The Red Data Book was first issued in 1966 by the IUCN's Special Survival Commission as a guide for
formulation, preservation and management of species listed. In this Book, information for endangered
mammals and birds is more extensive than for other groups of animals and plants, coverage is also given
to less prominent organisms facing extinction.
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 The pink pages in this publication include the critically endangered species. As the status of animals
changes, new pages are sent to the subscribers. Green pages are used for those species that were
formerly endangered, but have now recovered to a point where they are no longer threatened. With
passing time, the number of pink pages continues to increase.
The categories of threatened species (IUCN) Extinct (EX)
 A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed
extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal,
annual), and throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a
time frame appropriate to the taxon' s life cycle and life form.
Extinct in the Wild (ENV)
 A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized
population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when
exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual),
throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame
appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form.
Critically Endangered (CR)
 A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the
criteria for Critically Endangered, i.e. reduction in population (> 90% over the last 10 years), population
size (number less than 50 mature individuals), quantitative analysis showing the probability in wild in at
least 50% in their 10 years) and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction
in the wild.
Endangered (EN)
 A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for
Endangered, i.e. reduction in population size (70% over the last 10 years), population size estimated to
number fewer than 250 mature individuals, quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in
wild in at least 20% within 20 years and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild.
Vulnerable (VU)
 A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for
Vulnerable i.e. reduction in population (> 50% over the last 10 years) population size estimated to number
fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, probability of extinction in wild is at least 10% within 100 years,
and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
Near Threatened (NT)
 A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for
Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify
for a threatened category in the near future.
Least Concern (LC)
 A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in
this category.
Data Deficient (DD)
 A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment
of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be
well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking.
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Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more
information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened
classification is appropriate.
Not Evaluated (NE)
 A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. Add India specific
critically Endangered, Native species of India.
CAUSES OF SPECIES EXTINCTION
Extinction is caused through various processes:
 Deterministic processes that have a cause and effect - e.g. glaciations, human interference such as
deforestation.
 Stochastic processes (chance and random events) that effect the survival and reproduction of individuals
- e.g. unexpected changes of weather patterns, decreased food supply, disease, increase of competitors,
predators or parasites, etc. that may act independently or add to deterministic effects.
Natural Extinction
 Over geological time, all species have a finite span of existence. The average life span of a species
derived from the fossil record is 4 million years.
 Natural extinction patterns are usually based on the study of the earth's fossil record in geological time.
The available information indicates that overall extinction rates have not been constant over time, and that
around 60% of the species extinctions have happened in relatively short episodes or spasms.
 Extinction in vascular plants has been more gradual compared with the loss of animals. It is believed that
extinction among this group was due more to competitive displacement by more advanced plant forms,
or due to a gradual climate change, than due to any sudden catastrophic event.
Artificial Extinction
 Even though species extinction is a natural process which can happen without the intervention of humans,
extinctions caused by humans is now happening over and above the reasonable estimate of natural
extinction rates. Species are threatened with extinction by the intervention of humans due to:
 Direct causes - such as hunting, collection or capture and persecution
 Indirect causes - such as habitat loss, modification and fragmentation and the introduction of invasive
species.
MAJOR IMPACTS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS
 The continued loss of biodiversity will greatly impact human society as well as ecosystem and their
valuable services. It is difficult to quantify these impacts. But looking at all the products and services
biodiversity provides -and the difficulty of their replacement - gives us an idea of the magnitude of the
consequences we face if we do not conserve the biodiversity:
 There are several perceptible effects of biodiversity loss at both global and national levels. Some major
effects are listed as follows:
(i) A steady increase in atmospheric CO2 level due to disruption of the carbon cycle in nature is one of the
most obvious of global climate changes in recent years. Clearing and destruction of tropical moist forest
is expected to increase the atmospheric CO2 and decrease the carbon-fixing potential of the biosphere.
(ii) Adverse effects on local climate and water flow due to loss of tropical forests
(iii) Decrease of overall population size of species and loss of geographic range
(iv) Extinction of species which is the irreversible loss of biodiversity. The majority of the world's species,
especially tropical invertebrates, have not been scientifically named or identified.

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(v) Increased coastal erosion and loss of fishery productivity as a result of the loss or degradation of coastal
areas such as mangrove habitats and coral reefs.
(vi) Reduction of genetic diversity of crop species due to replacement of traditional crop varieties and livestock
by the use of high yielding, but less resistant and genetically uniform, varieties/species.
(vii) Loss of traditional knowledge and cultural practices associated with the cultivation of traditional varieties
that are lost.
(viii) Loss of livelihoods a large proportion of the people in the world depends on bioresources for subsistence
use or their livelihood. This is seriously jeopardized due to loss of biodiversity.
There is no way, of course, to estimate losses of psychological, emotional and spiritual well being that will result
from ruined forests, beaches, lakes and other places people rely on for rejuvenation.
CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY
 Biotic diversity - the richness of life on earth - is like a common property resource, belongs to the whole
human race and therefore biodiversity conservation is a major concern worldwide. Conservationists are
involve in global efforts to protect biodiversity, the present rests on the past, but leads into the future, and
we must strive to improve the attitudes and institutions that now exist. We should conserve the rich
biodiversity of the earth for the posterity so they can enjoy the richness of earth.
 Protection, conservation and proliferation are major strategies of the plan. In this unit the two mechanisms
for protection of biological diversity have been given special emphasis.
 Basically, there are two ways of conservation of biodiversity as follows:
(1) In-situ conservation:
 The conservation of species of plants and animals in their natural habitats i.e, wild areas is called `in-situ'
or 'on-site conservation'. In this method of conservation of biodiversity species of plants and animals are
protected in specially demarcated natural habitats such as 'nature reserve' or `biosphere reserve', natural
parks, sanctuaries etc.
(2) Ex-situ conservation:
 The method of ex-situ conservation of biodiversity simply means protection and conservation of plants and
animals outside their natural native places. Such conservation is called `off-site conservation'. Ex: In order
to restore genetic diversity of plants and animals the seeds and germplasms of rare and endangered
species are stored in 'seed banks' or `germplasm banks' to conserve genes of such species. Such storage
centers are also called as 'gene banks'. Initiatives to conserve biodiversity can be focused at all the three
levels i.e. the ecosystem level, species level, and genetic level. While these litiatives will be closely linked,
they will not be substitute for one another.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROTECTED AREAS
 Protected areas are geographically defined areas that are designated or regulated, and managed for
purposes of conservation. As such, these areas play a valuable role in the protection of areas of high
species diversity (encompassing habitat conservation), threatened species, traditional crops and wild relatives
of crops and genetic diversity.
 The term "Protected Area" covers areas that are legally designated at the national level or at the
international level. There are many ways in which Protected Areas are classified at the national level.
IUCN' s World Commission on Protected Areas has introduced a standardised means of classification by
introducing eight categories of nationally designated and two internationally designated protected areas.
 IUCN classification of Protected Areas at the national level / Protected Area Network:

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 The United Nations List of Protected Areas is compiled by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and
Protected Areas (CNPPA), with the assistance of UNEP, UNESCO and the WWF. The ten categories
for conservation management are identified in the 1982. The List is divided into three groups as follows:
Group A - Areas of particular interest to CNPPA:
These are categories for which the CNPPA takes responsibility to monitor the status and to provide technical
advice as requested. These include:
i) Scientific Reserves/Strict Nature Reserves-The ecosystems are kept in as undisturbed a state as possible.
They are maintained for scientific study, education and environmental monitoring.
ii) National Parks/Provincial Parks-Maintained to protect one or more ecosystems, and for scientific, educational
or recreational use. Commercial exploitation of resources not allowed.
iii) Natural Monuments/Natural Landmarks-Smaller reserves to preserve unique biological, geological or
culture features.
iv) Nature Conservation Reserves/Managed Nature Reserves/Wildlife Sanctuaries-Similar to category, but
with some human manipulation and controlled harvesting.
v) Protected Landscapes- Allow non-destructive traditional uses of the area by local resident population.
Group B - Areas of interest to IUCN in general:
 These categories are of particular importance to IUCN as a whole and are generally found in most
nations, but would not be considered exclusively within the scope of CNPPA. However, CNPPA may
wish to monitor and provide expertise on those areas which are of particular importance to nature
conservation. These include:
(vi) Resource Reserves - Natural resources are preserved for the future. Resource use in controlled.
(vii) Anthropological Reserves/Natural Biotic Areas - Allow non-destructive traditional uses of the area by
local resident population.
(viii) Multiple Use Management Areas/Managed Resource Areas - Allow sustainable uses of natural resources,
including water, wildlife, livestock, timber, tourism.
Group C - Internationally recognized / Affiliated designation :
These categories form part of international programmes and have specific relevance for nature conservation,
yet, in many cases, already receive protection under a previous category. CNPPA may e called upon to monitor
these categories and to provide special attention in cooperation with other institutions with which IUCN has
consultative status. These include:
(ix) Biosphere Reserves.
(x) World Heritage Sites (Natural)
National parks
Any natural ecosystem of rich biodiversity and almost pristine habitats may e declared national parks, provided
that such natural area is of ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, and hydrological importance and needs
protection and conservation. The following activities are strictly prohibited :
 Hunting, killing or capturing of animals
 Derivation of any wild animal of its habitat
 Destruction and collection of plants
 Use of weapons
 Grazing by any life stock other than wild animals of the concerned national parks
 Alteration of boundaries of national parks etc.
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National parks in India are IUCN category Ii protected areas. India's first national park (reference needed as
kaziranga is established in 1905) was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett
National Park, Uttarakhand. As of July 2015, there were 103 national parks encompassing as area of 40,500
km2 (15,600 sq mt), comprising 1.23% of India's total surface area.
Wildlife sanctuaries of India

 Wildlife sanctuaries are established by IUCN category II protected areas. India has 515 wildlife sanctuaries
referred to as wildlife sanctuaries category IV protected areas. Among these, the 48 tiger reserves are
governed by Project Tiger and are of special significance in the conservation of the tiger.
 Some wildlife sanctuaries are specifically named bird sanctuary, e.g. Keoladeo National Park before
attaining National Park status. Many National Parks were initially wildlife sanctuaries.
 The conservative measures taken by the Indian Government for the conservation of Tigers was awarded
by a 30% rise in the number of tigers in 2015.
 Wildlife sanctuaries are of national importance due to some flagship faunal species, are named National
Wildlife Sanctuary, like the tri-state National Chambal (Gharial) Wildlife Sanctuary for conserving the
gharial.
Biosphere reserves
 Biosphere serves are internationally recognized areas established to promote and demonstrate a balanced
relationship between humans and the biosphere. They highlight the value of nature conservation within a
particular natural region and reconcile the conservation of biological diversity with sustainable use.
 The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initially under the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme by
UNESCO in 1971. The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to conserve in-situ all forms
of life, along with its support system, in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for monitoring
and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems. The first biosphere reserve of the world was established
in 1979.
 As of March 2016, 669 biosphere reserves in 120 countries, including 16 transboundary sites, have been
included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The Indian government has established around
eighteen Biosphere Reserves in India, (categories roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected
areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Animal Sanctuary), and often
include one or more National Parks and/or preserves, along with buffer zones that are open to some
economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to
the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life.
The objectives of the programme are:
a) Conserve representative samples of ecosystems;
b) Provide for long-term in situ conservation of genetic diversity;
c) Promote and facilitate basic and applied research and monitoring;
d) Promote appropriate sustainable management of the living resources in the reserve;
e) Disseminate the experience so as to promote sustainable development elsewhere; and
f) Promote international co-operation.

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Core area
 Each biosphere reserve includes one or several core areas that are strictly protected according to well
defined conservation objective and consists of typical samples of natural or minimally disturbed ecosystems.
 Core areas may be much larger in sparsely populated areas and relatively small in densely inhabited areas.
 Core areas may correspond to strict nature reserve or wild areas or national park or to other types of
strictly protected areas. Strict protection of core areas does not necessarily mean 'non-intervention' : they
can be submitted to different types of protective management, depending on their specific conservation
objectives and on the character and history of landscape.
 Core areas naturally exclude the presence of significant human settlements. Besides non-destructive
research, the other significant function of the core area is the environmental observation and monitoring.
Buffer zone
 The buffer zone must have a clearly established legal or administrative status even when several
administrative authorities are involved in its management.
 Only activities compatible with the protection of the core areas may take place. This includes in particular
research, environmental education and training, as well as tourism and recreation or other uses carried
out in accordance with the management requirements and regulations.
Transition area
 The transition area surrounding the buffer zone plays mainly development role such as cooperative
activities between researches, managers and local populations so as to ensure appropriate physical planning
and sustainable resource development.
 Thus the transition zone works for the association of environment and development. This zone is bio
geographic in character rather than administrative unit, so it covers larger and open areas.

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Protected Areas
National Park Sanctuary Biosphere Reserves
1. Hitched to the habitat for 1. Generally species-oriented 1. Not hitched to anyone,
particular wild animal as citrus, pitcher plant, two or more species, but
species like tiger, lion, Great Indian Bustard. to the whole ecosystem
hangul, rhino etc. i.e., totally of all forms of
life i.e., ecosystem-
oriented.
2. In India, the size range is 2. Size range is 0.61 to 7818 2. Size range over 5670
0.04 to 3162 sq.km. Most sq.km. Most common (in sq.km.
common (in about 40%) is about 40%) is 100 to 500
100 to 500 sq.km. In 15% is sq.km. In 25% is 500 to
500 to 1000 sq.km. 1000 sq.km.
3. Boundaries circumscribed 3. Boundaries not sacrosanct. 3. Boundaries circumscribed
by legislation. by legislation.
4. Except the buffer zone, no 4. Limited biotic interference. 4. Except the buffer zone,
biotic interference. no biotic interference.
5. Tourism permissible. 5. Tourism per missible. 5. Tourism normally not
permissible.
6. Research and scientific 6. Lacking. 6. Managed.
management lacking.
7. So far no attention to 7. So far no attention 7. Attention given.
genpools and conservation.
World Heritage Sites

 A UNESCO World Heritage site is a specific site (such as a forest, mountain range, lake, desert, buildings,
complex, or city that has been nominated for the intervations world heritage programme administered by
UNESCO. The programme aims to catalogue, names and preserve sites of outstanding importance, either
cultural or natural, to the common heritages of human kind. Listed sites can obtain funds from the World
Heritage fund under certain conditions.
 The concept here is the protection of cultural and natural site and cultural landscapes that are of
outstanding universal value. Their deterioration or destruction constitutes a loss to the heritage of a all
humanity and not just to the country where they are located.
 Natural sites in India that are under world heritage list.
State
Kaziranga National Park Assam
Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthan
Manas National Park Assam
Sunderbans National Park West Bengal
Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand
Western Ghats Keral, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu
The Great Himalayan National Himachal Pradesh
Park

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Ramsar Sites
 The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of
wetlands, i.e. to stem to progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future,
recogning the fundamental ecological functions of the wetlands and their economic, cultural, scientific, and
recreational value.
Contracting countries have four obligations.
(1) Incoporate the consideration of wetlands conservation within their national land-use planning.
(2) Designate at least one wetland of international importance according to specified criteria.
(3) Promote wetland conservation by crating nature reserves.
(4) Train staff in wetland wardening.
The Ramsar Convention has defined wetlands as given below:
'Wetlands are areas of marsh fen, peat land or water, whether artificial or natural, permanent or water,
temporary, with the water static or flowing, brackish or salt, including marine areas, depth of which does not
exceed 6 meters such as mangroves, corals, estuaries, creeks, bays, sea grasses and lakes etc'.
List of ramsar sites in India
State Ramsar sites

Kerala Ashtamudi Lake
Orissa Bhitarkanika Mangroves
Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Wetland
Orissa Chilika Lake
Assam Deepor Beel
West Bengal East Calcutta Wetlands
Punjab Harike Wetlands
Punjab Kanjli Lake
Rajasthan Keoladeo National Park
Andhra Pradesh Kolleru Lake
Manipur Loktak Lake
Tamil Nadu Point Climere Wildlife and Bird
Sanctuary
Madhya Pradesh Pong Dam Lake
Punjab Ropar Lake
Rajasthan Sambhar Lake
Kerala Sasthamkotta Lake
Jammu & Kashmir Tsomoriri
Kerala Vembanad, Kil Wetland
Jammu & Kashmir Wular Lake

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S.No. Name Location State Type Key fauna

1 Nilgiri Biosphere Part of Waynad, Tamil Nadu, Western Nilgiri tahr, lion-
Reserve Nagarhole, Bandipur Kerala and Ghats tailed macaque
and Mudumalai, Karnataka
Nilambur, Silent Valley
and Anaimalai Hills
2 Nanda Devi Parts of Chamoli Uttarakhand Western Snow Leopard,
National Park & District, Pithoragarh Himalayas Himalayan Black
Biosphere District & Bageshwar Bear
Reserve District
3 Gulf of Mannar Indian part of Gulf of Tamil Nadu Coasts Dugong or sea cow
Mannar extending from
Rameswaram island in
the North to
Kanyakumari in the
South of Tamil Nadu
and Sri Lanka
4 Norkek Part of Garo Hills Meghalaya East Red panda
Himalayas
5 Sundarbans Part of delta of Ganges West Bengal Gangetic Royal Bengal tiger
and Brahmaputra river Delta
system
6 Manas Part of Kokrajhar, Assam East Golden langur, red
Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Himalayas panda
Nalbari, Kamrup and
Darrang Districts
7 Simlipal Part of Mayurbhanj Odisha Deccan Gaur, royal Bengal
district Peninsula tiger, elephant
8 Dihang-Diban Part of Siang and Arunachal Eastern
Dibang Valley Pradesh Himalaya
9 Pachmarhi Parts of Betul District, Madhya Semi-Arid Giant squirrel, flying
Biosphere Hoshangabad District Pradesh squirrel
Reserve and Chhindwara
District
10 Achanakmar- Part of Annupur, Madhya Maikala Four-horned
Amarkantak Dindori and Bilaspur Pradesh, Hills antelope, Indian wild
Biosphere districts Chhattisgarh dog, Sarus crane,
Reserve White-rumped
vulture, Philautus
sanctisilvaticus
(Sacred grove bush
frog)
11 Great Rann of Part of Kutch, Rajkot, Gujarat Desert Indian wild ass
Kutch Surendranagar and
Patan Districts
12 Cold Desert Pin Valley National Himachal Western Snow leopard
Park and surroundings; Pradesh Himalayas
Chandratal and Sarchu
& Kibber Wildlife
Sanctuary

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13 Khangchendzonga Parts of Kangchenjunga Sikkim East Snow leopard, red

Himalayas panda
14 Agasthyamalai Neyyar, Peppara and Kerala, Tamil Western Nilgiri tahr,
Biosphere Shenduruny Wildlife, Nadu Ghats elephants
Reserve Sanctuary and their
adjoining areas
15 Great Nicobar Southern most islands Islands Islands Saltwater crocodile
Biosphere of Andaman and Andaman and
Reserve Nicobar Islands Nicobar
Islands
16 Dibru-Saikhowa Part of Dibrugarh and Assam East Golden langur
Tinsukia districts Himalayas
17 Seshachalam Hills Seshachalam Hill Andhra Eastern
Ranges covering parts Pradesh Ghats
of Chittoor and Kadapa
districts
18 Panna Part of Panna District Madhya Catchment Tiger, chital,
and Chhatarpur District Pradesh Area of the chinkara, sambhar
Ken River and sloth bear
Important national parks and wild life sanctuaries of India

S.No. Name State Location Important fauna
1. Dachigam Wildlife Sanctuary Jammu & Kashmir Western Himalayas Leopard, Musk Deer,
Himalayan Black Bear,
Himalyan Brown Bear
2. Jim Corbett National Park Uttarakhand Bengal tiger, Leopard,
Leopard cast, Elephants,
Sambhar Deer and Golden
Jackal
3. Sunderbans West Bengal Ganges Delta Bengal tiger, salt water
crocodile, Fishing cats,
Leopard cats, Macaques,
Wild boar, Indian grey
mongoose, Fox, Jungle cat,
Flying fox, Pangolin, Chital
4. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Assam Foothills of the Tiger, Asian elephants,
Himalayas Golden Cat, Leopards,
Clouded Leopard, Slow
Loris and Chital etc.
5. Kaziranga National Park Assam Tigers, One-horned
Rhinoceros, Elephant, and
the Asian water buffalow,
Swamp Deer, Monitor
Lizard and Spectacled
Cobra etc.

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6. Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan between the

confluence of the Tiger, Hyena, Sloth Bear
Banas and the and Chital etc.
Chambal River
7. Keoladeo Bird Sanctuary / Rajasthan Keoladeo National Park is
Bharatpur Nationa Park popularly known as "bird
paradise. Herons, storks,
cormorants, warblers,
babblers, bee-eaters, bulbuls,
quails, Indian gray hornbil,
Marshall's iora, Nilgai, Feral
cattle, Chital deer, Sambar,
Wild boar, Indian porcupine.
8. Sasan Gir National Park Gujarat Asiatic Lions, Leopards,
Sloth Bears, Jungle Cats,
Spectacled Cobra.
9. Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh Tigers, Leopards, Wild dogs,
Jackals and Sloth bear etc.
10. Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary Kerala Tiger, Elephant, Travancore
flying squirrel, Fruit bat,
Giant squirrel, Wild pig and
lion-tailed macaque etc.
11. Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu The oldest water Garganey teals, gloosy ibis,
bird sanctuary in grey heron, grey pelican,
India open-billed stork, painted
stork, snake bird, spoonbill
and spot bill duck.
12. Annamalai Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu Bengal Tiger, Elephans, Sloth
or Indira Gandhi Wildlife Bear, Indian Leopard,
Sanctuary and National Park Pangolin and the Sambhar
deer
13. Campbell Bay National Park Great Nicobar Crab-eating Macaque, the
Island Megapode, the Giant Robber
crab and the Nicobar
Pigeon. One can also see
Olive Ridley turtles as well
as Leatherback Turtles, Wild
Boar, deer and Civet cats.
Tree ferns and orchids are
in abundance here.
14. Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh Swamp deer, One-horned
Rhinoceros, Leopard and
Tiger
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15. Nanda Devi Biosphere Uttarakhand Snow Leopard, Himalayan
Reserve and National Park Black bear, Himalayan
Brown bear, Musk deer,
Himalayan Tahr and plenty
of bird and breath taking
floral species
16. Hemis National Park or the largest national Snow leopard, Bharal sheep,
Hemis High Altitude park in India Tibetan Wolf, Eurasian
National Park Brown Bear, Lammergeier
Vulture, Golden Eagle,
Himalayan Vulture and
Mountain weasel etc.
17. Kanchendzongs National Park The park contains many
mannal species including
musk deer, snow leopard,
Himalayan tahr, wild dog,
sloth bear, civet, Himalayan
black bear, red panda,
Tibetan wild ass, Himalayan
blue sheep, serow, goral and
takin, as well as reptiles
including rat snake and
Russell's viper.
18. Bandipur National Park Karnataka Tigers, Elephants, sloth
bears, Mugger crocodiles,
Dholes, Spectacled Cobra
and flying lizards etc.
19. Panna National Park Madhya Pradesh Tiger, the Sloth bear, chital,
(also a tiger reserve) Chinkara and King Vulture
etc.
20. Similipal National Park Orissa Tiger, Elephant, Indian Bison,
Chausingha, Leopard, Jungle
cat and several species of
birds and reptiles
21. Kudremukh National Park Karnataka Western Ghats Tiger, Leopard, Indian Bison,
Sambhar deer, Dhole and
Lion-tailed macaque etc.
22. Eravikulam Natioanl Park Kerala Western Ghats. The Tiger, Leopard, Dhole,
Indian
park is surrounded Porcupine, Nilgiri Tahr,
by different Stripe-necked mongoose,
tributaries of the Golden Jackal and Sambhar
Periyar, Kaveri and Deer
Chalakudiyar River
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23. Dibru Saikhowa Wildlife Assam The park is Feral horses, Tiger, Water
Sanctuary surrounded by the Buffalo, Elephant, Flying
Brahmaputra, Lohit Squirrel, King Cobra, River
and the Dibru River. Dolphin and Slow Loris etc.
24. National Chambal Sanctuary Rajasthan The Indian Gharial, the
Ganges Dolphin, Indian
Wolf, Striped Hyena,
Monitor Lizard, Indian
Flying fox, Porcupine and
Hedgehog etc.
25. Orang National Park Located on the Indian Rhinoceros, Tiger,
Northern shores of Asiatic Elephants, Pygmy
the Brahmaputra Hog, Pangolin, Leopard Cat
River and King Cobra.
26. Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh Located on the Tiger, Leopard, Clouded
Burma border leopard, Snow Leopards,
Asiatic Black bears, Dholes,
Red Pandas and Slow Loris
etc.
27. Gulf of Kutch National Park Gujarat First marine national Several species of coral,
park in India and is Dolphins, whales and the
located on an island massive whale sharks.
in the Arabian sea
28. Silent Valley National park Kerala Western Ghats Lion-tailed Macaque, Tiger,
Leopard, Jungle Cat,
Leopard Cat, Sloth bear,
otter, Travancore flying
squirrel, Porcupine and
Elephant etc.
29. Desert National Park Rajasthan Desert Fox, Bengal Fox,
Spiny Tail lizard, Monitor
lizard, Russell's viper, Desert
cat, Saw-scaled viper andthe
great Indian bustard
30. Harike Wetland Punjab Confluence of the Endangered Indus dolphin
Beas and the
Sutlej rivers
31. Eturnagaram Wildlife Telangana Tiger, Leopard, Wolf, Dhole,
Sanctuary Jackals, Sloth bear, Mugger
crocodiles, Cobra and
Chinkara etc.
32. Great Himalayan Himachal Pradesh Blue sheep, snow leopard,
National Park Himalayan brown bear,

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Himalayan tahr and musk
deer
33. Indravati National Park Chattisgarh It derives its name Wild Asian buffalo, gaur
from the nearby (Indian bison), milgai,
Indravati River blackbuck, chausingha (four-
horned antelope), sambar,
chital, Indian muntjac, Indian
spotted chevrotain and wild
boar, tigers, leopards, sloth
bears, dholes (wild dog) and
striped hyenas.
34. Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh Highest tiger Tigers, gaur, Indian bison,
population in India sambar, barking deer, Indian
wolf, striped hyena
35. Bhitarkanika National Park Odisha The national park is The park is home to
Saltwater
surrounded by the Crocodile (Crocodylus
Bhitarkanika Wildlife porosus), White Crocodile,
Sanctuary. Indian python, King cobra,
Gahirmatha Beach & black ibis, darters and many
Marine Sanctuary other species of flora and
lies to the east, and fauna.
separates swamp
region cover with
canopy of mangroves
from the Bay of
Bengal. The national
park and wildlife
sanctuary is
inundated by a no.
of rivers - Brahmani,
Baitarni, Dhamra,
Pathsala and others.
36. Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur The only floating Brow-antlered deer, hog
deer,
park in the world, wild boar, large Indian civet,
located in Norther fox, jungle cat, golden cat,
East India, and an shrew, flying fox, sambar
integral part of etc.
Loktak lake.
37. South Button Island Andaman and Dugong, dolphin, water
National Park Nicobar Islands monitor lizard, blud whale
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Conservation efforts by India

Project Tiger-Tiger Conservation
 Indian tiger population at the end of the 20th century was estimated at 20,000 to 40,000 individuals.
 The first country-wide tiger census conducted in 1972 estimated the population to comprise a little more
than 1,800 individuals, an alarming reduction in tiger population.
 In 1973, Project Tiger was launched in the Palamau Tiger Reserve, and various tiger reserves were
created in the country based on a 'core-buffer' strategy.
 India has more than 80 national parks and 441 Sanctuaries of which some have been declared as Tiger
reserves.
 Tiger reserves are governed by the Project Tiger (1973).
 It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. It is administered by the
National Tiger Conservation Authority.
Aim: Protect tigers from extinction by ensuring a viable population in their natural habitats. Government has set
up a Tiger Protection Force under PT to combat poachers.
PT funds relocation of villagers to minimize human-tiger conflicts.
Core and Buffer zone
The Tiger Reserve are constituted on a 'core-buffer strategy'.
Core Zone
 The core area is kept free of biotic disturbance and forestry operations, where collection of minor forest
produce, grazing, human disturbances are not allowed within.
 These areas are required to be kept for the purposes of tiger conservation, without affecting the rights
of the Scheduled Tribes or such other forest dwellers.
 These areas are notified by the State Government in consultation with an Expert Committee (constituted
for that purpose).
Buffer Zone
 The Act defines buffer zone as the area peripheral to the critical tiger habitat or core area providing
supplementary habitat for dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for co-existence of human activity
(tribals).
 The limits of such areas are determined with the concerned Gram Sabha and an Expert Committee
constituted for the purpose.
Tiger Task Force -
 The implementation of Project Tiger over the years has highlighted the need for a statutory authority with
legal backing to ensure tiger conservation.
 On the basis of the recommendations of National Board for Wild Life, a Task Force was set up to look
into the problems of tiger conservation in the country.
 The recommendations of the Task Force include strengthening of Project Tiger by given it statutory and
administrative powers.
National Board for Wild Life  Tiger Task Force  National Tiger Conservation Authority
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
 The National Tiger Conservation Authority was established in December 2005 following a recommendations
of the Tiger Task Force.

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 National Tiger Conservation Authority administers Project Tiger.
 Administration of the tiger reserves will be in accordance with guidelines of NTCA.
 No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger reserve shall be made except on a recommendation of the NTCA
and the approval of the National Board for Wild Life.
 No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, except in public interest with the approval of the
NTCA and the approval of the National Board for Wild Life.
The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006
The Act provides for creating National Tiger Conservation Authority and Tiger and other Endangered Species
Crime Control Bureau (Wildlife Crime Control Bureau).
Functions of NTCA
 The Authority lays down stands, guidelines for tiger conservation in the Tiger Reserves, National Parks
and Sanctuaries.
 It would provide information on protection measures including future plan for conservation.
 The Authority would facilitate and support tiger reserve management in the States through eco-development
and people's participation.
 The Tiger Conservation Authority would be required to prepare an Annual Report, which would be laid
in the Parliament along with the Audit Report.
 State level Steering Committees will be set up in the Tiger States under the Chairmanship of respective
Chief Ministers. This has been done with a view for ensuring coordination, monitoring and protection of
tigers in the States.
 A provision has been made for the State Governments to prepare a Tiger Conservation Plan.
 Provision will be made for the States to establish a Tiger Conservation Foundation based on the good
practices emanating from some tiger reserves.
List of tiger reserves in India
1 Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
2 Arunachal Pradesh Namdapha Tiger Reserve
3 Pakhui Tiger Reserve
4 Assam Manas Tiger Reserve
5 Nameri Tiger Reserve
6 Kaziranga Tiger Reserve
7 Bihar Valmiki Tiger Reserve
8 Chhattisgarh Udanti and Sitanadi Tiger Reserve
9 Achanakmar Tiger Reserve
10 Indravati Tiger Reserve
11 Jharkhan Palamau Tiger Reserve
12 Karnataka Bandipur Tiger Reserve
13 Karnataka \Bhadra Tiger Reserve
14 Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve
15 Nagarhole Tiger Reserve
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16 Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve

17 Kerala Periyar Tiger Reserve
18 Parambikulam Tiger Reserve
19 Madhya Pradesh Kanha Tiger Reserve
20 Pench Tiger Reserve
21 Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve
22 Panna Tiger Reserve
23 Bori-Satpura Tiger Reserve
24 Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve
25 Maharashtra Melghat Tiger Reserve
26 Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve
27 Bor Tiger Reserve
28 Pench Tiger Reserve
29 Sahyadri Tiger Reserve
30 Nawegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve
31 Mizoram Dampa Tiger Reserve
32 Odisha Simlipal Tiger Reserve
33 Satkosia Tiger Reverse[15]
34 Rajasthan Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve
35 Sariska Tiger Reserve
36 Mukundara Hills Tiger Reserve
37 Tamil Nadu Kalakad-Mundathurai Tiger Reserve
38 Mudumalai Tiger Reserve
39 Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
40 Anamalai Tiger Reserve
41 Telangana Kawal Tiger Reserve
42 Uttar Pradesh Dudhwa Tiger Reserve
43 Amangarh Tiger Reserve
44 Pilibhit Tiger Reserve
45 Uttarakhand Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve
46 West Bengal Buxa Tiger Tiger Reserve
47 Sunderbans Tiger Reserve

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There are eight subspecies of tiger: among the eight, at present five subspecies are present in the wild. They
are: Bengal, South China, Indochinese, Sumatran, and Siberian. Three subspecies of tiger-Caspian, Bali and
Javan-area extinct.
Estimation of Tiger Populations
 The process of estimating the number of tigers in a given area is called 'Tiger census'. It is conducted
at regular intervals to know the current tiger populations and population trends.
 Besides estimating the number of tigers the method also helps to gather information on the density of the
tiger populations and associated prey.
 The most commonly used technique in the past was 'Pugmark Census Technique'.
 In this method the imprints of the pugmark of the tiger were recorded and used as a basis for identification
of individuals.
 Now it is largely used as one of the indices of tiger occurrence and relative abundance.
 Recent methods used to estimate the numbers of tigers are camera trapping and DNA fingerprinting.
 In camera trapping, the photograph of the tiger is taken and individuals are differentiated on the basis of
the stripes on the body.
 In the latest technique of DNA fingerprinting, tigers can be identified from their scats.
Reasons for falling number of tigers
 Pressure on habitat, Habitat fragmentation and Habitat destruction: Caused due to large-scale development
projects such as dams, industry, mines, railway lines etc.
 Incessant poaching: Tigers are killed so their body parts can be used for Traditional Chinese Medicine.
 Invasive species: Destroy the local producers. This has a cascading effect on the food chain. Tigers are
the worst hit as they are at the end of the food chain. [Tigers represent an 'Umbrella Species' that indicate
the health of the ecosystem].
 Reasons for slightly increased tiger population recently
 Wireless communication systems and outstation patrol camps have been developed within the tiger reserves,
due to which poaching has declined considerably.
 Fire protection is effectively done by suitable preventive and control measures.
 Voluntary Village relocation has been done in many reserves.
 Livestock grazing has been controlled to a great extent in the tiger reserves.
 Various compensatory developmental works have improved the water regime and the ground and field
level vegetation.
 Stringent punishments for violators.
 GIS based digitized database development to evaluate tiger population.
Elephant Corridor
 An elephant corridor is defined as a stretch/narrow strips of forested (or otherwise) land that connects
larger habitats with elephant populations and forms a conduit for animal movement between the habitats.
This movement helps enhance species survival and birth rate.
 There are 88 identified elephant corridors in India.
 Out of total 88 corridors, 20 were in south India, 12 in north-western India, 20 in central India, 14 in
northern West Bengal and 22 in north-eastern India.

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Threats to Elephant Corridors

 Habitat loss leading to fragmentation and destruction caused by developmental activities like construction
of buildings, roads, railways, holiday resorts and the fixing solar energized electric fencing, etc.
 Coal mining and iron ore mining is the two 'single biggest threats' to elephant corridors in central India.
 Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are mineral-rich states, but also have the highest number of elephant
corridors in the country, which makes known for elephant-man conflicts.
 There is also a serious poaching problem, as elephant ivory from the tusks is extremely valuable.
 Elephants need extensive grazing grounds and most reserves cannot accommodate them. If protected
areas are not large enough, elephants may search for food elsewhere. This often results in conflicts with
humans, due to elephants raiding or destroying crops.
Mitigation
 Fusion of the corridors with nearby protected areas wherever feasible; in other cases, declaration as
Ecologically Sensitive Areas or conservation reserves to grant protection.
 During the process of securing a corridor, monitoring for animal movement have to be carried out;
depending on the need, habitat restoration work shall also be done.
 Securing the corridors involves sensitizing local communities to the option of voluntarily relocation outside
the conflict zones to safer areas.
 Preventing further fragmentation of the continuous forest habitat by encroachment from urban areas.
Haathi Mere Saathi

 Haathi Mere Saathi is a campaign launched by the Ministry of environment and forest (MoEF) in
partnership with the wildlife trust of India (WTI).
 The campaign was launched at the 'Elephant 8' Ministerial meeting held in Delhi in 2011.
 The E-8 countries comprise of India, Botswana, the Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Kenya, Srilanka,
Tanzania, and Thailand.
 This public initiative was aimed at increasing awareness among people and developing friendship,
companionship between people and elephants.
Elephant - 8 Ministerial Meeting
 The E-8 ministerial meeting represented regions with all 3 species of elephants, viz.,
1. Asian elephant
2. African Bush Elephant
3. African Forest Elephant
Discussions covered a wide range of issues categorized under three basic themes.
1. Science and conservation
2. Management and conservation
3. Cultural and Ethical perspectives of conservation
Indian (One Horn) Rhino Vision 2020
 One horned rhinos are poached for their horns.
 Indian rhino vision 2020 implemented by the department of environment and forests, Assam.
 The programme will be supported by WWF India, the international rhino foundation (IRF), and a number
of local GOS.
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 Traslocations are the backbone of the IRV 2020 program.
 The goal set was to populate the potential rhino habitat areas identified viz. Manas NP, Dibru Saikhowa
WLS, Laokhowa-Bura Chapori WLS with a viable population of rhino through translocations from Kaizranga
NP and Pobitora WLS.
 Mans National Park was selected as the first site for translocation of rhinos.
 Ten rhinos have been released into Manav since 2008. Ten more rhinos will be moved from Kaziranga
National Park before the end of the year.
 Trans locating rhinos will help to create a viable population of this threatened species.
 The vision of this program is to increase the total rhino foundation in Assam from about 2000 to 3000
by the year 2020 and the ensure that these rhinos are distributed over at least 7 protected areas (PA)
to provide long term viability of the one-horned rhino population.
 Concentrating so many rhinos in a single protected area like Kaziranga exposes the species to risk of
calamities (epidemics, floods, massive poaching attempts).
 Further, rhinos in Pabitora have exceeded carrying capacity and numbers must be reduced to protect the
habitat and to mitigate the increasing rhino-human conflicts.
Project Snow Leopard
 The snow leopard is a globally endangered species.
 Merely 7,500 are estimated to be surviving over two million square kil9ometers in the Himalaya and
Central Asian mountains.
 Most snow leopard occur in China, followed by Mongolia and India.
Threats posed due to
 Human interference,
 Competition with livestock - people kill them to save their livestock,
 Retreating deeper into mountains due to global warming, and
 Poaching.
Why to conserve the high altitude ecosystem?
 The high altitudes of India (> 3000m) (including the Himalays and Trans-Himalaya biogeographic zones)
support a unique wildlife assemblage of global conservation importance.
 This includes highly endangered populations of species such as the snow leopard, two species of bears,
wolf, red panda, mountain ungulates such as the wild yak, chiru, Tibetan gazelle, Tibetan argali, Ladakhurial,
two species of musk deer, the hangul, three species of goral, serow, and takin, etc. High altit6ude lakes
and bogs provide breeding grounds for a variety of avifauna including the black-necked crane, barheade,d
Geese, brahminy ducks, and brown-headed gulls, etc.
 India has ratified international agreements promoting the conservation of high altitude wildlife species such
as the snow leopard.
 In 2003, the Convention Migratory Species included the snow leopard as Concerted Action Species under
its Appendix I.
 Similarly, in 2003, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) expanded the
scope of the CITES Tiger Enforcement Task Force to include all Asian big cat species including the snow
leopard.

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Sea Turtle Project

 A significant proportion of world's Olive Ridley Turtle population migrates every winter to Indian coastal
waters for nesting mainly at eastern coast.
 With the objective of conservation of olive ridley turtles and other endangered marine turtles. MoEF
initiated the Sea Turtle Conservation Project in collaboration of UNDP in 1999 with Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehradun as the Implementing Agency.
 The project is being implemented in 10 coastal States of the country with special emphasis in State of
Orissa.
 The project has helped in preparation of inventory map of breeding sites of Sea Trutles, identification of
nesting and breeding habitats along the shore line, and migratory routes taken by Sea Turtles, development
of guidelines to safeguard and minimize turtle mortality.
 One of the important achievements have been demonstration of use of Satellite Telemetry to locate the
migratory route of Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and sensitizing the fishermen and State Government for
the use of Turtle Exclusion Device (TED) in fishing trawlers to check turtle mortalit.
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project
 The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project has pulled back the once threatened crocodilians from the
brink of extinction and place them on a good path of recovery.
Objectives
 To protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries.
 To rebuild natural population quickly through 'grow and release' or 'rear and release' technique.
 To promote captive breeding.
 Captive breeding means that members of a wild species are captured, then bred and raised in a special
facility under the care of wildlife biologists and other expert.
 Bringing an animal into captivity may represent the last chance to preserve a species in the wild.
 To take-up research to improve management.
 To build up a level of trained personnel for better continuity of the project through training imparted at
project-sites and through the (erstwhile) Central Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute,
Hyderabad.
 To involve the local people in the project intimately.
Project Hangul
 The Kashmir stag also called Hangul is a subscpeices of Central Asian Red Deer native to northern India.
 It is the state animal of Jammu & Kashmir.
 In Kashmir, it's found in Dachigam National Park at elevations of 3,035 metres.
 These deer once numbered from about 5,000 animals in the beginning of the 20th century.
 Unfortunately, they are threatened, due to habitat destruction, over-grazing by domestic livestock and
poaching.
 This dwindled to as low as 150 animals by 1970. However, the state of Jammu & Kashmir, along with
the IUCN and the WWF prepared a project for the protection of these animals.
 It became known as Project Hangul. This brought great results and the population increased to over 340
by 1980.

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Ganges Dolphin
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests notified the Ganges River Dolphin as the National Aquatic
Animal.
 The River Dolphin inhabits the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of
Nepal, India and Bangladesh.
 It is estimated that their total population in around 2,000 and they are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife
Protection Act (1972).
 The Ganges Dolphin is among the four 'obligate' freshwater dolphins found in the world - the other three
are the 'baiji found in the Yangtze River (China), the 'bhulan' of theIndus (Pakistan) and the 'boto' of the
Amazon River (Latin America).
 Although there are several species of marine dolphins whose ranges include some freshwater habitats,
these four species live only in rivers and lakes.
 The Chinese River Dolphin was declared functionally extinct by a team of international scientists in 2006.
 In India, the Ganges River Dolphin is threatened by river water pollution and siltation, accidental entanglement
in fishing nets and poaching for their oil.
 The addition, alterations to the rivers in the form of barrages and dams are separating populations.
 The Gangetic Dolphin is enormous public support for ensuring the maintenance and protection of the
Gangetic Dolphins. As a flagship species, its conservation requires greater efforts along the lines of that
provided to the tiger and the elephant. Other endangered river species such as the softshell turtle
(Aspideretes gangeticus), gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and smoothcoated otters (Lutra perspicillata) will
also benefit from conservation actions that benefit the Gangetic Dolphin.
Project Vulture
India has 9 species of vultures in the wild. They are the
1. Oriented white-backed vulture
2. Slender billed vulture
3. Long billed vulture
4. Egyptian vulture
5. Red headed vulture
6. Indian griffon vulture
In India the population of three species i.e. white backed vulture, slender billed vulture and long billed vulture
in the wild has declined drastically over the past decade.
Red headed vulture, slender billed vulture, long billed vulture are listed as critically endangered. It is initially
thought that the drastic decline in population was due to non-availability of food or an unknown viral epidemic
disease, but later on confirmed that decline in population was due to the drug dicolenac (NSAID).
Significance of vultures in India
 Scavenging on animal carcasses of animals and thereby helping keep the environment clean.
 Disposal of deal bodies as per the religious practices of Parsi community.
 Vultures are the primary removers of carrion in India and Africa.
Vulture safety zones
 Aim of developing VSZs is to establish targeted awareness activities surrounding 10km radius of vultures'
colonies so that no diclofenac or the veterinary toxic drugs are found in cattle carcasses, the main food
of vultures.
 The VSZ is spread around in several hundred kilometers covering the Jim Corbett in Uttarkhand, Dudhwa
and Katarniaghat forest reserves in UP which is adjoining the Indo-Nepal border.
Vulture restaurants
At this restaurant, tables are reserved only for the unique and rare vultures by Maharashtra and Punjab forest
departments. The aim is to conserve dwindling vulture population.
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Vultures which used to be very common in Indian 6. Which one of the following is not a site for in-
countryside some years ago are rarely seen situ method of conservation of flora?
onwadays. This is attributed to : (a) Biosphere reserve(b) Botanical garden
(a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new (c) National Park (d) Wildlife sanctuary
invasive species 7. If a tropical rain forest is removed, it does not
(b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical
their diseased cattle deciduous forest. This is because ?
(c) scarcity of food available to them (a) The soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease (b) Propagules of the trees in a rain forest have
among them poor viability
2. Which one of the following beaches is visited by (c) The rain forest species are slow-growing
Olive Ridley turtles annually for mass nesting ? (d) Exotic species invad the fertile soil of rain
(a) Chandipur (b) Gahirmatha forest
8. India is a party to the Ramsar Convention and
(c) Gopalpur (d) Paradwip
has declared many areas as Ramsar Sites. Which
3. In which of the following states is lion-tailed
of the following statements best describes as to
macaque found is its natural Habitat?
how we should maintain these sites in the context
1. Tamil Nadu of this Convention?
2. Kerala (a) Keep all the sties completely inaccessible to
3. Karnataka man so that they will not be exploited.
4. Andhra Pradesh (b) Conserve all the sites through ecosystem
Select the correct answer using the codes given approach and permit tourism and recreation
below. only.
(c) Conserve all the sites through ecosystem
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only
approach for a period without any
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 exploitation, with specific criteria and specific
4. Consider the following protected areas : period for each site, and then allow
1. Bandipur 2. Bhitarkanika sustainable use of them by future generations.
3. Manas 4. Sunderbans (d) Conserve all the sites through ecosystem
Which of the above are declared Tiger Reserves? approach and allow their simultaneous
sustainable use.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
9. Consider the following statements :
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. Biodiversity hotspots are located only in
5. In which one among the following categories of tropical regions.
protected areas in India are local people are not
2. India has four bio-diversity hotspots i.e.
allowed to collect and use the biomass ?
Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas,
(a) Biosphere Reserves Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar
(b) National Parks Islands.
(c) Wetlands declared under Ramsar Convention (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(d) Wildlife Sanctuaries (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
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10. Out of all the Biosphere Reserves in India. Four 15. Deforestation results in
have recognized on the World Network by 1. Flora destruction
UNESCO. Which one of the following is not 2. Fauna destruction
one of them ?
3. Ecological disbalance
(a) Gulf of Mannar (b) Kangchenjunga
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) Nanda Devi (d) Sunderbans
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
11. Matach List-I (Biosphere Reserves) with List-II
16. Massive deforestation causes
(States) and select the correct answer using the
(a) Soil erosion (b) Famine
codes given below the Lists :
(c) Floods (d) None of these
List-I List-II
17. Match List-I with List-II.
(Biosphere Reserves) (States)
List-I (National Park/Sanctuary)
A. Similipal 1. Sikkim
A. Kaziranga National Park
B. Dihang-Dibang 2. Uttaranchal
B. Dachigam Wildlife Sanctuary
C. Nokrek 3. Arunachal Pradesh
C. Jim Corbett National Park
D. Kanchenjunga 4. Orissa
D. Mudumalai Sanctuary
5. Meghalaya
List-II (Important protected species)
Codes: A B C D
1. Tiger
(a) 1 3 5 4
2. One-horned rhinoceros
(b) 4 5 2 1
3. Hangul
(c) 1 5 2 4
4. Elephant
(d) 4 3 5 1
Codes: A B C D
12. Consider the following animals of India :
(a) 2 3 1 4
1. Crocodile (b) 4 1 3 2
2. Elephant (c) 4 3 1 2
Which of these is/are endangered species ? (d) 2 1 3 4
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 18. Which one of the following is not a Tiger
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Reserve?
13. The Vallace's Line distinguishes or separates the (a) Sariska (b) Bandipur
flora and fauna between (c) Manas (d) Sultanpur
(a) Canada and USA 19. The 'Red Data Book' containing information on
(b) Taiga region and Tundra region all wild plants and animals in danger of extinction
(c) Mexico and Central America has been published by which one of the following?
(d) South-East Asia and Australasia (a) International Union for Conservation of
14. Which of the following strongly threatens Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
biodivesity ? (b) World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
(a) Fragile ecosystems such as mangroves and (c) World Conservation Union (WCU)
wetlands (d) United Nations Environment Programme
(b) Inaccessible habitats in Himalayas (UNEP)
(c) Destruction of natural habitats and vegetation 20. Biodiversity is richer in
and shifting cultivation (a) tropical regions (b) polar regions
(d) Creation of biosphere reserves (c) temperate regions (d) oceans

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ANSWERS SHEET
1. Ans. (b) 11. Ans. (d)
2. Ans. (b) 12. Ans. (c)
3. Ans. (a) 13. Ans. (d)
4. Ans. (b) 14. Ans. (c)
5. Ans. (b) 15. Ans. (a)
6. Ans. (d) 16. Ans. (a)
7. Ans. (a) 17. Ans. (a)
8. Ans. (c) 18. Ans. (d)
9. Ans. (d) 19. Ans. (a)
10. Ans. (b) 20. Ans. (a)


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134 Climate Change General Studies
CLIMATE CHANGE
THEORY
• Climate change is defined as variations and shifts in weather conditions over space and time resulting
into change of climatic type for example, from warm and moist climate to warm and dry climate, from
warm and moist climate to cool and moist climate.
• Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by
Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions etc.
Introduction:
• The parameters like Temperature, Pressure, Wind, Humidity and Precipitation, interact with each other.
They influence the atmospheric conditions like the direction and velocity of wind, amount of Insolation,
cloud-cover and the amount of precipitation. These are known as the elements of both weather and
climate.
• Weather is the atmospheric condition of any place for a short period of time with respect to its one or
more elements such as temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover etc.
• Climate is the study of the average weather conditions observed over a long period of time for a larger
area.
• Climate is a very long term phenomenon unlike weather which is a short term in its essence.
• Global climate depends on the amount of energy received by the Sun and the amount of energy that is
trapped in the system.
Climate change may be either global warming or global cooling for whatever reason either due to natural
or anthropogenic
Manifestations of Climate change:
• Extreme weather events
• Global warming
• Glacial Melting and Glacial Retreat
• Rise in sea level
• Ocean Warming and Acidification
Impacts of Climate Change:
• Varied Agricultural Production
• Inundation of coastal areas
• Northern spread of Tropical features
• Loss of Biodiversity
• Intensified Droughts and Cyclones
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Energy & Environment Climate Change 135
Causes of CC:
The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories: Natural causes and Anthropogenic
Causes.
Natural causes:
There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. Some of the more prominent ones
are continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the earth’s tilt, and comets and meteorites.
Continental drift
The continents that we are familiar with today were formed when the landmass began gradually drifting
apart, millions of years back. This drift also had an impact on the climate because it changed the physical
features of the landmass, their position and the position of water bodies. The separation of the landmasses
changed the flow of ocean currents and winds, which affected the climate.
Volcanoes
When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust, and ash
into the atmosphere and can reach even the stratosphere. The gases and dust particles partially block
the incoming rays of the sun, leading to cooling. Sulphur dioxide combines with water to form tiny droplets
of sulphuric acid.
The earth’s tilt
• If there was no tilt we would not have experienced seasons. Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect
the severity of the seasons -more tilt means warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler
summers and milder winters.
• The earth’s axis moves at the rate of a little more than a half-degree each century. This gradual change
in the direction of the earth's axis, called precession is responsible for changes in the climate.
Ocean currents
They cover about 71% of the Earth and absorb about twice as much of the sun's radiation as the
atmosphere or the land surface. Ocean currents have been known to change direction or slow down.
Much of the heat that escapes from the oceans is in the form of water vapour, the most abundant
greenhouse gas on Earth.
Human causes
Excess emission of Green House Gases that intensify climate change into the atmosphere caused by
• Population pressure
• Deforestation
• Urbanisation
• Industrial Revolution
• Ever increasing Demand for Energy
• Transportation
All this has contributed to a rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal
and natural gas supply most of the energy needed to run vehicles generate electricity for industries,
3 5
households, etc. The energy sector is responsible for about th of the carbon dioxide emissions, th
4 4
of the methane emissions and a large quantity of nitrous oxide.
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Green House Effect and Global Warming
The temperature surrounding the earth has been rising during the recent past. This is due to the ‘green
house effect’. The green-house effect is a natural phenomenon and has been occurring for millions of
years on the earth. Life on the earth has been possible because of this natural green house effect which
is due to water vapour and small particles of water present in the atmosphere. Together, these produce
more than 95 percent of total green-house warming. An average global temperature is maintained at
about 15°C due to natural green house effect. Without this phenomenon, average global temperatures
might have been around –17°C and at such low temperature life would not be able to exist.
Solar radiation
reflected by earth Absorbed radiation
re-emitted by green
house gases
Green house
gases
Trapped solar
radiation
Global warming
Gas Source and Causes

Carbon dioxide (CO2) Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation.
Growing paddy, belching of cattle and other livestock, termites,
Methane (CH4)
burning of fossil fuel, wood, land fills.
Nitrogen oxides (N2O) Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers; burning of wood and crop residue.
Hydrofluorocarbons Refrigerant
Perfluorocarbons Refrigerant, solvent, anesthetic
Sulphur hexafluoride Electrical insulator, inert gas, etchant, microwave system
Collectively these gases, known as green house gases, act somewhat like glass planes of a green house.
They allow light, infrared radiation, and some ultraviolet radiation from the sun to pass through the
troposphere. Earth’s surface absorbs much of this solar energy and degrades it to longer wave, infrared
radiation-that is heat-which then rises into the troposphere. Some of this heat escapes into space; some
is absorbed by molecules of green house gases, warming the air and some radiated back toward earth’s
surface. This natural trapping of heat in the troposphere is called the Green house effect.
Greenhouse gases and their sources
Water vapour: It is the most abundant greenhouse gas (GHG). However it has a low residence time
in the atmosphere and therefore is not considered the most important GHG.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2):
• CO2 is released naturally into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions and animal respiration but it is
also released through human activities such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels for energy.
CO2 also spends a long time in the atmosphere increasing its impact.
• Since the industrial revolution, humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by 30%. Atmospheric
CO2 concentrations have increased by more than 40% since preindustrial times, from approximately 280
parts per million by volume (ppmv) in the 18th century to 400 ppmv in 2014 surpassing purported limit
of 350ppmv.

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Methane:
• The second most important GHG, is produced both naturally and through human activities. The most
significant sources of Methane come from the decomposition of organic matter e.g. in landfills and in
agriculture, especially when rice or paddy fields that are flooded during the sowing and maturing periods.
Another large source is from the belching of ruminants (cows, goats etc).
• When soil is covered with water it becomes anaerobic or lacking in oxygen. Under such conditions,
methane-producing bacteria and other organisms decompose organic matter in the soil to form methane.
• Methane is also emitted during the process of oil drilling, coal mining and also from leaking gas pipelines
(due to accidents and poor maintenance of sites). Methane is a stronger GHG than CO2 because it can
absorb more heat; however it is much less abundant in the atmosphere.
Nitrous oxide: A very powerful greenhouse gas which is heavily produced in the agriculture sector with
the application of fertilizer, specifically in the production and use of organic fertilizers. It is also produced
when burning fossil fuels.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): These man-made compounds were produced for industrial use, mainly in
refrigerants and air conditioners. They are now regulated under the Montreal Protocol due to their
adverse affect on the Ozone Layer.
Atmospheric aerosols:
• They scatter and absorb solar and infrared radiation.
• They may change the microphysical and chemical properties of clouds and possibly their lifetime and
extent.
• The scattering of solar radiation cools the planet, while absorption of solar radiation by aerosols
warms the air directly instead of allowing sunlight to be absorbed by the surface of the Earth.
The Global Warming Potential (GWP)
• The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a gas is a measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs over
a particular period of time (usually 100 years), compared to carbon dioxide (CO2). The larger the GWP,
the more warming the gas causes. For example, methane’s (CH4) 100-year GWP is 21, which means
that CH4 will cause 21 times as much warming as an equivalent mass of CO2 over a 100-year time
period.
• Carbon dioxide is assigned a GWP of 1 to serve as a baseline for other GWP values. Carbon dioxide
emissions cause changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations that persist for thousands of years. CH4
absorbs more energy than CO2, making its GWP higher.
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) has a GWP 300 times that of CO2 for a 100-year timescale. Nitrous oxide emitted
today remains in the atmosphere for more than 100 years, on average.
• Chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs), hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs), hydrochlorofluoro carbons (HCFCs), perfluoro
carbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are sometimes called high-GWP gases because, for a
given amount of mass, they trap substantially more heat than CO2. Some HFCs remain in the atmosphere
for only a few years, while SF6 can remain in the atmosphere for thousands of years.
Urban Heat Islands
They are significantly warmer urban areas than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities. Urban
heat island is a major problem associated with rapid urbanization. The temperature increase is attributed
to deforestation and the construction materials adopted for city building. Usually, under the urban heat
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island phenomenon, the central regions of urban centres exhibit higher mean temperatures than the
surrounding areas. The heat island effect has corresponding ecological consequences on resident species.
Impacts of Global Warming
Since climate influences the location and composition of plants and animals in the natural environment,
changes in climate have numerous consequences on ecological systems. Shifts in forests in geographic
range and composition are likely to occur.
Ecological impact:
• Increased extinction of many species; growth or losses in freshwater fish populations depending on
geographic location.
• Sea level rise causes increased losses of coastal wetlands, inundation of coastal lowlands, increased
erosion of beaches, and increased salinity in estuaries.
Impact on Water resources:
The main consequence of climatic changes to inland waters includes the following;
• Changes in the global amount of water resources and in the spatial and temporal distribution of these
resources
• a Changes in soil moisture
• Changes in extreme phenomena related to water resource, i.e, floods and droughts
• Changes in water quality
• Changes in sedimentation processes
• Changes in water demand
Impact on Agriculture:
Global warming exhibits direct and indirect geographical effects on agricultural productivity. Direct
effects occur through changes in the length of the growing season, the frequency of heat waves, and
altered patterns of rainfall, while indirect effects result from changes in topsoil management practices.
Impact on Oceans:
• The role of the oceans in global warming is complex. The oceans serve as a sink for carbon dioxide,
taking up much that would otherwise remain in the atmosphere, but increased levels of CO2 have led
to ocean acidification.
• Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. An estimated 30-40% of the carbon dioxide from human
activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, rivers and lakes.
• To achieve chemical equilibrium, some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid. Increasing
acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms, such as
depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms, and causing “Coral Bleaching”.
• Other chemical reactions are triggered which result in a net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions
available. This makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms, such as coral and some plankton,
to form biogenic calcium carbonate, and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution.
• Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans. Ocean acidification
has been called the “evil twin of global warming”.
• Furthermore, as the temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess CO2.
The oceans have also acted as a sink in absorbing extra heat from the atmosphere.
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Impact on human health:

Human health effects are manifested by changes in morbidity and increases in mortality, particularly for
the elderly during hotter and extended summer periods.
The spread of tropical climates from the equator would bring malaria, encephalitis, yellow fever, and other
insect-borne diseases to formerly temperate zones. Sea level rise could spread infectious disease by
flooding sewage and sanitation systems in coastal cities.
Carbon Sequestration:
• Carbon capture and storage also known as CCS or carbon designed to tackle global warming by
capturing CO2 at power stations, industrial sites or even directly from the air and permanently storing
it underground.
• Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms or carbon to either
mitigate or defer global warming.
• It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases,
which are released by burning fossil fuels.
Sinks
• Carbon sequestration may be carried out by pumping carbon into ‘carbon sinks’ an area that absorbs
carbon.
 Natural sinks: Oceans, forests, soil etc.
 Artificial sinks: Depleted oil reserves, unmineable mines, etc.
• Carbon capture has actually been in use for years. The oil and gas industries have used carbon capture
for decades as a way to enhance oil and gas recovery. Only recently have we started thinking about
capturing carbon for environmental reasons.
Types of Sequestration:
• There are number of technologies under investigation for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere.
These can be discussed under three main categories:
• Ocean Sequestration: Carbon stored in oceans through direct injection or fertilization.
• Geologic Sequestration: Natural pore spaces in geologic formations serve as reservoirs for long-term
carbon dioxide storage.
• Terrestrial Sequestration: A large amount of carbon is stored in soils and vegetation, which are natural
carbon sinks. Increasing carbon fixation through photosynthesis, slowing down or reducing decomposition
of organic matter, and changing land use practices can enhance carbon uptake in these natural sinks.
• Geologic Sequestration is thought to have the largest potential for near-term application.
Carbon Sink
• Unlike black and brown carbon that contributes to atmospheric green house gases, green and blue
carbons sequestrate the atmospheric green house gases.
Green Carbon
• Green carbon is carbon removed by photosynthesis and is stored in the plants and soil of natural
ecosystems and is a vital part of the global carbon cycle.
• Many plants have short lives and release much of their carbon at the end of each season, but forest
biomass accumulates carbon over decades and centuries.
• Afforestation and reforestation are measures that can be taken to enhance biological carbon sequestration.

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Blue Carbon
• Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by the indicative vegetation, marine
organism and sediments.
• In particular, coastal ecosystems such as tidal marshes, mangroves, and sea grasses remove carbon from
the atmosphere and ocean, storing it in plants and depositing it in the sediment below them by natural
processes.
• These coastal ecosystems are very efficient at sequestering and storing carbon. These ecosystems are
found in all continents, except Antarctica.
Carbon Credit:
• A carbon credit is a tradeable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon
or carbon dioxide equivalent (tC)2e).
• An organization which produces one tonne less of carbon or carbon dioxide equivalent than the standard
level of carbon emission allowed for its outfit or activity, earns a carbon credit.
• Countries which are signatories to the Kyoto Protocol under the UNFCCC have laid down gas emission
norms for their companies to be met by 2012. In such cases, a company has two ways to reduce
emissions.
(i) It can reduce the GHG (greenhouse gases) by adopting new technology or improving upon the
existing technology to attain the new. norms for emission of gases.
(ii) It can tie up with developing nations and help them set up new technology that is eco-friendly,
thereby helping developing country or its companies ‘earn’ credits. This credit becomes a permit for
the company to emit GHGs in its own country.
However, only a portion of carbon credits of the company in developing country can be transferred
to the company in developed country.
• Developing countries like India and China are likely to emerge as the biggest sellers and Europe is going
to be the biggest buyers of carbon credits.
Carbon Offsetting:
• Carbon offsets are credits for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions made at another location, such as
wind farms which create renewable energy and reduce the need for fossil-fuel power energy.
• Carbon offsets are quantified and sold in metric tones of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e).
• Buying one tonne of carbon offsets means there will be one less tonne of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere than there would otherwise have been.
Ozone Layer Depletion
• Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive molecule containing three oxygen atoms. The upper part of the earth’s
atmosphere, between 10 and 50 km above the earth surface called stratosphere contains a thin layer of
ozone.
• This ozone layer serves as a natural filter for blocking deadly incoming UV radiation from the sun. Since,
the early 1970’s levels of the stratospheric ozone have thinned markedly over certain regions of the earth,
particularly over the Antarctic region.
• The thinning of stratospheric ozone layer is termed “ozone hole”. The ozone hole occurs because of the
special atmospheric and chemical conditions that exist there. The very low winter temperatures in the
Antarctic stratosphere cause Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC) to form. Special reactions that occur on
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PSCs, combined with the relative isolation of polar stratospheric air, allow Cl and Br reactions to produce
the ozone hole in Antarctic springtime.
Antarctica is colder than the Arctic Circle because the ratio of land to water is higher. Therefore, Ozone
depletion over the South pole is greater than the ozone depletion over the North pole.
Causes of ozone layer depletion:
Ozone (O3) layer can be destroyed both by natural and man-made causes.
Natural causes:
• A number of naturally occurring substances destroy stratospheric ozone. Most important of these compounds
are:
• Hydrogen oxide (HOx), Methane (CH4), Hydrogen gas (H2), Nitrogen oxides (NOx). Chlorine monoxide
(CIO); during volcanic eruptions, significant amount of chlorine may be released in the stratosphere. Tiny
particulate matter in the stratosphere, known as stratospheric aerosols, may also lead to ozone destruction.
Anthropogenic causes:
• The three important areas, where human activity can influence the ozone cycle, have been the direct
emission of NOx by supersonic transport flying above the tropopause, additional transport of nitrous oxide
as a result of increased use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and the formation of atomic chlorine in the
stratosphere from chloro-fluoro carbons (used as refrigerant, aerosol propellant and industrial solvent)
released in the troposphere.
• Another class of compounds, halons, is also ozone depleting compounds. Halons are bromo-chloro-
fluorocarbons or bromo-fluorocarbons that are widely used in fire extinguishers. Although the emissions
of halons and thus their atmospheric concentrations are much lower than the most common chloro-
fluorocarbons, they are 3 to 10 times more destructive than the CFCs.
Effect of ozone depletion
A small amount of UV-radiation is necessary for well-being of human beings and other organisms, such
as UV-B promote synthesis of vitamin-D.
UV-radiation also acts as a germicide to control microorganisms. However, increased UV dose is highly
dangerous to living organisms.
Harmful effects on other organisms Harmful effects on non-living materials

• Marine/freshwater organisms are very • Accelerate breakdown of paints
sensitive to UV-rays • Accelerate breakdown of plastics
• Fish larvae are very sensitive • Affect temperature gradient levels in the
• Plankton population severely damaged. atmosphere.
• Affect fish/shrimp/crab larvae • Affect atmospheric circulation pattern,
climatic changes.
Harmful effects on human beings Harmful effects on plants

• Increase susceptibility of skin-cancer • Inhibit photosynthesis
• Increase cataract • Inhibit metabolism
• Damage DNA • Repress growth
• Damage cornea • Destroy cells
• Cause retinal diseases • Cause mutation
• Suppers human immune systems • Decline forest productivity

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Global awareness and action on the part of world community in the form of Helsinki (1989), Montreal (1990’s)
conventions and protocol have had some important success on this front. A complete ban on the use of
CFCs and other ozone destroying chemicals is recommended. Further, use of HCFCs (Hydrochloric
fluorocarbons) as a substitute for CFCs is being recommended on temporary basis because HCFCs are
relatively less damaging to ozone layer as compared to CFCs, but they are not completely ozone safe.
Acid Rain
Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain, fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than normal. Acid rain is
caused by atmospheric pollution from acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen emitted
from burning of fossil fuels. Acid rain is formed when the air that contains acidic gases emitted mostly
from power plants industries and automobiles, combines with the rain drops. The acid rain affects
ecosystems in diverse ways. Therefore, emission of sulphur dioxide oxide and of oxides nitrogen into the
atmosphere can lead to the formation of acid rain.
Harmful effects of acid rain:
• Effects on aquatic life: The pH of the surrounding medium is very important for metabolic processes of
aquatic organisms. The eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and other aquatic organisms are very sensitive to
pH change. Acid rain kills their gametes affecting the life cycles and productivity.
• Death or their inability to increase in numbers affects aquatic food chains in acidic water bodies, causing
severe ecosystem imbalances. Acidic lake waters may kill bacteria microbes/planktons and the acidic
lakes become unproductive and life less. Such acidic and lifeless ponds/lakes adversely affect fisheries
and livelihood.
Effect on terrestrial life:
• Acid rain damages cuticle of plant leaves resulting in etiolation of foliage. This in turn reduces photosynthesis.
Reduced photosynthesis accompanied by leaf fall reduces plant and crop productivity.
• Acidic medium promotes leaching of heavy metals such as aluminum, lead and mercury. Such metals
when percolate into ground water affect soil microflora/ micro fauna. The soil becomes lifeless. Absorption
of these toxic metal ions by plants and microorganisms affect their metabolism.
• Effects on forests: Acid rains damage forests and kill vegetation and causes severe damage to the
landscape.
• Effect on buildings and monuments: Many old, historic, ancient buildings and works of art/textile etc. are
adversely affected by acid rain. Limestone and marble are destroyed by acid rain. Smoke and soot cover
such objects. They slowly dissolve/flake away the surfaces because of acid fumes in the air. Many
buildings/monuments such as Taj Mahal in Agra have suffered from acid rain.
Project for environmental protection of Taj Mahal

were initiated and funded by the ministry. Rs. 600
crore on a 50:50 cost sharing basis with the state
Government to implement various schemes in the
Taj Trapezium Zone for environmental protection
of the Taj Mahal.

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Impact of Climate Change in India

Area of Impact Impact Potential Measure
Extreme Heat • Unusual and unprecedented spells of • With built-up urban areas rapidly
hot weather are expected to occur far becoming “heat-islands”, urban
more frequent ly and cover much planners will need to adopt
larger areas. measures to counteract this effect.
• Under 4°C warming, the west coast
and southern India are projected to
shift to new, high-temperature climatic
regimes with significant impacts on
agriculture.
Changing • A 2°C rise in the world’s average • Improvements in
Rainfall Patterns temperatures will make India’s hydrometeorological systems for
summer monsoon highly weather forecasting and the
unpredictable. At 4°C warming, an installation of flood warning
extremely wet monsoon that currently systems can help people move out
has a chance of occurring only once in of harm’s way before a weather-
100 years is projected to occur every related disaster strikes.
10 years by the end of the century. • Building codes will need to be
• An abrupt change in the monsoon enforced to ensure that homes and
could precipitate a major crisis, infrastructure are not at risk.
triggering more frequent droughts as
well as greater flooding in large parts
of India.
• India’s northwest coast to the south
eastern coastal region could see higher
than average rainfall. Dry years are
expected to be drier and wet years
wetter.
Droughts • Droughts are expected to be more • Investments in R&D for the
frequent in some areas, especially in development of drought-resistant
north-western India,' Jharkhand, crops can help reduce some of the
Orissa and Chhattisgarh. negative impacts.
• Crop yields are expected to fall
significantly because of extreme heat
by the 2040s.

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Groundwat er • Although it is difficult to predict future • The efficient use of ground

ground water levels, falling water tables water resources will need to be
can be expected to reduce further on incentivized.
account of increasing demand for water
from a growing population, more
affluent life styles, as well as from the
services sector and industry.
Glacier Melt • At 2.5°C warming, melt ing glaciers and • Major investments in water
the loss of snow cover over the storage capacity would be
Himalayas are expect ed to threaten the needed to benefit from
stability and reliability of northern increased river flows in spring
India’s primarily glacier-fed rivers, and compensate for lower flows
particularly the Indus and the later on.
Brahmaputra.
• The Ganges will be less dependent on
melt water due to high annual rainfall
downstream during the monsoon season.
The Indus and Brahmaputra are
expected to see increased flows in spring
when the snows melt, with flows
reducing subsequently in late spring and
summer.
• Alterations in the flows of the Indus,
Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers could
significantly impact irrigation, affecting
the amount of food that can be produced
in their basins as well as the livelihoods
of millions of people (209 million in the
Indus basin, 478 million in the Ganges
basin, and 62 million in the Brahmaputra
basin in the year 2005).
Sea level rise • With India close to the equator, the sub- • Building codes will need to be
continent would see much higher rises in strictly enforced and urban
sea levels than higher latitudes. planning will need to prepare
• Sea-level rise and storm surges would for climate-related disasters.
lead to saltwater intrusion in the coastal • Coastal embankments will need
areas, impacting agriculture, degrading to be built where necessary and
groundwater quality, contaminating Coastal Regulation Zone codes
drinking water, and possibly causing a enforced strictly.
rise in diarrhea cases and cholera
outbreaks, as the cholera bacterium
survives longer in saline water.
• Kolkata and Mumbai, both densely
populated cities, are particularly
vulnerable to t he impacts of sea-level
rise, tropical cyclones, and riverine
flooding.

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Agriculture and • Seasonal water scarcity, rising • Crop diversification, more efficient
food security temperatures, and intrusion of sea water use, and improved soil
water would threaten crop yields, management practices, together
jeopardizing the country’s food with the development of drought-
security. resistant crops can help reduce
• Should current trends persist, some of the negative impacts.
substantial yield reductions in both rice
and wheat can be expected in the near
and medium term.
• Under 2°C warming by the 2050s, the
country may need to import more than
twice the amount of food-grain than
would be required without climate
change.
Water Security • An increase in variability of monsoon • Improvements in irrigation
rainfall is expected to increase water systems, water harvesting
shortages in some areas. techniques, and more-efficient
• Studies have found that the threat to agricultural water management can
water security is very high over central offset some of these risks.
India, along the mountain ranges of the
Western Ghats, and in India’s
northeastern states.
Health • Health systems will need to be • Improvements in
strengthened in identified hotspots. hydrometeorological systems for
weather forecasting and the
installation of flood warning
systems can help people move out
of harm’s way before a weather-
related disaster strikes.
• Building codes will need to be
enforced to ensure that homes and
infrastructure are not at risk.
Migration and • Climate change impacts on agriculture • Regional cooperation on water
conflict and livelihoods can increase the issues will be needed.
number of climate refugees.

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Phenomenon Causative Factors

Other hydrocarbons
O3 CO2 CO CH4 NOx SO2 NH3 CFC HFC VOC (PAN,
Benzopyrene)
Photo chemical
    
smog
Winter smog/

London smog
Ocean

Acidification
Eutrophication
 
(+phosphorous)
Green house
Gases (+ water       
vapour)
Ozone depletion  
Acide rains   
• ‘’ indicates strong causative factor in the phenomenon.

• Non-green house gases: N2, O2, Ar


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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide 1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not
to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? sufficiently available.
1. Volcanic action 2. India can not invest huge funds in research
2. Respiration and development.
3. Photosynthesis 3. Many developed countries have already set
up their polluting industries in India.
4. Decay of organic matter
(a) 1 and 2 only
Select the correct answer using the code given
below (b) 2 only
(a) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only 5. Due to their extensive rice cultivation, some
regions may be contributing to global warming.
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
To what possible reason / reasons is this
2. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the
attributable?
air is slowly raising the temperature of the
1. The anaerobic conditions associated with
atmosphere, because it absorbs
rice cultivation cause the emission of methane.
(a) the water vapour of the air and retains its
2. When nitrogen based fertilizers are used,
heat
nitrous oxide is emitted from the cultivated soil.
(b) the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation
(c) all the solar radiations
correct?
(d) Infrared part of solar radiation
(a) 1 only
3. The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic
(b) 2 only
region has been a cause of concern. What could
(c) Both 1 and 2
be the reason for the formation of this hole?
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Presence of prominent tropo-spheric
turbulence; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons. 6. Assertion (A): Coal-based thermal power
stations contribute to acid-rain.
(b) Presence of prominent polar front and
stratospher ic clouds; and inflow of Reason (R): Oxides of carbon are emitted when
chlorofluorocarbons. the coal bums.
(c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric (a) (A) & (R) are true and (R) is the correct
clouds; and inflow of methane and explanation of (A)
chlorofluorocarbons. (b) (A) & (R) are true and (R) is not the
(d) Increased temperature at polar region due correct explanation of (A)
to global warming. (c) (A) is true and (R) is false
4. What are the possible limitations of India in (d) (A) is false and (R) is true
mitigating the global warming at present and in 7. Which one of the following chemicals is
the immediate future? responsible for the depletion of ozone layer in
the atmosphere?

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(a) Chlorofluorocarbons Select the correct answer using the code given
(b) Nitrous oxide below:
(c) Sulphur dioxide (a) 1, 2 & 4
(d) Carbon dioxide (b) 2, 3 & 4
8. Acid rain is caused environment by (c) 1 & 3
(a) Carbon dioxide and nitrogen (d) 1, 2, 3 & 4
(b) Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide 13. Consider
(c) Ozone and carbon dioxide (1) Rice fields
(d) Nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide (2) Coal mining
9. It is reported that there is an ongoing decrease (3) domestic animals
in the pH value of ocean water because of global (4) Wetlands
warming. It happens due to Which of the above are sources of methane, a
(a) larger uptake of CO2 by ocean water major greenhouse gas?
(b) lesser uptake of CO2 by ocean water by (a) 1 and 4 only
(c) larger uptake of atmospheric nitrogen by (b) 2 and 3 only
ocean water (c) 1, 2 and 3 only
(d) lesser uptake of atmospheric nitrogen by (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
ocean water
Answer Key
10. You placed a car in an open parking area in a
1. Ans. (c)
summer day. After a few hours, you noticed
2. Ans. (d)
that the heat is trapped inside the car. This
phenomenon is known as 3. Ans. (b)
(a) ozone depletion 4. Ans. (a)
(b) greenhouse effect 5. Ans. (c)
(c) solar effect 6. Ans. (b)
(d) cosmic ray impingement 7. Ans. (a)
11. Which one among the following not a greenhouse 8. Ans. (d)
gas? 9. Ans. (a)
(a) Methane 10. Ans. (b)
(b) Ozone 11. Ans. (d)
(c) Chlorofluorocarbon 12. Ans. (a)
(d) Sulphur dioxide 13. Ans. (d)
12. Which among the following are the effects of
global warming?
(1) The Arctic ice cap is shrinking.
(2) The carbon dioxide (CO2) level in Sea
water is rising.
(3) The atmospheric activities like Storm,
thundering are increasing.
(4) The Sea level is rising.

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Energy & Environment Environmental Impact Assessment 149
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

THEORY
INTRODUCTION
• Industrial development has had adverse impact on the environment. Most of the developmental activities
such as building of dams, roads, airports, industries, railway tracks, cities etc. use enormous amounts of
natural resources as raw material and they may generate waste, which is disposed causes damage to
air, soil and water and brings about depletion of natural resources.
• The production of the global environment is in the interest of all of us living on this planet. Various
measures have been taken at national and international levels to correct a number of environment
problems as you have already learnt in the previous lesson.
• In light of the above it is important to anticipate the likely environmental problems and threats that may
arise out of the proposed developmental activities and human actions. Such anticipation is termed
"Environmental Impact Assessment" (EIA).
• EIA is a tool which helps to evaluate environmental impact of proposed developmental projects or
programs for which clearance will be accorded after mitigation strategies are included in the plan. EIA
thus proves to be a tool which improves decision making and ensures that the project under construction
is environmental sound and within limits of the capacity of assimilation and regeneration capacities of
Environmental clearance of developmental projects is a mandatory procedure.
Project Initiation
Present status
(without project)
Environment
Adverse
Impact (without project)
Time
Figure (a) Anticipated environmental impact of developmental project
Environment components
Environmental status without projects
Project with EIA

EIA bridges the gap
Project done without EIA
Time
(b) Environmental impact rectification after EIA
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150 Environmental Impact Assessment General Studies
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important management tool for ensuring optimal use of
natural resources for sustainable development, and was introduced in India initially for River Valley
Projects in 1978-79. The scope of the EIA has been enhanced to cover other developmental sectors such
as industries, mining schemes, energy, etc.
Purpose
1. The purpose of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is to identify and evaluate the potential impacts
(beneficial and adverse) of development and projects on the environment system.
It is a useful aid for decision making based on understanding of the environment implications including
social, cultural and aesthetic concerns which could be integrated with the analysis of the project costs
and benefits. This exercise should be undertaken early enough in the planning stage of projects for
selection of environmentally compatible sites, process technologies and such other environmental safeguards.
2 While all industrial projects may have some environmental impacts all of them may not be significant
enough to warrant elaborate assessment procedures. The need for such exercises will have to be decided
after initial evaluation of the possible implications of a particular project and its location. The projects
which could be the candidates for detailed Environment Impact Assessment include the following:-
 Those which can significantly after the landscape, land use pattern and lead to concentration of
working and service population.
 Those which need upstream development activity like assured mineral and forest products supply
or downstream industrial process development.
 Those involving manufacture, handling and use of hazardous materials.
 Those which are sites near ecologically sensitive areas, urban centers, hill resorts, places of scientific
and religious importance.
 Industrial Estates with constituent units of various types which could cumulatively cause significant
environmental damage.
Principles of EIA
It is important to recognize that there is a general principle of assessment that applies to EIA, and to
other assessment processes. There are several other processes that relate closely to the review of
environmental impacts that may result from a proposed project. The following are well recognized
processes.
 Social Impact Assessment
 Risk Assessment
 Life Cycle Analysis
 Energy Analysis
 Health Impact Assessment
 Regulatory Impact Assessment
 Species Impact Assessment
 Technology Assessment
 Economic Assessment
 Cumulative Impact Assessment
 Strategic Environment Assessment
 Integrated Impact Assessment

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THE EIA CYCLE AND PROCEDURES

The EIA process in India is made up of the following phases.
(1) Screening
(2) Scoping
(3) Baseline Data
(4) Impact Prediction
(5) Consideration of alternatives
(6) Delineation of Mitigation Measures.
(7) Environment management plan (EMP)
(8) Public Hearing
(9) Decision Making
(10) Monitoring the clearance Conditions
(11) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
1 Screening
• Screening is done to see whether a project requires environmental clearance as per the statutory
notifications. Screening Criteria are base upon:
 Scales of investment
 Type of development; and
 Location of development
• A project requires statutory environmental clearance only if it is mentioned either in the provisions
of EIA notification or in any law.
(2). Scoping
• This step seeks to identify at an early stage, the key significant environmental issues front among
a host of possible impacts of a project and all the available alternatives.
• Quantifiable impacts are to be assessed on the basis of magnitude prevalence, frequently and
duration and non-quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or recreational value), significance is commonly
determined though the socioeconomic criteria.
• After the areas where the project could have significant impact are identified the baseline status of
these should be monitored and then the likely changes in these on account of the construction and
operation of the proposed project should be predicted.
(3) Baseline Data
• Baseline data describes the existing environment status of the identified Study area the site-
specific primary data should be monitored for the identified parameters and supplemented by secondary
date if available.
This includes the establishment of both the present and future state of the environment, in the
absence of the project taking into account the changes resulting from natural events and from other
human activates.
(4) Impact prediction
Impact prediction is a way of mapping the environmental consequences of the significant. Environmental
impact can neverbe predicted with absolute certainly and this is all the more reason to consider all
possible factors and take all possible precautions for reducing the degree of uncertainly.
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• The following impacts of the project should be assessed:
 Air
• Changes in ambient levels and ground level concentrations due to total emissions from point, line and
area sources.
• Effects on soils, materials vegetation, and human health.
 Noise
• Changes in ambient levels due to noise generated from equipment and movement of vehicles
• Effect on fauna and human health
 Water
• Availability to competing users
• Changes in quality
• Sediment transport
• Ingress of saline water
• Land
• Changes in land use and drainage pattern
• Changes in land quality including effect of waste disposal
• Changes in shoreline/riverbank and their stability
 Biological
• Deforestation/tree cutting and shrinking of animal habitat.
• Impact on fauna and flora (including aquatic species if any ) due to contaminants/ pollutants
• Impact on rare and endangered species endemic species , and migratory path /route of animals.
• Impact on breeding and nesting grounds
 Socio- Economic
• Impact on the local community
• Including demographic changes
• Impact on human health.
• Impact of increased traffic
5. Consideration of alternatives:
• This seeks to ensure that the proponent has considered other feasible approaches, including alternative
project locations, scales, processes, layouts, operating condition and the no-action option.
• For every project possible alternatives Should be indentified and environmental attributes compared.
Alternatives should cover both project location and process technologies .Alternatives should consider
no project option also. Alternatives should be then be ranked for selection of the best environmental
option for optimum economic benefits to the community at large.
6. Delineation of Mitigation Measures.
• Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should be drawn up for the selected option and
is supplemental with an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards
environment improvements. The EMP is a crucial input to monitoring the clearance conditions and
therefore detail of monitoring should be included in the EMP.
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7. Environmental Impact Assessment Report

• An EIA report should provide clear information to the decision-maker on the different environmental
scenarios without the project, with the project and with project alternatives. Uncertainties should be
clearly reflected in the EIA report.
8. Environment management plan (EMP):
• Delineation of mitigation measures including prevention and control for each environmental component
and rehabilitation and resettlement plan.
• Delineation of monitoring scheme for compliance of conditions.
• Delineation of implementation plan including scheduling and resource allocation.
9. Public Hearing
• Law requires that the public must be informed and consulted on a proposed development after the
completion of EIA report.
• Any one likely to be affected by the proposed project is entitled to have access to the Executive
Summary of the EIA.
The affected persons may include:
• Bonafide local residents;
• Local associations;
• Environmental groups active in the area.
• Any other person located at the project site/sites of displacement
• They are to be given an opportunity to make oral/written suggestions to the state Pollution Control
Board.
10. Decision Making
• Decision making process involve consultation between the project proponent (assisted by a consultant)
and the impact assessment authority (assisted by an expert group if necessary)
• The decision on environmentalclearance is arrived at through a number of steps includingevaluation of
EIA and EMP.
11. Monitoring the Clearance Conditions.
Monitoring should be done during both construction and operation phases of a project. This is not only
to ensure that the commitments made are complied with but also to observe whether the predictions
made in the EIA reports were correct or not. Where the impacts exceed the predicted levels, corrective
action should be taken. Monitoring will enable the regulatory agency to review the validity of predictions
and the conditions of implementation of the Environmental Management Plan (EMP).
12. Environmental impact statement(EIS)
• EIA exercise culminates in an environmental impact statement (EIS) EIS provides the decision makers
with valuable information that could ultimately contribute to either the abandonment or substantial
modification of a proposed development action.
To put simply, EIA considers impacts on ecological and human perspectives.

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ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
Medium Changes and Rates of changes in

Quality (e.g. depth, Structure, fertility, degree of Stalinization or acidification,
Soil etc.)
Area of arable land
Quality
Air
The climate elements
Quantity
Water
Quality
Season ability
Area of human-made lakes
Extent of irrigation canals
Abundance/Scarcity/Diversity of species or genetic resources
Extent of crops, ecosystems, vegetation and forests
Biota
Extent of provision of nesting grounds, etc, for migratory species.
Abundance/scarcity of pests and disease organisms
Economic and Displacement of population, relocation of population in response to
occupational status employment opportunities services and distribution patterns. Property values.
Resettlement rural depopulation;
Change population density; food;
Soil
Housing; material; agricultural; rural; urban
Social amenities and

Family life styles; schools; transportations vs. alienation; recreation; language.
relationships
Psychological Involvement; expectations; stress; frustration; commitment.
Physical amenities
National parks; wildlife; art galleries; archaeological monuments; wilderness;
(intellectual cultural
clean air and water
aesthetic and sensual)
Health Changes in health; medical services; medical standards.
Personal security Freedom from molestation; freedom from natural disasters.
Regional and traditional
Symbols; taboos; values;
beliefs
Security; hazards; safety measures; benefits; emission of wastes; congestion;
Technology
density;
Cultural Leisure; new value; heritage; traditional and religious rites.
Authority; level and degree of involvement; priorities; structure of decision-
Political making; responsibility and responsiveness; resource allocation; local minority
interests; defence needs.
Legal Restructuring of administrative management; changes in taxes; public policy
Aesthetic Visual physical changes; moral conduct; sentimental values.
Air and water quality standards safety standards; national building acts; noise-
Statutory laws and acts
abatement by faces

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Stakeholders of EIA;
EIA has stakeholders from both public and private sections. The six main players are:
(i) Those who propose the project
(ii) The environment consultant who prepare EIA on behalf of project proponent.
(iii) Pollution Control Board (State or National)
(iv) Public has the right to express their opinion
(v) The impact assessment Agency
(vi) Regional centre of the Ministry of Environment and forest
Developer Government Public

Project Project General public
EIA Govt. NGO’s
Consultant Department Research Institute
Tribal etc.
Participants for EIA

Figure Participants for EIA
• Project screening is an EIA needed?

• Scoping which impacts and issues to consider
• Descriptions of the project/ development action
• Description of the environments baseline
Public
• Prediction of impacts
Consultation
• Evaluation and assessment of significance of
impacts
• Identification of mitigating measures
Presentation of findings in an EIS
Review of the EIS
Decision making
• Post- decision monitoring

Auditing and prediction of mitigation measures
Figure Steps in a EIA process
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Applicability of Environment Clearance
Environmental clearance is granted by the impact Assessment Agency (IAA) in the Ministry of environment
and forests, Government of India.
All Projects that require environment clearance from central government can be broadly categorized
into the following:
(1) Industries
(2) Mining
(3) Thermal power plants
(4) River valley projects.
(5) Infrastructure and CRZ (Coastal Regulation Zone)
(6) Nuclear power projects.
LIST OF PROJECTS REQUIRING ENVIRONMENTAL CLEARANCE FROM THE CENTRAL
GOVERNMENT
(1) Nuclear power and related projects such as heavy water plants, nuclear fuel complex, rare earths.
(2) River valley projects including bydel power, major irrigation and their combination including flood control.
(3) Ports, harbours, airports (except minor ports and harbours).
(4) Petroleum refineries including crude and products pipelines.
(5) Chemical fertilizers (nitrogenous and phosphatic other then single superphosphate).
(6) Pesticides (technical).
(7) Petrochemical complexes (both olefinic and aromatic) and petrochemical intermediates such as DMT,
coprolactam, LAB etc, and production of basic plastics such as LDPE, HDPE, PP, PVC.
(8) bulk drugs and pharmaceuticals.
(9) Exploration for oil and gas and their production, transportation and storage.
(10) Synthetic rubber
(11) Asbestos and asbestos products.
(12) Hydrocyanic acid and its derivatives.
(13) Primary metallurgical industries (such as production of iron and steel, aluminum, copper, zinc, lead and
ferro-alloys.
(14) Chlor alkali industry
(15) Integrated paint complex including manufacture of resins and basic raw materials required in the
manufacture of paints.
(16) Viscose staple fibre and filament yarn
(17) Storage batteries integrated with manufacture of oxides of lead and lead antimony alloy
(18) All tourism projects between 200m-500 metres of High Water Line and at locations with an elevation
of more than 1000 meters
(19) Thermal power plants
(20) Mining projects (with lease more than 6 hectares)
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(21) Highway projects except projects relating to improvement work including widening and strengthening of
roads with marginal land acquisition along the existing alignments
Provided it does not pass through ecologically sensitive areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries, tiger
Reserves, and Reserve Forests.
(22) Tarred road in the Himalayas and forest areas
(23) Distilleries.
(24) Raw, Skins and hide
(25) Pulp, paper and newsprint
(26) Dyes
(27) Cement
(28) Foundries (Individual)
(29) Electroplating
(30) Meta aminophenol


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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is 3. Which of the following statements are false?
mandatory under which one of the following India (a) Land use planning systems do the same
legislations thing as EIA
(a) Indian Forest Act (b) EIA is intended to be rational and
(b) Air, (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act comprehensive assessment
(c) Wildlife Protection Act (c) EIA is costly and time consuming
(d) Environment (Protection Act) (d) EIA is a process
2. The primary reason for environmental Impact 4. EIA is necessary because?
Assessment is to (a) Development is bad for the environment
(a) Mitigate existing environmental impacts of (b) There is growing interest in sustainability
development
(c) Environmental impacts of developments are
(b) Predict the size of impacts of developments of public interest
(c) Describe proposed developments (d) None of the above
(d) Identify the environmental consequences of 5. In Environmental assessment study interpretation
development in advance and evaluation should consider
2. The primary reason for environmental Impact (a) Uncertainly of possible impacts
Assessment is to
(b) Significance of measured impacts
(a) Mitigate existing environmental impacts of
(c) Comparison of alternatives
development
(d) All of the above
(b) Predict the size of impacts of developments
(c) Describe proposed developments
Answer Sheet
(d) Identify the environmental consequences of 1. Ans. (d)
development in advance 2. Ans. (d)
3. Ans. (c)
4. Ans. (c)
5. Ans. (d)


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Energy & Environment Sustainable Development 159
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
Humans have made a very impressive economic progress especially during the post two economics, in
creating material and luxuries of life style. This progress has been achieved at a tremendous cost to the
environment ever increasing exploitation of natural resources coupled with environmental degradation has
reached a point that now threatens the well being and future of mankind.
Environmentalist and even the common man around the world area seeking answers to this
question like:
 Can we keep up industrial and economic development without depleting or degrading our natural
resources?
 Can forests be closed endlessly for cultivation and habitation?
 Can agricultural land be regularly used up for building cities, factories and shopping malls?
 Can intensive farming be carried out through the year?
 Can fossil fuel be pumped out in a never ending manner?
 How long can our natural resources last at the increasing rate of exploitation and consumption?
The answer to these questions will explain the “concept of sustainable development”.
ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
In United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the “Earth Summit”) held in Rio de
Janerio in year 1992 the world leaders signed Framework Convention on Climate change and
biological diversity the “Rio Summit adopted Rio Declaration for achieving sustainable Development in
the 21st century. It is here that the concept originated.
CARRYING CAPACITY CONCEPT
 Development requires resources for the production of goods and services. The resources are basically
provided by nature and thus known as natural resources we must learn to respect nature and use the
resources in a judicious and responsible manner, failing which we will deprive our future generations from
these natural resources thereby endangering their life on the planet.
 Population growth coupled with unplanned and ruthless exploitation of natural resources in the name of
development is the root cause of our present stat e of environment.
 If maximum amount of natural resources are drawn from environment and too much pollutants are
discharges into it than it can absorb, then it is severely damaged. Once damaged and destroyed beyond
repair, it loses its ability to get back to its pure or usable or harmless state. Nature is finite and we have
almost reached a critical point beyond which ecological decline would lead to disaster.

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160 Sustainable Development General Studies
 Thus the carrying capacity of the environment may be defined as “maximum load or pressure or use that
the environment can withstand by economic or other human activities”.
• The main cause of unsustainability is in even increasing human population and over exploitation of
resources in developing countries resources exploitation occurs mainly to meet the needs of human
population for food, folder, fuel, wood and shelter human activities affect the sustainability of biosphere
the various human activities Meant to improve the quality of life are usually accompanied by environment
degradation. Such activities as overfishing agriculture, over use of fresh water supply, deforestation and
industrialization cause environment degradation and social streets because of negative changes in the
ecosystem.
Human Activities Intended result Improved quality of life

Land cleaning
• Food production • Fibre production
Agriculture
• Shelter • Water supply
Forestry
• Consumer goods • Enjoyment
Fisheries • Culture • Knowledge
Grazing
Water diversion
Minera extraction Unintended result Environmental cost
Fuel consumption
Industrialisation • Habital fragmentation • Soil degradation
• Deforestation • Pollution
Urbanisation
• Desrtification • Eutrophication
Recreation • Acid precipitation • Loss of Biodiversity
• Climate change
Figure Human activities affecting sustanability of the biosphere

Mahatma Gandhi’s principle of “enoughness” in his saving “the earth provides enough to satisfy every
persons need but not for every person’s greed” is perhaps more relevant at present time then when it
was said.
PRESSURE OF POPULATION
 Rapid population growth coupled with demand of man for material comforts has put tremendous pressure
on mother earth and its environment in India human population has already crossed one billon. In a very
short history of earth, humans and their activities are having significant impact on the natural dynamics
of the earth system.
 Human population and economic wealth of people (especially in the developed countries) have significantly
increased the degradation of natural resources and threatened biodiversity. Thus the main cause of
unsustainability is ever increasing human population which naturally leads to over exploitation of resources.
With increasing human population leading to human domination on earth’s ecosystem, natural resources
are declining both in quantity and quality on global scale.
ECOLOGICAL FOOT PRINT
• The amount of biologically productive area of the earth needed to produce the required Resources as
well as to absorb the wastes produced from such resources use.

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Per capita ecological footprint

(Hectare per person) 1.5
Country
Earth’s Ecological t
rin
Number of Earth’s
1.2 Capacity tp
oo
United States 9.6 alF
ic
0.9
olog
The Neatherlands 3.8 c
y ’sE
0.6 i t
India 0.8 man
Hu
0.3 -
1960 1980 1990 2000 2010

Year
• Humanity’s ecological footprint exceeds the earth’s ecological capacity to replenish its renewable resources
and absorbs the waste. Humanity is consuming the renewable resources faster than the earth can renew
them. The ecological footprint of most people in developed countries is large because of then significantly
high consumption of renewable resources.
• According to the developers of ecological foot print concept it would take the land area of about “four
more planet earths” for the rest of the world to reach U.S. levels of consumption with existing technology.
DEVELOPMENT WITHOUT DESTRUCTION
We have damaged and destroyed our environment in the name of development. There is very little time
left for taking and discussing the matter, we have to do and act now to recover The lost environment
and conserve the natural resources.
Limit to Growth
 Growth has no set limits in terms of population or resource use beyond which lies ecological disaster.
Different limits hold for the use of energy, materials, water, and land. Many of these will manifest
themselves in the form of rising costs and diminishing returns. Rather than in the form of any sudden
loss of a resource base. The accumulation of a knowledge and the development of technology can
enhance the carrying capacity of the resource base.
 But ultimate limits there are, and sustainability requires that long before these are reached, the world must
ensure equitable access to the constrained resource and reorient technological efforts to relieve the
presume.
Sustainable Development
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) popularly known as the Brundtland
Commission Report entitled Common Future (1987) defined.
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
It contains within if two key concepts:
 The concept of needs , in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding
priority should be given; and
 The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s
ability to meet present and future needs.”

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 As for non renewable resources like fossil fuels and minerals their use reduces the stock available for
future generations. But this does not mean that such resources should not be used in general the rate
of depletion should take into account the criticality of that resource, the availability of technologies for
minimizing depletion, and the likelihood of substitutes being available, thus land should not be degraded
beyond reasonable recovery. With minerals and fossil fuels, the rate of depletion and the emphasis on
recycling and economy of use should be calibrated to ensure that the resource does ot run out before
acceptable substitutes are available. Sustainable development requires that the rate of depletion of non
renewable resources should foreclose as few future options as possible.
 The loss of plant and animal species can greatly limit the options of future generations; so sustainable
development requires the conservation of plant and animal species.
 So-called free goods like air and water are also resources .The raw materials and energy of production
processes are only partly converted to useful products. The rest comes out as wastes. Sustainable
development requires that the adverse impacts on the quality of air, water, and other natural elements
are minimized so as to sustain the ecosystem’s overall integrity
 In essence, sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the
direction of investments, the orientation of technological development; and institutional change are all in
harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations.
Components of Sustainable Development:
Sustainable development includes the following
 Protecting Nature
 Thinking long-term
 Understanding systems within which we live
 Recognizing limits
 Practicing fairness
 Embracing creativity reviving growth;
 Changing the quality of growth;
 Conserving and enhancing the managing risk; and
 merging environment and economics in decision making
PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1 Intergenerational equity
Recognizes the long term scale of sustainability in order to address the needs of future generations.
2 Polluter pays principle-
Governments should require polluting entities to bear the costs of their pollution rather than impose those
costs on others or on the environment so that environmental costs are internalized.
3 The precautionary principle
Establishes that “where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty
shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost effective measure to prevent environmental degradation”
4 Common but differentiated responsibilities
Recognizes that each nation must play their part on the issue of sustainable development and developed
nation bear greater responsibility in light of the resources they. Have historically used which exerted
greater pressure on the environment

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5 Think globally and act locally

Environment problem either local or regional can become a gigantic global issue if not addressed in time.
If communities address their local problem (issues) then bigger problems get solved.
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGS)
The Millennium Development Goals are goals that 192 United Nations member states have agreed to try
to achieve by the year 2015. The MDGs were officially established at the Millennium Summit in 2000
where 189 world leaders adopted the United Nations Millennium Declaration.
The 8 MDGs that were particularly promoted in the years following the Millennium Summit break down
into 18 quantifiable targets that are measured by 48 indicators. These include;
 Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
 Goal 2:Achieve universal primary education
 Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
 Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
 Goal 5: Improve maternal health
 Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS malaria and other diseases.
 Goal 7: Ensure environment sustainability
 Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development
Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), officially known as Transforming our world the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development, are an intergovernmental set of aspiration Goals with 169 targets.
The resolution is a broader intergovernmental Agreement that, while acting as the post 2015 Development
Aganda (successor to the Millennium Development Goals.) builds on the Principles popularly known as
the future We Want.
THIS INCLUDED THE FOLLOWING GOALS
1. No Poverty : End poverty in all its forms everywhere Targets.
2. Zero Hunger : End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture Targets.
3. Good Health and Well-being : Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages Targets.
4. Quality Education : Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all Targets.
5. Gender Equality : Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Targets.
6. Clean Water and Sanitation : Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation
for all Targets.
7. Affordable and Clean Energy : Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and clean energy for
all Targets.
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth : Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all Targets.
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure : Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster innovation Targets.
10. Reduced Inequalities : Reduce inequality within and among countries Targets.
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11. Sustainable Cities and Communities : Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable Targets.
12. Responsible Consumption and production : Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Targets.
13. Climate Action : Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts Targets.
14. Life Below Water : Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development Targets.
15. Life on Land : Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat. desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
Targets.
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions : Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable
development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions
at all levels Targets.
17. Partnerships for the Goals : Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership
for sustainable development Targets
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Agriculture Is the process of producing food, feed, fibre and other desired products by cultivation of
certain plants and raising of domesticated animals. The proportion of global population living in urban
areas is increasing and urban population is increasing rapidly so developing countries and poverty is
becoming one of the major problems in urban areas as more poor people migrate to cities from villages
the huge population puts a tremendous pressure on resources. Because of the high rate of consumption
of resources and high waste output, large areas of forests and agricultural land are disturbed and
degraded to provide urban dwellers with houses, food, water , and energy for transport, minerals and
other resources.
SUTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Sustainable agriculture is that form of agriculture which attempts to produce sufficient food to meet the
needs of present day population without exhausting soil fertility and irreversibly damaging the environment
sustainable farming systems are those that are least toxic and least energy
Intensive and yet maintain productivity and profitability i.e. low input agriculture or organic farming.
Thus sustainable agriculture is one that,
 Supports profitable production;
 Protects environmental quality;
 Uses natural resources efficiently;
 Provides consumers with affordable, high- quality products;
 Decreases dependency on non-renewable resources;
 Enhances the quality of life of farmers and rural communities.
Many farmers in India and other developing countries follow the traditional practice of mixed cropping
or diverse cropping and crop rotation.
(a) Mixed cropping or diverse cropping
 It is an old practice in our country. Two or more crops are grown all at the dame time in a field. If by
chance one crop fails, the others crops cover the risk of total crop failure. Usually a long duration one
so that both get sufficient nutrition at the time of maturity. Then water and nutrient requirement are also
different.
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 Generally a leguminous crop is grown along with the main crop. Legumes help to increase soil fertility
by fixing atmospheric nitrogen thus saving the cost of chemical fertilizers.
(b) Crop rotation
It is practice of growing different crops in regular succession in the same field. This
 Practice controls insects and diseases, increases soil fertility and decreases soil erosion.
 Generally soil cannot sustain continuous cropping with high yielding single crop because certain nutrients
required by the crop get exhausted totally while others remain unutilized leading to serious nutrient
imbalance in soil and encouraging certain diseases and pests.
 Sowing a leguminous crops (eg. Green gram) as a rotational crop is very useful because legumes
enhance nitrogen level in the soil due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, reduces the need for
chemical nitrogen fertilizer, thereby cutting the cost and saving the soil from the harmful effects of using
high yielding varieties along with the application of large amount of fertilizer, pesticides and water.
     It is possible to grow two or sometimes three different crops in succession on the same land within a
year and it is known as multiple cropping. This practice can go on for some time but the land cannot
maintain high yield in the long run.
Bio-Fertilizers And Their Use In Agriculture
For a sustainable agriculture system, it is essential to use renewable inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, water
etc.) which can benefit the plant and cause no or minimal damage to be environment. One possible way
is to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
 One of the energy efficient and pollution free method is to exploit the ability of certain microorganisms
like bacteria algae and fungi to fix atmosphere nitrogen, solubilize phosphorous decompose organic
material or oxidize sulphur in the soil. When they are applied in the soil, they enhance growth and yield
of crops, improve soil fertility and reduce.
 Pollution. They are known as “bio fertilizers”.
 Thus bio-fertilizers are living or biologically active products or microbial inoculants of bacteria, algae and
fungi (separately or in combination) which are able to enrich the soil with nitrogen, phosphorus, organic
matter etc.
Important bio fertilizers
Following are some of the important types of bio fertilizers which can be considered for agro
based industries.
 Rhizobium Biofertilizer:
Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium forming root nodules in legume plants. These nodules act as miniature
nitrogen production factories in the fields. The nodule bacteria fix more nitrogen (N2) than needed by
legume plant and the bacteria. The surplus fixed nitrogen is then secreted and fertilizes the soil. Rhizobium
is more efficient than-free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
 Azotobacter Biofertilizer:
Azobacter are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers. They grow in the rhizoshpere (around the roots) and
fix atmospheric nitrogen non symbiotically and make it available to the particular cereals. These bacteria
produce growth promoting.
Hormones which helps in enhancing growth and yield of the plant.

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 Azospirillium biofetilizer:
These are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers which live in associative symbiosis. Is this type of association
bacteria live on the root surface of the host plant and do not form any nodule with roots of grasses. It
increases crop yield and its inoculation benefits crop. They also benefit the host plants by supplying
growth hormones and vitamins. These bacteria are commonly used for the preparation of commercial
inoculants.
 Blue green algae:
Blue green algae (BGA or cyanobacteria) like Nostoc and Anabaena are free living photosynthetic
organisms also capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. In the flooded rice fields blue green algae serves
as a nitrogen biofertilizer.
 Azolla biofertilizers:
Azolla is a water ferm inside which grows the nitrogen fixing blue green algae Anabaena. It contains
2-3% nitrogen when wet and also produces organic matter in the soil. The Azolla-Anabaena combination
type biofertilizer is used all over the world. This can be grown in cooler regions. But there is a need to
develop a strain that can tolerant to high temperature, salinity and resistant to pests and diseases.
Production technology is very easy and can be adopted by rice farmers. The only constraint in Azolla
is that it is an aquatic plant and water becomes limiting factor in growing it particularly in summer.
 Phosphorus solubilising biofertilizer:
Phosphorus is an important element required for plant growth. This element is also needed for nodulation
by rhizobium. Some microorganisms are capable of solubilizing immobilized phosphorus making it available
to plants for absorption.
Mycorrhizal:
Fungi acts as biofertilizer are known to occur naturally on roots of forest trees and crop plants. In soils
low in available nutrients there is an increased absorption of nutrients by plants infected with Mycorrhiza.
The fungus has the ability to dissolve and absorb phosphorus that plant roots can not readily absorb.
A wise way will be to develop an integrated nutrient supply system involving the combination of chemical
fertilizers and biofertilizers.
ORGANIC FARMING AND ITS BENEFITS.
• Organic farming is a type of agriculture or farming which avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers pesticides
growth regulators, and livestock feed additives.
• Organic farming systems rely on crop rotation crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manure,
off-farm organic wastes and biofertilizers, mechanical cultivation, mineral bearing rocks.
• Organic farmers build healthy soils by nourishing the living component of the soil the microbial inhabitants
that release, transform and transfer nutrients. Soil organic matter contributes to good soil structure and
water holding capacity.
Organic farmers feed soil biota and build soil organic matter with cover crops, compost, and biologically
based soil amendments. These produce healthy plants that are better able to resist disease and insect
predation.
VERMICOMPOST
Vermicomposting is an appropriate technique for efficient of animal wastes ,crop residues and agero-
indudstrial wastes.The process of conversion of organic materials into manure is chiefly microbiological.
Earthworms are important for producing vermicompost from organic wastes.

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INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

 The most sustainable way to control peste is a carefully designed integrated pest management (IPM)
program. In this approach, each crop and its pests are evaluated as parts of an ecological system. Then
farmers develop a control programme that includes cultivation, biological and chemical methods applied
in proper sequence and with the proper timing.
 The aim of IPM is not to eradicate the pest population completely but to keep the crop damage to
economically tolerable level.
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND MODERN AGRICULTURE
With conventional breeding practices reached their saturation point, the “gene revolution” seems to hold
lot of potential. Agricultural biotechnology or gene technology or genetic engineering may act as the
second “green revolution” that can be used to create high yielding crop varieties that are:
(i) Herbicide tolerant,
(ii) Insect resistant,
(iii) Resistant to pathogens like virus ,bacteria and fungi
(iv) Have better nutritional value and other commercial properties. The crop plants produced by these
techniques are called “transgenics” or geneticall modified (GM) plants or genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) by using the technique of genetic engineering it has been possible to genetically
transform large number of agricultural and ornamental crops.
Some important examples of transgenics or GMOs are;
1. Bt cotton produced by incorporating Btgene which encdes for BT tox.in (insecticidal protein in Bacihhus
thuringiensis) in the cotton plant. The plant becomes insect resistant and this gene has been incorporated
in corn, potato, tomato, tobacco etc, making them insect resistant (bio pesticides). Such plants can reduce
our dependence on chemical pesticides which will save us money and our environment.
2. “Golden Rice” a transgenic with enhanced vitamin a content producing nutritionally rich rice to save
many lives. Salt and flood tolerance genes have been incorporated in rice so that Bt rice in China shows
higher yield and a huge reduction in pesticide use. Such rice can be grown on saline soil.
3. By showing down and controlling ripening in tomato by introducing a bacterial gene that prevents ethylene
formation thus delaying ripening. Such tomatoes are easy to handle during transportation and remains on
the shelf for a long time.
4. Cold damage to crop plants can be minimized by introducing genes for antifreeze proteins (AFPs) found
in the blood of artic fishes frost resistant tomatoes have been produced by introducing gene for antifreeze
proteins from polar fish living in ice water. Plant biotechnology can help to make intensive agriculture
less damaging to the environment as well as help the country to spend less money on fertilizers,
pesticides, herbicides etc.
Benefits and controversies on GM products
(a) Benefits
(i) Crops
 Enhanced taste and quality.
 Reduced maturation time, improved resistance to diseases and psts.
 Increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance.
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(ii) Animals
 Increased resistance, productivity, hardness and feed efficiency.
 Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk.
 Improved animal health and diagnostic method
(iii) Environment
 “friendly” bioherbicides and bioinsecticides.
 Conservation of soil, water and energy
 Bioprocessing for forestry products.
(b) Controversies
(i) Safety
 Potential human health impact : alleregens transfer of antibiotic resistance markers, unknown
effects.
 Potential environment impact: unintended transfer of transgenes through Crosspollination,
unknown effects on other organisms (e.g., soil microbes ) and loss of flora and fauna
biodiversity
(ii) Access and intellectual property
 Domination of world food production by a few companies.
 Increasing dependence on industrialized nations by developing countries.
 Biopiracy foreign exploitation of natural resources.
(iii) Ethics.
 Violation of natural organisms intrinsic values.
 Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species.
 Objections to transferring animal genes in plants and vice-versa.
 Stress for animal.
Biopesticides bio insecticides:
 Biopesticides a contraction of ‘biological pesitcides ‘, include several types of pest management
intervention through predatory, parasitic or chemical relationships. The term has been associated
historically with biological control and by implication the manipulation of living organisms.
 They are typically created by growing and concentrating naturally occurring organisms and/or their
metabolites including bacteria and other microbes, fungi, nematodes, proteins, etc.
 They are often considered to be important components of integrated pest management (IPM)
programmes , and have received much practical attention as substitutes to synthetic chemical plant
protection products (PPPs).
Types
 Biopesticides fall into three major classes:
 Microbial pesticides which consist of bacteria, fungi or viruses (and sometimes includes the metabolites
that bacteria or fungi produce).
 Biochemical pesticides or herbal pesticides- are naturally occurring substances that control pests and
microbial diseases.
 Plant incorporated protectants (PIPs) have genetic material from other species incorporated into their
genetic material (i.e. GM crops). Their use is controversial, especially in many European countries.
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 RNAi pesticides – some of which are topical and some of which are absorbed by the crop.
Biopesticides have usually no known function in photosynthesis, growth or other basic aspects of plant
physiology; however, their biological activity against insect pests, nematodes, fungi and other organisms
is well documented, these biodegradable , economical and renewable alternatives are used especially
under organic farming systems.
Advantages
 No harmful residues detected
 Can be cheaper than chemical pesticides when locally produced.
 Can be more effective than chemical
 Biodegradable
Disadvantages
High specificity: which may require an exact identification of the pest/pathogen and the use of multiple
products to be used; although this
Can also be an advantage in that the biopesticide is less likely to harm species other than the target.
Often slow speed of action (thus making them unsuitable if a pest outbreak is an immediate threat to
a crop). Often variable efficiency due to the influences of various biotic and abiotic factors (since some
biopesticides are living organisms, which bring about pest/pathogen control by multiplying within or nearby
the target pest/pathogen)
Living organisms evolve and increase their resistance to biological, chemical, physical or any other form
of control. If the target population is not exterminated or rendered incapable of reproduction, the surviving
population can acquire a tolerance of whatever pressures are brought to bear, resulting in an evolutionary
arms race.


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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. With reference to Neem tree, consider the 7. Which one of the following plants is preferred
following statements: for mixed cropping in order to enhance the
1. Neem oil can be used as a pesticide to control bioavailability of nitrogen?
the proliferation of some species of insects (a) Wheat
and mites. (b) Gram
2. Neem seeds are used in the manufacture of (b) Maize
biofuels and hospital detergents. (d) Barley
3. Neem oil has applications in pharmaceutical 8. The concept of sustainable development relates
industry. to :
Which of the statements given above is/are (a) consumption levels
correct
(b) exhaustible resources
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) social equity
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Intergenerational equity
2. Which one of the following agricultural practices 9. Vermicompost is a/an
is eco-friendly?
(a) inorganic fertilizer
(a) Organic farming
(b) toxic substance
(b) Shifting cultivation
(c) organic biofertilizer
(c) Cultivation of high-yielding varieties.
(d) synthetic fertilizer
(d) Growing plants in glass-houses. 10 Silent Spring’ considered by many as one among
3. Azolla gives a good biofertilizer when mixed with the greatest science books of all time, is written
(a) Blue-green algae (b) Cow dung by Rachel Carson. The book deals with:
(c) Bone-meal (d) Urea (a) wild life preservation
4. After sowing seeds, the fertilizers (b) Production of the environment
(a) Phosphates (b) Nitrates (c) pollution of the water body
(c)Green manures (d) All of these (d) none of the above

11 Sustainable development is described as the
5. Which of the following is a balanced fertilizer
development that meets the needs of the present
for plants?
without compromising the ability of future
(a) Urea (b) Ammonia sulphate generations to meet their own needs. In this
(c) Nitrates (d) Compost perspective inherently the concept of sustainable
6. Which one among the following is a correct development is intertwined with which of the
attribute of ‘bio-insecticide’? following concepts?
(a) Specific to only target pest and biodegradable (a) Social justice and empowerments
(b) Persistent in the environment (b) Inclusive Growth

(c) Globalization
(c) Non-biodegradable
(d) Carrying capacity
(d) Non-toxic and non-degradable
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12 The term ‘Carbon Footprint ‘ means ANSWER SHEET

(a) A region which is rich in coal mines 01. Ans. (d)
(b) The amount of reduction in the emission of 02. Ans. (a)
CO2 by a country
03. Ans. (a)
(c) The use of carbon in manufacturing indusries
04. Ans. (d)
(d) The amount of greenhouse gases produced
05. Ans. (d)
by our day to day activites
06. Ans. (a)
13 Which of the following can help in reducing the
carbon footprint? 07. Ans. (b)
1. Using fly-ash based cement in building 08. Ans. (d)
construction. 09. Ans. (c)
2. Using LED-based electic lamps instead of 10. Ans. (b)
incandescent lamps. 11. Ans. (d)
(a) 1 only 12. Ans. (d)
(b) 2 only 13. Ans. (c)
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 

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172 Environmental Degradation and Pollution General Studies
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
AND POLLUTION
THEORY
INTRODUCTION
• Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as
air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. It is defined as any
change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
• The, United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as
"The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs".
Environmental degradation is of many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources
are depleted, the environment is degraded. Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental
protection and environmental resources management
LAND AND SOIL DEGRADATION
Land is a major constituent of the lithosphere and - is one of the main components of natural environment
besides air, water and plants. The various purposes, for which land can be used, include agriculture and
horticulture for food production, energy production, human dwellings and industrial/commercial purposes,
waste disposal, forests, etc.
LAND DEGRADATION
• It refers to deterioration or loss of fertility or productive capacity of the soil. All modem and growth
oriented activities are having their direct or indirect impact on land. Though land resources are very much
related to natural disasters like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, etc., it is due to human activities that soil
gets polluted.
The factors which are mainly responsible for land degradation are:
1. Soil Erosion:
It refers to the loss or removal of the superficial layer of the soil by the action of wind, water or human
actions. The factors that influence the extent to which soil erosion will occur include:
• Distribution, intensity and amount of rainfall: The soil fails to absorb heavy rainfall restricted to
a few months of the year resulting in plenty of run-off water which removes soil layers as it moves
along, thus causing soil erosion.
• Slope of the ground: if the ground has steep slopes then infiltration of rain water decreases and
the run-off is much faster, thus causing more soil erosion.
• Soil type: light and open soils lose more silt than heavier loams.
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Energy & Environment Environmental Degradation and Pollution 173
• Vegetation cover: Rain falling on bare land causes soil erosion because the top soil is loose and is
easily carried away by the run-off. On the other hand, vegetation holds the soil in place by forming
a network of roots of the plants.
• Soil mismanagement: Uncontrolled grazing by cattle, faulty methods of surface drainage, wrong
cultivation practices, removal of forest litter etc are common practices that aggravate soil erosion.
2. Salination:
Salination refers to increase in concentration of soluble salts in the soil. In arid and semi arid areas with
poor drainage and high temperatures, water evaporates quickly leaving behind a white crust of salts on
the soil surface. The high concentration of salts in soil severely affects the water absorption process of
the plants, resulting into poor productivity.
3. Water logging:
This may be due to surface flooding or due to high water table. Excessive use of canal irrigation may
disturb the water balance and create water logging as a result of seepage or rise in the water table of
the area. The productivity of water logged soil is severely reduced.
4. Desertification:
Desertification is diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the land which ultimately leads
to the formation of desert. It is a slow process of land degradation that leads to desert formation. It may
result either due to a natural phenomenon linked to climatic change or due to abusive use of land. Some
of the principal causes.
Which promote desertification, are:
• Over Cultivation: Every cycle of cultivation is preceded by ploughing to remove weeds. The
ploughed land turns soil upside down thus exposing rich subsoil to wind and water erosion. Such land
may remain barren for most part of the year and in turn lose more soil due to erosion. Such erosion
is most pronounced on slopes. Moreover, in regions where rainfall is low, the soil is often dry and
is more susceptible to erosion.
• Overgrazing: Deserts receive less rainfall. Deserts have sparse vegetation mostly consisting of
grasses and herbs and is best used for grazing. Overgrazing by goats, domestic cattle remove the
protective vegetation and expose the soil. Further the movements of grazing animals loosen the soil
surface by their hoofs. Unprotected loose soil becomes highly susceptible to erosion by wind and
water.
• Deforestation: Forests and vegetation prevent soil erosion and to hold water in soil. Plant roots
absorb and recycle nutrients released from the decaying organic matter. Forests are often cleared
to agriculture, timber, construction wood, firewood, raw material for paper etc. All this leads to
barrenness of the land leading to desertification.
• Salting due to Irrigation: With demand for more land for agriculture, crops are grown in areas
that have little access to natural water bodies. The water is supplied to these growing areas by
artificial means and improved irrigation methods. Such water brings salts dissolved in it. Water used
for irrigation is lost from agriculture field through evaporation and transpiration by crop plant. The
water gets evaporated but the dissolved salt keeps on accumulating which makes the soils more
salty. Land devoid of plant cover easily becomes decertified.
These activities bring about changes in rainfall, temperature, wind velocity, etc and lead to soil erosion.
Such changes then lead to desertification of the productive lands. Economic forces can encourage people
to over exploit their land for short-term gains.
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The centre and the states have launched a number of programmes to combat the menace of desertification
such as the drought prone area programme, the integrated watershed management programme and
others. The need is for concerted action for sustainable development with a 'bottom-up' approach.
Overgrazing leads to Animals select species This creates imbalance

loss of most palatable they prefer, they leave and remove only certain
herbs and grasses, because out tougher less tasty plants. plant species and
Overgrowth of invader
The animals species and unpalatable Invader species
remain hungry plants result in the loss make their way
of plants of nutritional value
This cycle of denudation

Hungry animals then strip
Pulverized soil (removal of plants one by one)
ground base for food and
hasten soil erosion. of a fertile land initiates a
their hoofs pulverize soil.
cycle that leads to desertification
Rain water drains off

With loss of percotaling With nothing to hold back,
quickly in such lands-rather
capacity of soil, the the surface soil is loss as
than percolating, rendering
spring, wells dry up. run-off
the soil dry.
Dry soil can not nourish Microclimate of

roots. Thus, trees/shrubs, earth devoid of
inhabiting such land and Earth get vegetation becomes Earth become
not liked by animals/man, denuded. inhospitable for barren
die from drought. seed germination
Wind drives
Heated earth Barren earth reflects
Desertification away moisture
causes changes more sun rays raising
laden clouds
in wind pattern the temperature at base.
leading to
5. Shifting cultivation:
Jhum cultivation, a very peculiar practice of slash and bum agriculture, prevalent among many tribal
communities inhabiting the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Islands of Pacific ocean
has also laid large forest tracts bare. This practice has led to complete destruction of forests in many
hilly areas of India.
6. Urbanization:
Human activities are responsible for the land-degradation of forests, croplands and grasslands. The
productive areas are fast reducing because of urbanization i.e the developmental activities such as human
settlements and industries.
7. Landslides:
Human activities such as construction of road and railway, canal, dams and reservoir and mining in hilly
areas have affected the stability of hill slopes and damaged the protective vegetation cover both above
and below roads and other such developmental works. This has upset the balance of nature, making such
areas vulnerable to landslides.
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8. Soil pollution:
Soil pollutants such as pesticides, chemicals, industrial wastes etc have an adverse effect on the physical,
chemical and biological properties of soil.
SOLID WASTE
Solid waste (Refuse) means any garbage, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, or air pollution
control facility and other discarded material including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material,
resulting from industrial, commercial, mining and agricultural operations, and from community activities.
But it does not include solid or dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or solid or dissolved materials
in irrigation return flows or industrial discharges.
TYPES AND SOURCES OF SOLID-WASTES
General categories of solid-wastes:
(i) Mining wastes:
Mining wastes are produced during mining operations wherein huge quantities of wastes are dumped on
land surface which may be otherwise useful for other purposes.
(ii) Agricultural wastes:
Include roots and stems of crops, straw, hay, dung, food articles etc. There is almost no problem of
agriculture waste items as they are used and reused in a number of ways.
(iii) Industrial wastes:
Include huge amount of abandoned items which create several environmental problems. For example,
huge quantities of bagasse are produced in sugar mills during the process of sugar production.
(iv) Municipal wastes:
Include solid wastes such as paper, plastics, metal cans, glass bottles, plastic bottles and cans, aluminum
foils, metal junks, polythene bags, garbage mostly coming from domestic uses etc. It may be further
pointed out that most of these items are reused and recycled.
The municipal waste substances are also classified into
(i) Non combustible wastes,
(ii) Highly combustible trash,
(iii) Combustible wastes,
(iv) Animal and vegetable trash etc.
(iv) Packing wastes:
Include packaging of different materials such as polythene, plastics, paper board, paper, jute, flax (gunny
bags) etc. These packaging are generally used several times in different forms in developing countries
but these are immediately discarded after their first use and hence present the problem of their disposal.
(v) Human wastes:
Include fecal matter in the cities which is disposed off in several disposal bodies such as underground
pits, tanks, rivers and seas. These human excreta are washed by rainwater and are carried to nearby
lakes and streams.
Animal wastes such as dung, their skeletons and waste substances from slaughter houses pose serious
disposal problems. In India dungs are picked up by farmers and are used as manures and cooking fuels.
Similarly, bones of dead animals are used in fertilizers industry.

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(vi) Hospital waste
• Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or
animals or in research activities or in the production or testing of biologicals.
• These chemicals include formaldehyde and phenols, which are used as disinfectants, and mercury,
which is used in thermometers or equipment that measure blood pressure.
• It may include waste like soiled waste, disposables, anatomical wastes, disposable syringes, swabs,
bandages, body fluids, human excreta, etc.
• These are highly infectious and can be a serious threat to human health if not managed in a scientific
and discriminate manner.
• After the notification of the Bio-medical Waste (Handling and Management) Rules, 1998, these
establishments are slowly streamlining the process of waste segregation, collection, treatment, and
disposal.
(vii) Radioactive and nuclear wastes:
Hazardous wastes could be highly toxic to humans, animals, and plants and are corrosive, highly inflammable,
or explosive.
• Household wastes that can be categorized as hazardous waste include old batteries, shoe polish,
paint tins, old medicines, and medicine bottles.
• In the industrial sector, the major generators of hazardous waste are the metal, chemical, paper,
pesticide, dye, refining, and rubber goods industries.
• Direct exposure to chemicals in hazardous waste such as mercury and cyanide can be fatal.
EFFECTS OF SOLID WASTES POLLUTION
The improper handling and transfer of the solid wastes results in various health and environment hazards,
such as:
• Diseases like bacillary dysentery, diarrhea and amoebic dysentery.
• Rats depending upon these solid wastes may also cause plague, salmonellosis, trichinosis, endemic
typhus like diseases through direct bite.
• The crops and water supply may also get contaminated and may result in large scale epidemic of
cholera, jaundice, gastrointestinal diseases, hepatitis etc.
• Solid wastes may also choke the drains and gully pits resulting in water logging.
• Obnoxious odours also pollute the air due to decomposition of organic solid wastes.
• Noxious fumes may pollute air due to the burning of waste products especially plastic containers.
• Percolation of decomposed garbage dumps into soil may result into pollution of underground water
and land.
METHODS OF SOLID-WASTES DISPOSAL
The various methods of solid-wastes disposal are:
1. Land Filling:
 In this method, solid-wastes are carried and dumped into the low lying areas. The refuse is filled
up or dumped in layers. Each layer is left out for at least seven days and compaction by trucks is
carried out for its settlement, before starting filling the next layer. Insecticides like DDT should be
sprayed on top to prevent breeding of mosquitoes and flies.
 With the passage of time, the filled up solid-wastes will get stabilized by the decomposition of the
organic matter and subsequent conversion into stable compounds.
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2. Incineration
Incineration means burning of the solid- wastes in properly constructed hearth of furnaces. This method
is generally used when suitable dumping land areas are not available and disposal in sea is not possible.
3. Pulverization
In this method, the solid-waste is pulverized in grinding machines so as to reduce its volume and change
its physical character. By doing so it becomes practically odourless and unattractive to insects. Although
it contains fertilizing elements, it cannot be suitably used as manure. It has to be further disposed of by
land filling. The method is quite costly, and hence not commonly used, particularly in India.
4. Composting
In this method the putrescible organic material in solid-wastes is digested anaerobically and converted
into humus and stable mineral compounds. Its volume is also considerably reduced and is made free of
most of the pathogenic organisms so that it can be easily and safely handled. This method is best suited
to Indian conditions, especially for small and medium size towns; since it solves three problems
simultaneously-disposal of solid-wastes, disposal of night soil (where there is no water carriage system
of sanitation), and production of valuable manure for crops.
5. Pyrolysis
In pyrolysis, the chemical constituents and chemical energy of some organic wastes is recovered by
destructive distillation of the solid waste. In pyrolysis, the combustible constituents of the solid- waste are
heated in a specially designed chamber, known as pyrolysis reactor at 650 to 1000° in an oxygen-free
(or low- oxygen) environment. Pyrolysis is an endothermic process and thus differs from the conventional
incineration.
6. Disposal into Sea
This method of solid-wastes disposal can be used in coastal areas having deep sea water at a reasonable
distance (16 to 20 km), and with strong forward currents. This is quite a simple and cheap method.
But it has following disadvantages:
• The bulky and lighter components of solid-wastes float, spread, and tend to return to the shores
during high tides.
• During monsoons or stormy weather, solid-waste has to be either stored or disposed of by some
other methods.
• Some portion of the solid-wastes may return and spoil the beaches, despite all the necessary
precautions.
7. Vermiculture
It is also known as earthworm farming. In this method, Earth worms are added to the compost. These
worms break the waste and the added excreta of the worms makes the compost very rich in nutrients
Solid Waste Management
• Indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes causes adverse environmental effects. The main objective of solid
waste management is to minimize these adverse effects before it becomes too difficult to rectify in the
future.
• Solid waste management may, thus be defined as the application of techniques that will ensure the orderly
execution of the functions of collection, processing and disposal of solid waste. These functions are called
the 'three basic functional elements of solid waste management'.

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• Collection is the first fundamental function of solid waste management. It refers to the gathering of solid
wastes from places such as residences, commercial, institutional and industrial establishments, and other
public places.
• Processing is the second fundamental function of solid waste management. It refers to the activity
applied to solid waste to prepare it for subsequent operation. Processing improves the efficiency of solid
waste disposal and prepares solid waste for subsequent recycling and recovery of materials.
• Disposal is the third fundamental function of solid waste management. It refers to the placing of solid
waste in its ultimate resting place.
• The Ministry has notified the Municipal Solid Wastes rules, 2000 for management of the municipal solid
waste. These rules provide for mechanisms to be set up by the municipal authority for management of
the waste within their jurisdiction.
Bio-medical waste management
As per the information received, about 4.16 tons of biomedical waste is generated per day. There are
190 common bio-medical waste treatment and disposal facilities in operation and 29 under construction.
The waste is required to be managed as per the bio medical waste rules, 1998.
Plastic waste management
The ministry had notified the Plastic waste rules, 2011 to regulate the manufacture and usage of plastic
carry bags and to manage plastic waste. The quantum of plastic waste generation in the country is
estimated to be 15,342.6 tons per day. Out of which 9205 tons is recycled and remaining 6137 tons
remains uncollected and littered. The rules are being amended and are under finalization.
Bio remediation
• Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of organisms to remove or
neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site.
• Technologies can be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the
contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be
treated elsewhere.
• Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are phytoremediation, bioventing, bioleaching,
landfarming, bioreactor, composting, bioaugmentation, rhizofiltration, and biostimulation.
• Bioremediation may occur on its own (natural attenuation or intrinsic bioremediation) or may only effectively
occur through the addition of fertilizers, oxygen, etc.,that help in enhancing the growth of the pollution-
eating microbes within the medium (biostimulation).
• Recent advancements have also proven successful via the addition of matched microbe strains to the
medium to enhance the resident microbe population's ability to break down contaminants. Microorganisms
used to perform the function of bioremediation are known as bioremediators.
• However, not all contaminants are easily treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. For example,
heavy metals such as cadmium and lead are not readily absorbed or captured by microorganisms.
BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES
(a) In situ bioremediation techniques
• It involves treatment of the contaminated material at the site.
 Bioventing-supply of air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of
indigenous bacteria. It is used for simple hydrocarbons and can be used where the contamination
is deep under the surface.

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 Biosparging-Injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase “groundwater oxygen”
concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by naturally occurring
bacteria.
 Bioaugmentation-Microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance degradation process.
(b) Ex situ bioremediation techniques
• Ex situ-involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
 Landfarming-contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled
[ ] until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms
and facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
 Biopiles-it is hybrid of landfarming and composting. Essentially, engineered cells are constructed as
aerated composted piles. Typically used for treatment of surface contamination with petroleum
hydrocarbons.
 Bioreactors-it involves the processing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water
through an engineered containment system. Composting-dealt earlier in solid waste management.
Using bioremediation techniques, TERI has

developed a mixture of bacteria called ‘olizapper’
which degrades the pollutants of oil-contaminated
sites, leaving behind no harmful residues. Thus
technique is not environment friendly, but also
highly cost-effective.
GENETIC ENGINEERING APPROACHES

Phytoremediation
• Phytoremediation is use of plants to remove contaminants from soil and water.
TYPES
• Phytoextraction/phytoaccumulation is the process by which plants accumulate contaminants into the roots
and aboveground shoots or leaves.
• Phytotransformation or phytodegradation refers to the uptake of organic contaminants from soil, sediments,
or water and their transformation to more stable, less toxic, less mobile form.
• Phytostabilization is a technique in which plants reduce the mobility and migration of contaminated soil.
Leachable constituents are adsorbed and bound into the plant structure so that they form unstable mass
of plant from which the contaminants will not re-enter the environment.
• Phytodegradation or rhizodegradation is the breakdown of contaminants through the activity existing in
the rhizosphere. This activity is due to the presence of proteins and enzymes produced by the plants or
by soil organisms such as bacteria, yeast and fungi. Rhizofiltration is a water remediation technique that
involves the uptake of contaminants by plant roots. Rhizofiltration is used to reduce contamination in
natural wetlands and estuary areas.
The bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans has been

used to de toxify toluene and ionic mercury which
are released from radioactive nuclear waste.
Mycoremediation
• is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to decontaminate the are.
Mycofltration
• is a similar process, using fungal mycelia to filter toxic waste and microorganisms from water in soil.
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Advantages of bioremediation
• Useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of contaminants.
• The complete destruction of target pollutants is possible.
• Less expensive
• Environment friendly
Disadvantages of bioremediation
• Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. Not all compounds are susceptible
to rapid and complete degradation.
• Biological processes are often highly specific.
• It is difficult to extrapolate from bench and pilot-scale studies to full-scale field operations.
• Bioremediation often takes longer time than other treatment process.
BIOASSAY
• Biossay is a test in which organisms are used to detect the presence or the effects of any other physical
factor, chemical factor, or any other type of ecological disturbance.
• Bioassays are very common in pollution studies. Bioassays can be conducted by using any type of
organisms. However, the fish and insect bioassays are very common.
• The aim is to find out either lethal concentration or effective concentration causing mortality or other
effects.
• Ultimately they are to be used for determination of safe concentration of a chemical or maximum
acceptable toxicant concentration (MATC).
• The organism is exposed to different concentration of a toxicant for a definite period and mortality,
behavioral change or other signals of distress are noted periodically.
• Out of three types, state bioassay test is designed, where the organisms are exposed to the same toxicant
solution for the whole experimental period. The other two are, renewal bioassay and flow-through
bioassays.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution is defined as excessive addition of certain material to the physical environment (water, air and
lands), making it less fit or unfit for life.
Pollutants
• Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause adverse effect on the natural quality of any component
of the environment.
For example, smoke from industries and automobiles, chemicals from factories, radioactive substances
from nuclear plants, sewage of houses and discarded household articles are the common pollutants.
Air Pollution
• The World Health Organization (WHO) defines air pollution as “limited to situations in which the outer
ambient atmosphere contains materials in concentrations which are harmful to man and his environment”.
• Thus Air pollution is generally dis-equilibrium condition of air caused due to the introduction of foreign
elements from natural and manmade sources to the air so that it becomes injurious to biological
communities.

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CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EMISSION SOURCES

Classification
Air pollutants are substances causing damage to target or receptor. The target be man, animal, plant,
building or materials which are adversely affected by pollutants.
Primary Pollutants
Primary air pollutants are those emitted directly from identified sources.
Examples of primary air pollutants:
1. Finer particles (less than 100  in diameter)
2. Coarse particles (greater than 100  in diameter)
3. Sulphur compounds
4. Oxides of nitrogen
5. Carbon monoxide
6. Halogen compounds
7. Ammonia
8. Organic compounds
9. Radioactive compounds
These pollutants are emitted by man made sources like transportation, fuel combustion, industrial operations,
solid waste disposal and various other activities.
Secondary air pollutants
Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction among two or more
pollutants, with or without photo activation.
Examples of secondary air pollutants
1. Ozone
2. Formaldehyde
3. PAN (Peroxy Acteyl Nitrate)
4. Photochemical smog
5. Formation of acid rains (H2SO4) due to reaction of sulphur dioxide and dissolved oxygen, when
water droplets are present in the atmosphere.

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COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS, THEIR SOURCES AND PATHOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON MAN
Pollutants Source Pathological effect on man

Sulphur dioxide Colorless gas produced by Coal and oil Respiration irritant, aggravates
combustion and certain industrial asthma and other lung and heart
sources diseases, reduces lung function, and
is a precursor to acid rain.
Nitrogen oxides Brownish orange gas produced by Inhibits cilia action so that soot and
motor vehicles and combustion at major dust penetrate far into the lungs
industrial sources
Hydrogen Refineries, chemical industries and Causes nausea, irritates eyes and
sulphide bituminous fuels throat
Carbon monoxide Burning of coal, gasoline, motor Reduces oxygen carrying capacity of
exhausts (incomplete combustion) blood
Hydrogen Blast furnace, fumigation, chemical Interferes with nerve cells, produces
cyanides manufacturing metal plating etc. dry throat, indistinct vision,
headache etc.
Ammonia Explosives, dye making fertilizer plants Inflames upper respiratory passages
and lacquers
Phosgene or Chemical and dye making Induces coughing, irritation and fatal
carbonyl chloride pulmonary edema
Suspended Solid or liquid particles produced by Respiratory irritant aggravates
particles (ash, combustion and other processes at asthma and other lung and heart
soot, smoke etc) major industrial sources (e.g. steel diseases (especially in combination
mills, power plants, chemical plants, with sulphur dioxide). Many are
Incinerators and almost every known as carcinogens. Toxic gases
manufacturing process) and heavy metals absorb onto these
particulates and are commonly
carried deep into the lungs. Cause
emphysema, eye irritation and
possibly cancer.
Lead Very small particles emitted from Toxic to nervous and blood-forming
motor vehicles and smelters, paints, systems can cause brain and organ
lead acid batteries etc. damage in high concentrations.
Ozone A colorless gas formed from a reaction Respiration irritant, aggravates
between motor vehicle emissions and asthma and other lung and heart
sunlight. It is the major component of diseases, impairs lung functions.
smog. Ozone is toxic to plants and corrodes
materials.
CLASSIFICATION OF EMISSION SOURCES

The various emission sources of air pollutants can be classified into natural and man made sources a
presented below.

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Emission sources of air pollutants
Natural Sources Man Made Sources

Volcaneoes Domestic burning of wood
Forest Fires Burning of Fossil fuels
Sulphur Spring Industrialization
Spray from the Oceans Agricultural Activities
Natural Geysers Vehicular Emission
Deflation of Sands and Dust Air Craft
Natural Organic and Inorganic Wars
Decay Nuclear Tests
Vegetative decays Deforestation
Marsh gases Incineration
Extra terrestrial bodies Power Generation
Cosmic dust Mining
Pollen grains of flowers Metallurgy
Soil Debris Waste Treatment Plants
Fungal spores Refrigeration Industries
Photochemical reactions
None of these natural pollutants normally accumulate to a level that is dangerous for life. However, many
industrial activities produce air pollutants in such levels that exceed the normal natural assimilation
processes.
Classification of Anthropogenic Air Pollution Sources
Source type Category Important Sources Typical Pollutants
Combustion Stationary Power plants, Industrial boilers, SOx
Diesel generators, Municipal or NOx
industrial incineration Reuse CO x
burning
Smoke
Fly ash
Trace metal oxides
Mobile Motor vehicles CO, HC, NOx, SOx
Air craft Particulates
Roasting and Non ferrous Roasting, smelting and refining Dust, smoke, metal
heating metallurgical operations fumes (Cu, Zn and Pb)
processes Ferrous Material handling, ore sintering Sulphur Smoke, fumes,
metallurgical and pelletizing, coke ovens, blast CO, odours, H 2S,
furnaces, steel furnaces organic vapour,
fluorides.
Non-metallic Crushed stone, cement, glass, Mineral and organic
minerals refractory, ceramic manufacture, particulates.
coal cleaning

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Source type Category Important Sources Typical Pollutants

Food and Food processing Drying, preserving, packaging Vapour, odour, dust
agriculture Crop spraying Pest and weed control Organic phosphates,
and dusting chlorinated HC,
organic, lead
Field burning Refuse burning Smoke, fly ash and soot.
Chemicals, Petroleum Boilers, process heaters, catalyst SO, HC, NO, particulate
petroleum, pulp refining regenerators, flares, storage tanks, matter, CO, aldehyde,
and paper compressor engines ammonia, odours.
Inorganic Sulfuric acid plants fertilizer SO, HF, NO, NH 3,
chemicals manufacturers, nitric acid and particulate matt er,
ammonia plants, phosphoric acid H3PO4 etc.
manufacture
Organic Plastic paint and varnish Particulate matter,
chemicals manufactures, synthetic rubbers, odours, SO2, CO,
rayon, insecticides, soap and organic intermediates
detergent manufacture, methanol, solvent vapours
phenol, etc
Pulp and paper Digester blow system, pulp Particulate matter, H2S,
(Kraft process) washers, recovery furnace, methyl mercaptans,
evaporators, oxidation towers dimethyl sulfide, SO2
Transport and Removal of Air Pollutants

The ambient levels of air pollutants throughout the world are fairly constant which are discharged annually into
the atmosphere from various sources. This indicate that there are certain exchange mechanisms working
in atmosphere to the Earth, through which the pollutants are continually removed and these removal
mechanisms for particles and gases can be classified into the following categories.
(a) Wet removal by rainfall or precipitation: Wet removal can involve the in-cloud capture of gases or
particles (rainout) or the below-cloud capture (wash out). In wash out, drops strike particles and carry
them to the surface; gases are removed by absorption. . Wet removal is the major removal process for
most particles and can be a factor in the removal of gaseous contaminants as well.
(b) Dry removal by sedimentation: In dry removal, particles are removed by gravity or impaction, and gases
diffuse to surfaces where they are absorbed or adsorbed
(c) Interaction at land and ocean surfaces.
(d) Transportation/dispersion based on meteorological conditions like wind speed, wind direction, solar radiation,
atmospheric stability, and precipitation.

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Harmful effects of air pollutants on materials

Material Effects Principal air pollutants
Stone and Surface erosion, discoloration Sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, nitric
concrete soiling acid, particulate matter
Metals Corrosion, tarnishing, loss of Sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, nitric acid
strength and particulate matter.
Ceramics and Surface erosion Hydrogen fluoride, particulate
glass
Paints Surface erosion, discoloration, Sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, ozone,
soiling particulate matter
Paper Embrittlement, discoloration Sulphur dioxide
Rubber Cracking, loss of strength Ozone
Leather Surface deterioration, loss of Sulphur dioxide
strength
Textile Deterioration, fading, soiling Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide
ozone, particulate matter
SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

1. Ozone and Photochemical smog:
• Ozone occurs naturally in the upper layer of the atmosphere and shields the earth from the harmful
ultraviolet rays of the Sun. However, at ground level, it is a pollutant with high toxic effects.
• Ground level Ozone is formed through a complex reaction involving hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and
sunlight. It is formed when pollutants released from gasoline, diesel-powered vehicles and oil based
solvents react with heat and sunlight.
• Ozone makes our eyes itch, bum, and water. It causes smog and acid rain.
SMOG
• The term smog was first used (1905) by Dr H A Des Voeux.
• Smog has been coined from a combination of the words fog and smoke. Smog is a condition of fog that
had soot or smoke in it.
• Photochemical smog is a term used to described air pollution that is a result of the interaction of sunlight
with certain chemicals in the atmosphere.
• One of the primary components of photochemical smog is zone.
• Ground-level ozone is formed when vehicle emissions containing nitrogen oxides (primarily from vehicle
exhaust) and volatile organic compounds (from paints, solvents, printing inks, petroleum products, vehicles,
etc) interact in the presence of sunlight.
• During the winter, wind speeds are low and cause the smoke and fog to stagnate near the ground; hence
pollution levels can increase near ground level.
The effects of smog
• It hampers visibility and harms the environment.
• Respiratory problems
• Deaths relating to bronchial diseases
• Heavy smog greatly decreases ultraviolet radiation.
• Heavy smog results in the decrease of natural vitamin D production leading to a rise in the cases of
rickets.
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• The Great Smog of 1952 or London smog was a severe air-pollution event that affected London during
December 1952. A period of cold weather, combined with an anticyclone and windless conditions,
collected airborne pollutants mostly from the use of coal to form a thick layer of smog over the city.
Although it caused major disruption due to the effect on visibility, and even penetrated indoor areas, it
was not thought to be a significant event at the time.
Types of particulars
Term Meaning Examples
Aerosol General term for particles suspended in air Sprays from pressurized cans
Mist Aerosol consisting of liquid droplets Sulfuric acid mist
Dust Aerosol consisting of solid particles that are blown into Dust storm
the air or are produced from larger particles by grinding
them down
Smoke Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a mixture of Cigarette smoke, smoke from
solid and liquid particles produced by chemical reaction burning garbage
such as fires
Fume Generally means the same as smoke but often applies Zinc/lead fumes
specifically to aerosols produced by condensation of hot
vapors of metals
Plume Geometrical shape or form of the smoke coming out of
a chimney
Fog Aerosol consisting of water droplets
Smog Term used to describe a mixture of smoke and fog.
Fly Ash
• Ash is produced whenever combustion of solid material takes place.
• Fly ash is one such residue which rises with the gases into the atmosphere. Fly ash is a very fine powder
and tends to travel far in the air. The ash which does not rise is termed as bottom ash.
• Nearly 73% of India's total installed power generation capacity is thermal, of which 90% is coal-based
generation, with diesel, wind, gas, and steam making up the rest. The Indian coal has high ash content
of the order of 30-45%, generating large quantity of fly ash at coal/lignite based thermal power stations
in the country.
Composition
1. Aluminum silicate (in large amounts)
2. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and
3. Calcium oxide (CaO).
• Fly ash particles are oxide rich and consist of silica alumina, oxides of iron, calcium and magnesium and
toxic heavy metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and copper.
Advantages:
• Cement can be replaced by fly ash upto 35%, thus reducing the cost of construction making roads, etc.
• Fly ash bricks are light in weight and offer high strength and durability.
• Fly ash is a better fill material for road embankments and in concrete roads.
• Abandoned mines can be filled up with fly ash.
• Fly ash can increase the crop yield and it also enhances water holding capacity of the land.
Environmental effects
• If fly ash is not captured and disposed off properly, it can pollute air and water considerably.
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• It causes respiratory problems

• Fly ash in the air slowly settles on leaves and crops in fields in areas near to thermal power plants
and lowers the plants yield.
Policy measures of MoEF:
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests vide its notification in 2009, has made it mandatory to use Fly
Ash based products in all construction projects, road embankment works and low lying land filling works
within 100 kms radius of Thermal Power Station.
• To use Fly Ash in mine filling activities within 50 kms radius of Thermal Power Stations.
Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
• It consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust, and vapour that can remain suspended for
extended periods and is also the main source of haze which reduces visibility.
Indoor air pollution
• People spend more time indoor than outdoors, the quality of air we breathe indoors is very important and
sometimes the indoor air is more polluted than outdoor air.
• The indoor air pollution sources can be broadly categorized as combustion appliances, tobacco smoking,
building materials, consumer products, metabolic activity and cooking.
Typical sources of indoor air pollutants and their sources
Pollutants Indoor air pollutant sources
SPM Fuel combustion, condensation of vapour resuspension, smoking, cigarette
smoking
SOx Fuel combustion, kerosene, coal, kitchen furnaces
NOx Fuel combustion tobacco smoke, kerosene, coal LPG
CO Fuel combustion tobacco smoke, kerosene, LPG
CO 2 Combustion, metabolic activity
Volatile organics Combustion, volatilization, metabolic activity solvent evaporation paints,
pesticides, insecticides, fungicides, fumigants, adhesives, cosmetics, solvents,
refrigerants, cooking vapours, clearing sprays, paints, various furnaces
PAH Combustion, tobacco smoke, polishers, clearing agents, cooking vapours
Ozone Photocopying, Laser printers
Ca, Cl2, Si, Cd, F2
Radon Building materials stone etc.,
HCHO Tobacco smoke particle board, insulation, furnishings, carpets, urea,
for maldehyde, other construction material
Asbestos, Mineral Fire-retardants, acoustic, thermal or electric thermal or electric insulations
& synthetic fibers activity products
NH3 Metabolic activity cleaning products
Aerosols Consumer products
Hg Fungicides in paints, spills in dental care facilities, laboratories, thermometer
breakage.
Viable organisms Infections
Allergens House dust, animal dander

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Bharat Emission Standards
• These are emission standards instituted by the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants
from internal combustion engine equipment, including motor vehicles.
• The Standards, based on European regulations were first introduced in 2000.
• Since October 2010, Bharat stage III (BS-III) norms have been enforced across the country.
• In 30 major cities, Bharat stage IV (BS-IV) norms have been in place since April 2010.
• In a move to curb vehicular pollution, Indian government has decided to move up to the toughest emission
standards of BS-VI from the current BS-VI by April 2020 skipping BS- V standard.
BS VI Norms
• The BS-VI compliant fuels have Sulphur concentration of 50 parts per million (ppm).
• This will come down to as low as 10 ppm in BS-Vi compliant fuels and auto engines. This means a lower
level of harmful emissions and reduced incidence of lung diseases.
• The switch to BS-VI norms will also reduce concentration of carbon monoxide, unbumt hydrocarbons,
nitrous oxide and particulate matter from emissions.
Control measures for air pollution
• Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches: preventive techniques and effluent
control.
• One of the effective means of controlling air pollution is to have proper equipment in place.
1. Policy measures
2. Preventive measures
• Selection of suitable fuel (e.g. fuel with low sulphur content) and its efficient utilization
• Modifications in industrial processes and/or equipments to reduce emission.
• Selection of suitable manufacturing site and zoning, e.g. setting of industries at a distance of residential
areas, installation of all chimneys.
Control measures:
(i) Destroying the pollutants by thermal or catalytic combustion.
(ii) Conversion of the pollutants to a less toxic form
(iii) Collection of the pollutant
Different types of air pollutants can be eliminated/minimized by following methods:
(a) Control of particulate matter: Two types of devices are used to remove particulate pollutants from
air. These are arresters and scrubbers.
(i) Arresters: These are used to separate particulate matters from contaminate air.
(ii) Scrubbers: These are used to clean air for both dusts and gases by passing it through a dry
or wet packing material.
(b) Control of Gaseous Pollutants:
The gaseous pollutants can be controlled through the techniques of Combustion, absorption and
adsorption.
(c) Control of Automobile Exhaust
(i) use of efficient engines(e.g. multipoint fuel injection engine).
(ii) Catalytic converter filters in the vehicles can convert nitrogen oxide to nitrogen and reduce
the potential hazards of NOx.
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(iii) Use of good quality automobile fuels

(iv) Use of lead free petrol.
(v) Use of compressed natural gas (CNG).
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
(a) National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
• In India, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been executing a nationwide programme for
ambient air quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).
• The National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP) is undertaken in India.
(i) to determine status and trends of ambient air quality;
(ii) to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS;
(iii) to identity non-attainment cities;
(iv) to understand the natural process of cleaning in the atmosphere; and
(v) to undertake preventive and corrective measures.
(b) National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were notified in the year 1982, duly revised in 1994
based on health criteria and land uses.
• The NAAQS have been revisited and revised in November 2009 for 12 pollutants which include
1. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
2. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
3. Particulate matter having size less than 10 micron (PM10)
4. Particulate matter having size less than 2.5 micron (PM2.5)
5. Ozone,
6. Lead,
7. Carbon monoxide (CO),
8. Arsenic
9. Nickel
10. Benzene,
11. Ammonia, and
12. Benzopyrene
National Air Quality Index
• National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched on April 2015 to monitor air quality in major urban cities
across the country on a real time basis and to enhance public awareness for taking needed actions.
• There are six AQI categories, namely, Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very poor, and
Severe. The AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) (10
and 2.5 in micrograms)
• PM10 – respirable particle
• PM2.5– penetrates into lungs.
• Particulate Matters (PM) can reduce photosynthesis as they clog stomata in leaves.
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• Air pollution in India is quite a serious issue with the major sources being fuelwood and biomass burning,
fuel adulteration, vehicle emission and traffic congestion. In autumn and winter months, large scale crop
residue burning in agriculture fields a low cost alternative to mechanical tilling is a major source of smoke,
smog and particulate pollution. India has low per capita emissions of greenhouse gases but the country
as a whole is the third largest after China and the United States.
• Air pollution was consistently worst in cities like Delhi, followed by Patna, Gwalior and Raipur.
• The air quality in Delhi, the capital of India, according to a WHO survey of 1600 world cities, is the worst
of any major city in the world.
• Air pollution in Delhi's National Capital Region (NCR) is comprised of a complex mix of pollution from
human activities (vehicle emissions, industry, construction and residential fuel burning, burning of agricultural
residue) as well as natural sources like dust.
Water Pollution
Water pollution is referred to an addition in excess of any material or heat that is harmful to humans or
animals or desirable aquatic life or otherwise causes significant departures from normal activities of
various living communities in a measurement of water.
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTANTS
The substances which degrade the quality of water from its equilibrium state are called water pollutants
which are generated from two basic sources:
(1) Natural sources of water pollutants, and
(2) Anthropogenic sources of water pollutants.
(1) Natural sources:
Water pollutants include soil erosion, landslides, coastal and cliff erosion, volcanic eruption and decay and
decomposition of plants and animals.
(2) Anthropogenic sources:
The anthropogenic sources of water pollution include industrial source, urban source, agricultural source,
cultural source (congregation of large number of people during pilgrimage, religious fairs etc.
Non-point and Point Sources
Non-point pollutants Point pollutants
Pollutants from: Specific discharges from:
Urban area, Industrial area, Rural runoff Municipalities or industrial complexes
Examples: sediment, pesticides, or nitrates Examples: organics or metals entering surface water
entering a surface water balance or runoff from as a result of wastewater discharge from a
agricultural farms manufacturing plant.

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The Major Types of Water Pollutants
Pollutants Major Source Effects

Oxygen Sewage effluent, agricultural Decomposition by aerobic bacteria depletes
demanding runoff including animal wastes; level of dissolved oxygen in water, flora and
wastes some industrial effluents (from fauna perish; further decompositions by
paper mills, food-processing, etc) anaerobic bacterial produces foul-smelling toxic
substances such as hydrogen sulfide.
Plant nutrients Sewage effluents including Algal blooms; death of submerged vegetation;
phosphates from detergents; production of large amounts of dead organic
agricultural runoff, especially matter with subsequent problems of oxygen
nitrates from fertilizers. depletion (see above)
Acids Acids rain; mine drainage; Acidification of natural waters; sharp decline
planting of extensive areas of species richness; fish loss; concomitant increase
coniferous forests, which acidity in level of toxic metals in solution. Eg.
the soil. Aluminum.
Toxic metals Hg, Ore mining; associated industries; Biomagnification of toxic metal with each
Pb, Cd, Zn, Sn lead from vehicle exhaust successive stage of food chain; threat to
emissions consumers including humans.
Oil Drilling operations; oil tankers- Contamination of the aquatic environment death
pills; natural seepage; waste of brids and mammals
disposal
Pollutants Major Source Effects

Oil Drilling operations; oil tankers- Contamination of the aquatic environment death
pills; natural seepage; waste of brids and mammals
disposal
DDT (an Direct application; agricultural Biomagnification; top carnivores (especially
organochlorine) runoff and via aerial crop- birds) at risk; very persistent in the environment
spraying
PCBs Sewage effluent; landfill sites Biomagnification; top carnivores at risk; effects
on human health include joint pain and fatigue
Radiation Natural sources; 20% from Degree of tissue damage and risk of death
nuclear weapons testing, medical dependent on exposure; radio nuclides can be
X-rays, nuclear energy industry, biomagnified and some are very persistent in the
etc. environment.
Heat Coolant waters from industry, Change in species composition usually
principally the electricity accompanied by a decrease in species richness;
generating industry fish may migrate or be killed by suffocation;
reproductive cycle of fish and other aquatic
organism disrupted
CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

There are several classes of common water pollutants.
(1) These are disease-causing agents (pathogens), which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic
worms that enter water from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes. The greater the
amount of wastes in the water, the greater is the chance of contracting diseases from them.
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(2) Another category of water pollutants is oxygen-depleting wastes. These are organic wastes that can be
decomposed by aerobic (oxygen-requiring) bacteria; large populations of bacteria use up the oxygen
present in the water in order to degrade this waste. In the process, this degrades the water quality.
 The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of organic matter is called the
biological oxygen demand (BOD). The amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of
pollution.
 If too much organic matter is added to the water, all the available oxygen is used up. This causes
fish and other forms of oxygen-dependent aquatic life to die. Their anaerobic respiration produces
chemicals that have a foul odor and an unpleasant taste, which are harmful to human health.
 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a slightly better mode used to measure pollution load in water.
It is the measure of oxygen equivalent of the requirement of oxidation of total organic matter (i.e.
biodegradable and non-biodegradable) present in water.
(3) The third class of pollutants is inorganic plant nutrients. These are water-soluble nitrates and phosphates
that cause the excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. This excessive growth due to added
nutrients is called eutrophication.
This may interfere with the use of water by clogging up water-intake pipes, changing the taste and smell
of the water, and causing a, buildup of organic matter.
 As the organic matter decays, the oxygen levels decrease and fish and other aquatic species die.
 The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides pollute the soil and water. While excess fertilizers cause
eutrophication, pesticides cause eutrophication, pesticides cause 'bioaccumulation' and
'biomagnification'.
 The pesticides that enter water bodies are introduced into the aquatic food chain. They are then
absorbed by the phytoplaktons and aquatic plants. These plants are eaten by the herbivorous fish,
which are in turn eaten by the carnivorous fish, which are in turn eaten by the water birds.
 At each link in the food chain these chemicals which do not pass out of the body re accumulate
and increasingly concentrate, resulting in the biomagnifications of these harmful substances.
 One of the effects of accumulation of high levels of pesticides, such as DDT, is that birds lay eggs
with shells that are much thinner than normal. This results in the premature breaking of these eggs,
killing the immature chicks inside.
(4) A fourth class of water pollutants is water- soluble inorganic chemicals, which are acids, salts and
compound of toxic metals such as mercury and lead. High levels of these chemicals can make the water
unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields, and accelerate the corrosion of
equipment that is in contact with this water.
(5) Another cause of water pollution is a variety of organic chemicals, which includes oil, gasoline, plastics,
pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents and many other chemicals. These are harmful to aquatic life and
human health. They enter the water directly from industrial activity, either from improper handling of
chemicals in industries and usually from the improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes.
(6) The sediment of suspended matter is another class of water pollutants. These are insoluble particles of
solid and other solids that become suspended in water. This occurs when the soil is eroded from the land.
High levels of soil particles suspended in water interfere with the penetration of sunlight. This reduces
the photosynthetic activity of plants and algae, disrupting the ecological balance of the aquatic bodies.

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 When the velocity of water in streams and rivers decreases, the suspended particles settle down
at the bottom as sediments. The excessive sediments that settle down destroy the feeding and
spawning grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs etc.
(7) Water-soluble radioactive isotopes are yet another source of water pollution. These can be concentrated
in various tissues and organs as they pass through food chains and food webs. The feeding and spawning
grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs, etc.
 Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments. Typically only one or a few
phytoplankton species are involved and some blooms may be recognized by discoloration of the
water resulting from the high density of pigmented cells. Colors observed are green, yellowish-
brown, or red.
 Some algal blooms are the result of an excess of nutrients (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen)
into waters and higher concentrations of these nutrients in water cause increased growth of algae
and green plants.
 As more algae and plants grow, others die. Algal blooms may also be of concern as some species
of algae produce neurotoxins. These toxins may have severe biological impacts on wildlife and are
often called Harmful Algal Blooms, or HABs.
EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH:
• The polluted water usually contains pathogens like virus, bacteria, parasitic protozoa and worms; therefore,
it is a source of water borne diseases like jaundice, cholera, typhoid, amoebiasis etc.
• Mercury compounds in waste water are converted by bacteria action into extremely toxic methyl mercury
which can cause numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, deafness, blurring of vision and mental derangement.
A crippling deformity called Minamata disease due

to consumption of fish captured from mercury
contaminated Minamata Bay in Japan was detected
in 1952.
• Water contaminated with cadmium can cause itai itai disease also called ouch-ouch disease (a painful
disease of bones and joints) and cancer of lungs and liver.
• The compounds of lead cause anemia, headache, loss of muscle power and bluish line around the gum.
Types of Water Pollution
Water pollution may be divided on the basis of sources and storages of water into the following 4
categories:
(1) Surface water (river water) pollution,
(2) Lake water pollution
(3) Groundwater pollution, and
(4) Sea water pollution
SURFACE (RIVER) WATER POLLUTION
1. Nature of River Water Pollution
Surface quantities of dissolved inorganic matter in the form of ions. It may be pointed out that the major
source of surface water is precipitation which contributes water to surface storage through rainfall and
melt-water.

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Classified pollutants of surface water pollution into 8 major categories as follows:
(1) Sewage wastes include numerous chemical substances brought down by the sewage drain of urban
and industrial areas as referred to above.
(2) Infectious agents include germs and viruses which cause several types of diseases such as
typhoid, dysentry, cholera, malaria, tuberculosis, jaundice etc.
(3) Plant nutrients and dissolved substances eg.. Chemical fertilizers, detergents, animal and human
wastes.
(4) Particulate matter e.g. soil and mineral particles.
(5) Radioactive substances released from nuclear reactors.
(6) Mineral and chemical substances coming from modem industries and mining operations such as
salts, acids, oil and greases etc.
(7) Heat: in the form of hot water released from chemical and metal industries, electrical power plants
run with atomic energy, coal, petroleum and natural gas.
(8) Organic chemical exotics such as synthetic material like pesticides, insecticides, herbicides,
rodenticides etc.
Increasing urbanization and industrial expansion are responsible for the release of enormous quantities
of pollutants of various kinds (as referred to above) through sewage effluents into the rivers and lakes
and thus contaminating the water beyond permissible safety level.
NATIONAL RIVER CONSERVATION PLAN
The river conservation programme was initiated with the launching of the Ganga Action Plan in 1985. the
Ganga Action Plan was expanded to cover other rivers under National River Conservation Plan (NRCP).
The objective of NRCP is to improve the water quality of rivers, which are major water sources in the
country, through implementation of pollution abatement works in various towns along identified polluted
stretches of rivers on cost sharing basis between the central and state governments.
Lake and Sea Water Pollution
• Lakes are polluted through natural and anthropogenic sources. Siltation of lakes due to dumping of
enormous quantities of sediments derived through accelerated rate of soil erosion caused by rapid rate
of deforestation in hilly source areas of the streams is the major form of anthropogenic source of lake
pollution.
• Washing and dumping of tailings or waste sludge from factories into stagnant water of lakes and tanks
pollute them more than they pollute the rivers because the river water is mobile while the lake water,
in most, is stagnant.
• Acid rains, the outcome of increased emission of sulphur dioxide (SO2) from man-made sources (combustion
of fossil fuels and automobiles) pollute lakes in the nearby regions of such factories.
Arsenic contamination is a serious problem (in

tube well dug areas) in the Ganges Delta, west
Bengal causing serious arsenic poisoning to large
numbers of people.
Sea Water Pollution

• Sea water is polluted mostly nearby coast through the disposal of urban and industrial waste matters into
the coastal water. Concentration of a single matter in the littoral water causes serious environmental
problem.
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• Many of the corals are reported to have been killed off the Andaman and Nicobar coast of toxic industrial
effluents. Fishers are mostly adversely affected due to sea water pollution.
• Leakage of immense quantities of crude oils from oil tankers and offshore oil wells is a major source
of sea water pollution.
• Leaked crude oil rapidly spread on water surface as 'oil slicks' and makes the water poisonous, with the
result numerous sea organisms including valuable fishes die. Thus oil leakages cause ecological disaster
in the coastal ecosystem.
• Water Hyacinth (an aquatic weed) can purify water by taking some toxic materials and a number of
heavy metals from water.
• Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of bregoli- a by product of paper industry resembling
saw dust, oil zapper, micro organisms.
Ground Water Pollution
Groundwater is pollution through a variety of sources viz. leaching and downward movement of pollutants
from agricultural field(such as nitrates, phosphorous, potash and several insecticides and pesticides), from
industrial dumping areas, from urban and rural garbage, from earthen septic tanks and from polluted
ponds and tanks. The main controlling factors of groundwater pollution are lithological characteristics of
sub-soils and subsurface materials, depth of water table of groundwater, nature of aquifer, amount and
nature of annual rainfall, general outlook of society, nature and rate of infiltration of rainwater and
stagnant pond and tank water and above all the nature and amount of pollutants.
(i) Presence of excess nitrate in drinking water is dangerous for human health and may be fatal for infants.
• Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts

with hemoglobin to form non-functional
methaemoglobin, and impairs oxygen
transport. This condition is called
methaemoglobinemia or blue baby
syndrome.
(ii) Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuro-muscular disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, teeth
deformity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints (skeletal fluorosis).
• High concentration of fluoride ions is

present in drinking water in 13 states of
India. The maximum level of fluoride,
which the human body can tolerate is 1.5
parts per million (mg/1 of water). Long
term ingestion of fluoride ions causes
fluorosis.
Leaching of polluting ions from the earthen soak pits, septic tanks and rotten and damaged underground
sewer pipelines downward very often pollute groundwater up to a depth of 400 m. The pollutants which
move downward with percolating water are called leachates. The leached pollutants are seldom stationary
in the groundwater rather they move in the aquifers with the movement of groundwater as guided by
groundwater contour.
Methods for control of water pollution and water recycling:
The sewage water can be treated to make it safe for disposal into water bodies like rivers, lakes etc.
The treatment involves three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary.

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This includes
1. Sedimentation,
2. Coagulation/flocculation,
3. Filtration,
4. Disinfection,
5. Softening
6. Aeration
• The first four steps are of primary treatment. The first three steps are involved in primary treatment
remove suspended particulate matter. Secondary treatment removes organic solids, left out after primary
treatment, through their microbial decomposition.
• The tertiary treatment is meant to remove nutrients, disinfect for removing pathogenic bacteria, and
aeration removes hydrogen sulphide and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide and make water healthy
and fit for aquatic organisms.
• This treatment of waste water or sewage is carried out in effluent treatment plants especially built for
this purpose.
Water Recycling
• With increasing population the requirement for water is increasing rapidly. However, the availability of
water is limited but an ever increasing water withdrawal from different sources brings down water
quality.
• Therefore, it is essential to utilize the available water with maximum economy.
This involves recycling of waste water for certain uses with or without treatment. Recycling refers to
the use of waste-water by the original user prior to the discharge either to a treatment system or to a
receiving water body. Thus the waste water is recovered and repetitively recycled with or without
treatment by the same user.
Control of water pollution
• It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by legislation. However, due to absence of defined
strategies it becomes difficult to prevent water pollution from nonpoint sources.
The following points may help in reducing water pollution from non-point sources.
(i) Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce their surface run-off
and leaching. Avoid use of these on slope lands.
(ii) Use of nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.
(iii) Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on pesticides.
(iv) Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin for settlement. The nutrient rich water can
be used as fertilizer in the fields.
(v) Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided to prevent overflow of sewage with
rainwater.
(vi) Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and will also prevent soil erosion.

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WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS

Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP)
Effluent treatment plants are designed to treat industrial effluents (waste waters). Since effluents from
different industries and even different processes in an industry vary in quantity and quality, separate
treatment methods for individual industry is required. No normal method like sewage treatment can be
successful. Therefore, it is important to remove pollutants before treatment of effluents. For treatment
one or more following process may be used.
1. Equalisation
2. Neutralisation
3. Physical treatment
4. Chemical treatment, and
5. Biological treatment.
1. Equalisation:
For producing uniform waste-water, the effluent is held for some fixed time under mixing condition to
equalize the flow rate and balance the organic concentration.
2. Neutralisation:
Neutralizing the excessive acidic or alkaline effluent with the help of alkali or acid respectively.
3. Physical Treatment:
Separating the suspended inorganic matter by physical processes like sedimentation and floatation
(i) Sedimentation:
Separation of heavy inorganic settleable solids.
(ii) Floatation:
The process that clarifies waste waters by the removal of suspended matter such as oil or solids. The
removal is achieved by dissolving air in the water under pressure and then releasing the air at atmospheric
pressure in a floatation tank basin. The released air forms tiny bubbles which adhere to the suspended
matter causing the suspending matter to float to the surface of the water where it may then be removed
by a skimming device.
4. Chemical Treatment:
Depending upon the characteristics of the effluents chemical treatment may or may not be required
before biological treatment. By chemical treatment dissolved organic matter may be recovered.
It consists of one or more of the following processes:
(i) Reverse osmosis:
Waste-water is filtered through semipermeable membrane to remove dissolved salts. Before reverse
osmosis, waste-waters are subjected to activated carbon adsorption or chemical precipitation and filtration.
(ii) Electrodialysis:
Dissolved salts are separated by passing electric current through waste-water tank installed with ion
exchange membranes. Some pretreatment of waste-water is done.
(iii) Chemical oxidation:
Substances like ammonia, cyanide etc. in waste-waters are reduced by chlorine or ozone. This also
reduces BOD load for biological treatment.

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(iv) Chemical coagulation:
Sedimentation of unsettleable micro and colloidal impurities which get absorbed in the gelatinous floes
formed by the chemical reaction between coagulant and alkalies of the waste-water.
Impurities of phosphorus, phosphoric compounds etc. are removed by chemical precipitation with such
compounds which can precipitate dissolve form of such impurities. Nutrients like nitrogen and toxic
metals may also be sometimes precipitated by using suitable chemicals.
(v) Adsorption:
By passing wastewater through activated carbon (charcoal), the non biodegradable organics like synthetic
detergents, colour and odour are removed by adsorption process.
(vi) Deionisation:
Wastewater is passed through the bed of synthetic ion exchange resin to remove undesirable cations or
anions by exchanging with sodium or hydrogen ions of the resin.
(vii) Thermal reduction:
Substances like organic cyanide when present in wastewater are removed by burning and consequent
oxidation
(viii) Air stripping:
Gases from the wastewater are removed by pouring the liquid waste down through a packed tower
equipped with an air blower at the bottom.
5. Biological treatment: When the wastewaters contain large quantities of biodegradable substances,
biological treatment is given by conventional biological treatment methods which may - differ depending
upon the type of industry.
• When toxicity of wastewater to microbe in biological treatment method is expected, acclimatization
is done. It means gradual exposure of wastewater in increasing concentration to the seed/ initial microbial
population under controlled conditions. For growth of microbes sometimes nitrogen and phosphorus
containing compounds like urea/super-phosphate are added.
Sewage Treatment Plants (STP)
Sewage treatment, or domestic waste water treatment, is the process of removing contaminants from
waste water and house hold sewage, both runoff and domestic. It includes physical, chemical and
biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants.
Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs)
• The concept of CETP arose inorder to make a co-operative movement for pollution control. The main
objective is to reduce the treatment cost to be borne by an individual member unit to a minimum while
protecting the environment to a maximum.
• Waste water treatment and water conservation are the prime objectives of the CETP.
• Progressive technologies like Zero Liquid Discharge will also be considered for assistance, subject to a
ceiling. The central subsidy has been enhanced from 25% to 50% of the project cost.
Bio Toilet
• The bio-toilet consists of an easy to install super-structure, a multi-chambered bio-tank that holds the
bacterial culture and supports the treatment of human waste. The system doesn't need any external
energy for treatment, rather gives out pathogen-free effluent water that is apt for gardening and similar
purposes; and biogas that could be used for cooking or heating. The system meets all regulatory and
environmental compliances and enhances the socio- environmental fabric of India.

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• Bio-digester is a consortium of anaerobic bacteria, which have been screened and gradually adapted to
work at temperatures as low as -5°C through the isolation of psychrophilic bacteria from Antarctica/
Siachen. These convert the organic waste into water, methane and CO2.
The anaerobic process inactivates the pathogens responsible for water-borne diseases. Bio-digesters
serve as reaction vessels for bio-methanation and provide anaerobic conditions and the required temperature
for the bacteria. Bio-toilets treat the human waste at source- obviating the need to carry/transport the
fecal matter, no spoiling of environment or groundwater, and don't need any energy.
Then, there are other benefits of the bioloo. The system leaves pathogen-free water as effluent that can
be re-used. For large bio-tanks, methane can be collected and used. These can be installed anywhere,
without specification of land type, terrain, distance, etc. We see bio-toilets as a true panacea to many
of India's sanitation woes.
Minamata Convention
The Minamata Convention on Mercury is an international treaty designed to protect human health and
the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds by
2020.
Thermal Pollution
Sources: The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called thermal pollution. It occurs when
an industry removes water from a source (e.g. a river), uses the water for cooling purposes, and then
returns the heated water to its source.
Effects:
• The warmer temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and increases the metabolism of fish. This
changes the ecological balance of the river. Within certain limits, thermal additions can promote the
growth of certain fish and the fish catch may be high in the vicinity of a power plant. However, sudden
changes in temperature caused by periodic plant shutdowns, both planned and unintentional, can result
in the death of these fish that are acclimatized to living in warmer waters.
• Tropical marine animals are generally unable to withstand a temperature increase of 2-3 °C and most
sponges, mollusks and crustaceans are eliminated at temperatures above 37°C. This results in a change
in the diversity of fauna, as only those species that can live in warmer water will survive and proliferate
excessively.
Control measures:
• Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water through a cooling pond or a cooling
tower after it leaves the condenser. The heat is dissipated into the air and the water can then be
discharged into the river or pumped back to the plant for to be reused for cooling.
• There are several other ways in which thermal pollution can be reduced. One method is to construct a
large shallow pond. Hot water is pumped into one end of the pond and cooler water is removed from
the other end. The heat gets dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere. Another method is to use a
cooling tower; these structures take up less land area than the ponds. Here, most of the heat transfer
occurs through evaporation. The disadvantage in both these methods however is that large amounts of
water is lost due to evaporation.
LAND/SOIL POLLUTION
Land simply means the superficial parts of lithosphere wherein soil is the most significant aspect of land
surface for biological communities. This is why soils are termed as 'biological reservoirs' or 'biological
factory'. Land degradation simply means loss of utility of land for plants and animals.

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Though some natural factors such as climatic changes (e.g. desertification and desert spread, conservation
of warm land into cold land-ice covered surfaces etc.), volcanic eruption and lava flow, orogenesis etc.
cause land degradation but anthropogenic factors are mostly responsible for land degradation and pollution.
Factors of Soil Pollution
The main factors of soil pollution are accelerated rate of soil erosion consequent upon major land use
changes (e.g. deforestation); excessive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides;
polluted waste water from industrial and urban areas; a few micro-organisms forest fires dumping of
urban and industrial solid wastes; water logging and related capillary process; leaching processes; drought
etc.
Sources of Soil Pollution
The sources or agents of soil pollution may be divided into the following 5 categories:
• Physical agents/sources
• Biological agents/sources
• Air-borne sources
• Biocides an chemical fertilizers and
• Urban and industrial sources.
Physical source of soil pollution is related to soil erosion and consequent soil degradation caused by
natural and anthropogenic factors. The natural factors of soil erosion include amount and intensity of
rainfall, temperature and wind; topographic factors; lithological factors; vegetation and soil characteristics.
These factors are further accelerated by human activities such as land use changes (e.g. deforestation).
Biological sources or agents of soil pollution include those micro-organisms and unwanted plants which
degrade the quality and therefore fertility of the soils. The biological agents of soil pollution are grouped
into 4 major categories:
• pathogenic micro-organisms excreted by human beings,
• pathogenic micro-organisms excreted by domestic animals,
• pathogenic micro-organisms already present in the soils, and
• Enteric bacteria and protozoa.
The micro-organisms enter the soils from various sources and degrade them. These microorganisms also
enter the food chains and thus affect human bodies.
Air-borne sources of soil pollutants are infact, air pollutants which are released into the atmosphere
by ‘human volcanoes’ (chimneys of factories), automobiles, thermal power plants and domestic sources.
The fallouts of these pollutants are deposited in the soils which are polluted due to toxic substances.
Sulphur emitted from the factories causes acid rains which lower the pH of the soils. Highly acidic soils
are injurious to plant growth.
Chemical fertilizer and biocides have now become essential part of modem mechanized agriculture.
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers to boost agricultural production causes alteration in the physical and
chemical properties of soils, though chemical fertilizers act as inorganic plant nutrients. The most dangerous
pollutants are different kinds of biocides which destroy micro-organisms including useful bacteria and thus
lower down the quality of soils significantly. Biocides (pesticides, insecticides, herbicides etc) reach the
food chains in toxic forms and ultimately enter the bodies of human beings and even animals through food
they eat.
Biocides are, thus, called as creeping deaths.

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Control of Soil Pollution:

The following steps may be suggested to control soil pollution.
• Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use
• Use of bio pesticides, bio fertilizers.
• Organic farming
• Four R’s: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
• Afforestation and Reforestation
• Solid waste treatment
• Reduction of waste from construction areas
FOUR R’S
1. Refuse
Instead of buying new containers from the market, use the ones that are in the house. Refuse to buy
new items though you may think they are prettier than the ones you already have.
2. Reuse
Do not throw away the soft drink cans or the bottles; cover them with homemade paper of paint on them
and use them as pencil stands or small vases.
3. Recycle
Use shopping bags made of cloth or jut, which can be used over and over again. Segregate your waste
to make sure that it is collected and taken for recycling.
4. Reduce
Reduce the generation of unnecessary waste, e.g. carry your own shopping bag when you go to the
market and put all your purchases directly into it.
NOISE POLLUTION
• Noise pollution is an unpleasant noise created by people or machines that can be annoying, distracting,
intrusive, and/or physically painful.
• Noise pollution comes from sources such as "road traffic, jet planes, garbage trucks, construction equipment,
manufacturing processes, leaf blowers, and boom boxes".
• Sound is measured in decibels (dB). An increase of about 10 dB is approximately double the increase
in loudness.
• A person's hearing can be damaged if exposed to noise levels over 75 dB over a prolonged period of time.
The World Health Organization recommends that the sound level indoors should be less than 30 dB.
Ambient Noise Level Monitoring
• Noise Pollution (Control and Regulation) Rules, 2000 define ambient noise levels for various areas as follows:
Limits in dB(A) Leq
Category of Day Time Night Time
Area/Zone 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. to
10 p.m. p.m.
A. Industrial Area 75 70
B. Commercial Area 65 55
C. Residential Area 55 45
D. Silence Zone 50 40

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• The Government of India on March 2011 launched a Real time National Ambient Noise Monitoring
Network. Ambient Noise is included as environmental quality parameter. Under this network, in phase-
I, five Remote Noise Monitoring Terminals each have been installed in different noise zone in seven
metros (Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai and Lucknow).
• In Phase II another 35 monitoring stations will be installed in the same even cities, Phase III will cover
installing 90 stations in 18 other cities.
• Phase-III cities are Kanpur, Pune, Surat, Ahmedabad, Nagpur, Jaipur, Indore, Bhopal, Ludhiana, Guwahati,
Dehradun, Thiruvananthpuram, Bhubaneswar, Patna, Gandhinagar, Ranchi, Amritsar and Raipur.
• Silence zone is an area comprising not less than 100 metres around hospitals, educational institutions,
courts, religious places or any other area declared as such by a competent authority.
IMPACTS OF NOISE
• Annoyance:
It creates annoyance to the receptors due to sound level fluctuations.
• Physiological effects:
The physiological features like breathing amplitude, blood pressure, heart-beat rate, pulse rate, blood
cholesterol are affected.
• Loss of hearing:
Long exposure to high sound levels cause loss of hearing. This is mostly unnoticed, but has an adverse
impact on hearing function.
• Human performance:
The working performance of workers/human will be affected as it distracts the concentration.
• Nervous system:
It causes pain, ringing in the ears, feeling of tiredness, thereby effecting the functioning of human system.
• Sleeplessness:
It affects the sleeping there by inducing people to become restless and lose concentration and presence
of mind during their activities.
• Damage to material:
The buildings and materials may get damaged by exposure to infrasonic/ultrasonic waves and even get
collapsed.
Control
• The techniques employed for noise control can be broadly classified as
1. Control at source
• Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors
• Maintenance of automobiles
• Control over vibration
• Prohibition on usage of loud speakers
• Selection and maintenance of machinery
2. Control in the transmission path
• Installation of barriers
• Design of building
• Green belt development (planting of trees)
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3. Using protective equipment

• Job rotation
• Reduced Exposure time
• Hearing protection
• Documentation of noise measurements, continuous monitoring and awareness are the need of the hour.
RADIO ACTIVE POLLUTION
Radioactive Pollution
• Radioactivity is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of proton (a-particles), electrons (-particles)
and gamma rays (short wave electromagnetic waves) due to disintegration of atomic nuclei of some
elements. These cause radioactive pollution.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a property of certain element
(radium, thorium, uranium etc.) to spontaneously
emit protons (alpha particles) electron (beta
particles) and gamma rays (short-wave
electromagnetic wave) by disintegration of their
atomic nuclei (nuclides).
Types of radiation particles

1. Alpha particles can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin.
2. Beta particles can penetrate through skin, while can be blocked by some pieces of glass and metal.
3. Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and damage cells on its way through, reaching far and
can be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece of concrete.
Sources
Natural
• They include cosmic rays from space and terrestrial radiations from radio-nuclides present in earth's crust
such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.
Man-made
• Nuclear power plants • Nuclear weapon
• Transportation of nuclear material • Disposal of nuclear waste
• Uranium mining • Radiation therapy
Atomic explosion (Nuclear fallout)

• The nuclear arms use uranium-235 and
plutonium-239 for fission and hydrogen or
lithium as fusion material. Atomic
explosions produce radioactive particles that
are thrown high up into the air as huge
clouds. These particles are carried to long
distances by wind and gradually settle over
the earth as fall out or are brought down by
rain. The fall out contains radioactive
substances such as strontium-90, cesium-
137, iodine-131, etc.

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EFFECTS
• The effects of radioactive pollutants depend upon
(i) half-life
(ii) energy releasing capacity
(iii) rate of diffusion and
(iv) rate of deposition of the pollutant
(v) Various environmental factors such as wind, temperature, rainfall also influence their effects.
Non-ionising radiations:
• They include short-wave radiations such as ultraviolet rays, which forms a part of solar radiation.
• They have low penetrating power and affect the cells and molecules which absorb them.
• They damage eyes which may be caused by reflections from coastal sand, snow (snow blindness)
directly looking towards sun during eclipse.
• They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries producing blisters and reddening called sunburns.
Ionising radiations
• They include X-rays, cosmic rays and atomic radiations (radiations emitted by radioactive elements)
• Ionising radiations have high penetration power and cause breakage of macro molecules.
• The molecular damage may produce short range (immediate) or long macro molecules.
(i) Short range effects include bums, impaired metabolism, dead tissues and death of the organisms.
(ii) Long range effects are mutations increased incidence of tumors and cancer, shortening of life-span
and developmental changes.
• The mutated gene can persist in living organisms and may affect their progeny.
• The actively dividing cells such as Embryo, foetus, cells of skin, intestinal lining, bone marrow and gamete
forming cells are more sensitive to radiations.
• Some species of animals and plants preferentially accumulate specific radioactive materials. For example,
oysters deposit Zn, fish accumulate Fe, and marine animals selectively deposit Sr.
Control Measures
• Prevention is the best control measure as there is no cure available for radiation damage.
(i) All safety measures should be strictly enforced. Leakage of radioactive elements should be totally
checked.
(ii) Safe disposal of radioactive waste.
(iii) Regular monitoring through frequent sampling and quantitative analysis.
(iv) Safety measures against nuclear accidents.
(v) Nuclear explosions and use of nuclear weapons should be completely banned.
(vi) Appropriate steps should be taken to protect from occupational exposure.
Safe Disposal of Nuclear Wastes
When the world entered the atomic age, the problem or the dangers of disposal of nuclear waste were
not fully realized. It is now becoming increasingly clear that safe disposal of nuclear waste is not easy
and simple.
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Radioactive wastes are of two types:

(1) low level radioactive wastes (LLW) which include civilian applications of radionuclides in medicine,
research and industry, materials from decommissioned reactors, protection clothing worn by persons
working with radioactive materials or working in nuclear establishments.
(2) High level radioactive wastes (HLW) results from spent nuclear fuel rods and obsolete nuclear weapons.
Some proposed methods of disposing nuclear waste are:
• Bury it deep underground in insulated containers. This is a strategy being pursued in United States.
• Shoot it into the space or into the sun. The cost would be very high and a launch accident should be
disastrous.
• Bury it under the ice sheet of Antarctica or Greenland ice cap. The ice could be destabilized by heat
from the waste. The method has been prohibited by international law.
• Dump it into deep oceans by keeping the waste into glass and steel cases. But the containers might leak
and contaminate the ocean. The method is prohibited by international law. Until 1983, European countries
had been dumping before 1983 when dumping was stopped, by law 90,000 metric tons waste had been
disposed in the ocean.
• Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes. Currently no method is known to do that and the method
would be too costly.
• Presently waste fuel rods are being stored in special storage ponds at reactor sites or sent to reprocessing
plants. Even though reprocessing is more expensive, some countries use reprocessing as an alternative
to waste storage.
Thus safe disposal of nuclear waste is a matter of debate.
Potentially usable sites or locations where nuclear waste can be disposed off should have some
characteristics like
• Low precipitation;
• Deep water table;
• Slow moving ground water;
• Absence or near absence, of exploitable resources in the area;
• Absence of surface waters;
• Low possibility of tectonic movement;
• Adequate buffer zone (in case the waste gets loose).
E-Waste
• The discarded and end-of-life electronic products ranging from computers, equipment used in Information
and Communication Technology (ICT), home appliances, audio and video products and all of their
peripherals are popularly known as Electronic waste (E-waste).
• E-waste is not hazardous if it is stocked in safe storage or recycled by scientific methods or transported
from one place to the other in parts or in totally in the formal sector. The e- waste can, however, be
considered hazardous if recycled by primitive methods.
E-Waste in India
• Survey was carried out by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) during 2005 estimated that 1.347
lakh MT of e-waste was generated in the country in the year 2005, which is expected to increase to
about 8.0 lakh MT by 2012.

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• In India, among top ten cities, Mumbai ranks first in generating e-waste followed by Delhi, Bangalore,
Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur.
• The 65 cities generate more than 60% of the total generated ewaste, where, 10 states generate 70%
of the total e-waste.
• Most of the e-waste is recycled in India in unorganized units, which engage significant number of
manpower. Recovery of metals by primitive means is a most hazardous act.
• Proper education, awareness and most importantly alternative cost effective technology need to be
provided so that better means can be provided to those who earn the livelihood from this.
E-Waste management:
• The ministry has notified E-waste Management and Handling rules, 2011. These rules empower the
concerned state agencies to control, supervise and regulate relevant activities connected with e-waste
management such as collection, segregation, dismantling and recycling.
• The concept of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) has been enshrined in these rules. Accordingly,
producers are required to set up collection systems and meet the cost involved in the environmentally
sound management of e-waste generated from the 'end of life' of their own products.
• Besides, threshold limits, which are accepted globally, have been prescribed for six hazardous substances
used in manufacture of electrical and electronics components. Producers are expected to achieve reduction
in use of the hazardous substances to the prescribed limit within a period of two years from the date
of commencement of these rules.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND HEALTH EFFECTS
Toxicology Effects
Eco-toxicology is “a study of the effects of released pollutants on the environment and on the biota that
it inhabit”.
Rem
It gives an indication of biological damage. It is an estimate of the amount of radiation of any type which
produces the same biological injury in man as that resulting from the absorption of a given amount of
X-ray radiation or gamma radiation.
Iodine-131
• Iodine-131 produced by nuclear tests is passed to vegetation and then appears in milk of the cattle that
consume the contaminated vegetation and is passed to humans. Iodine- 131 causes serious damage to
thyroid gland, especially among children.
• About 99% of long-term radioactivity from either strontium or radium taken into the human body is found
in the bones.
Lead
Lead is highly toxic to plants and animals including man. Lead generally affects children more severely
than adults. Lead poisoning causes a variety of symptoms. These include liver and kidney damage,
reduction in hemoglobin formulation, mental retardation and abnormality in fertility and pregnancy.
Symptoms of chronic lead-poisoning are of three general types.
(a) Gastrointestinal troubles-most common in industrial workers includes intestinal stress.
(b) Neuromuscular effects-collectively called lead palsy, and impairment of muscle metabolism resulting into
residual paralysis and muscular atrophy.
(c) Central nervous system effects-CNS syndrome-a panoply of nervous system disorders, they may lead
to delirium, convulsions coma and death.
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Mercury
• This is the most common and most toxic in water bodies. It occurs in water as monomethyl mercury.
Most industrial effluents have mercury. Methyl mercury vapours cause fatal poisoning.
• High levels of mercury in fish stocks have been found, mainly in coastal areas. Mumbai, Kolkata, Karwar
(in Karnataka) and North Koel(in Bihar) are some of the severely affected areas.
• The recent popularity of energy efficient compact of fluorescent lamps or CFLs has added another
dimension to the controversy.
• Toxicity of mercury is much greater than any other substance, about 1000 times more potent than
colchicines.
Fluorine
It occurs in nature a fluoride, in air, soil and water. Fluorisis is a common problem in several states of
the country due to intake of high fluoride content water. Fluorides cause dental fluorisis, stiffness of joints
(particularly spinal cord) causing humped back. Pain in bones and joint and outward bending of legs from
the knees is called Knock-Knee syndrome. In cattle, fluoride intake causes staining, mottling and abrasion
of teeth, lameness and decrease in milk production.
DDT
• Toxic pesticides as BHC, PCB, DDT etc., are not easily degraded and are long-lasting in the environment.
Their concentration therefore goes on increasing in water and soil with successive applications.
• DDT was sprayed for many years on marshes to control mosquitoes.
• The DDT has bio-magnified from water to fish eating birds and humans. DDT is known to depress the
activity of estrogen, the female sex hormone and testosterone, male sex hormone. Fish die due to eating
of DDT-killed insects; turtles die because of eating DDT-killed fish and so on. DDT deposited in butter
fat of milk is a potential danger to infants.
• The end result of DDT use is that whole population of predatory birds such as the fish hawk (osprey)
and of detritus feeders a fiddler crab are wiped out. Birds are more vulnerable as DDT interferes with
egg shell formation by causing a breakdown in steroid hormones which results in fragile eggs that break
before the young can hatch.
Lead in Paints
• Modem houses are full of harmful chemicals. One of them is lead, present in paints.
• Though several countries have banned the use of this substance India is yet to do so, which is why paint
makers use them.
• Inhaling lead dust like opening or closing windows is the most common source of lead poisoning.
• The human body is not designed to process lead. Young children are particularly vulnerable to lead as
it can damage the central nervous system and the brain.
Transfat
• Transfats are formed during the process of addition of hydrogen atoms to oils, a process which industry
prefers as it keeps the oil from turning rancid and ensures a longer shelf life. (E.g. trans-fatty acid in
vanaspati)
• Transfats are associated with a host of serious health problems ranging from diabetes to heart diseases.
• The health ministry in 2008 came out with a notification for labeling food including tranfats.
• Junk food is high in transfats, salt and sugar, junk food gives no nutrition. In fact, getting addicted to it
is making the young vulnerable to hypertension, heart diseases, diabetes and obesity.
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High Caffeeiene in Energy Drinks
• Energy drinks are in controversy because of its high caffeine content. Most of these brands have upto
320 ppm of caffeine in them. These drinks are marketed as an instant source of energy.
• The manufactures claim that it is the combination of caffeine, taurine, glucoronolactone, vitamins, herbal
supplements, and sugar or sweeteners that gives the energy.
• According to study reports, it is the sugar that gives the energy rush, the caffeine only gives a 'feeling'
of energy.
Pesticide in Human Blood
• Pesticides are commonly used in India but this comes at great cost to human health. It found that 15
different pesticides in the 20 blood samples tested from four villages in Punjab.
Testing of Pesticide Toxicity
• All pesticides are tested to establish toxicity– a dose necessary to produce a measurable harmful effect,
it is usually established through tests on mice, rats, rabbits and dogs.
• Results are then extrapolated on humans, and safe exposure levels predicted.
• The value commonly used to measure acute toxicity is LD 50 (a lethal does in the short term; the
subscript 50 indicates the dose is toxic enough to kill 50 percent of lab animals exposed to the chemical).
• Pesticides once ingested, accumulate in the body fat or pass through. Organochlorine pesticides, for
instance, accumulate in body fat and blood lipids. These fat-soluble chemicals persist in the body for
many years.
DISEASES CAUSED DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
(a) Minamata disease
• Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan in 1956.
• It was caused by the release of methyl mercury in the industrial wastewater from the Chisso Corporation's
chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968.
• It is also referred to a Chisso-Minamata disease, is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury
poisoning.
• Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the
fields of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death
follow within weeks of the onset of symptoms. A congenital form of the disease can also affect fetuses
in the womb.
• This highly toxic chemical bioaccumulated in shellfish and fish in Minamata Bay and the Shiranui Sea,
which when eaten by the local populace resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat, dog, pig, and human
deaths continued over more than 30 years, the government and company did little to prevent the pollution.
(b) Itai-itai disease
• Itai-itai disease was the documented case of mass cadmium poisoning in Toyama Preference, Japan,
staring around 1912.
• The cadmium poisoning caused softening of the bones and kidney failure.
• The cadmium was released into rivers by mining companies in the mountains. The mining companies
were successfully used for the damage.
(c) Blue baby syndrome
• It is believed to be caused by high nitrate contamination in ground water resulting in decreased oxygen
carrying capacity of hemoglobin in babies leading to death.
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• The groundwater is thought to be contaminated by leaching of nitrate generated from fertilizer used in
agricultural lands and waste dumps.
• It may also be related to some pesticides (DDT, PCBs etc), which cause eco toxicological problems in
the food chains of living organisms, increasing BOD, which kills aquatic animals.
(d) Pneumoconiosis
• The coal miners are frequently caught by the black lung disease, which is also called as Pneumoconiosis.
• Pneumoconiosis is caused due to the deposit of coal dust in the lungs of coal miners, leads to a serious
lung disease called as Black Lung disease.
(e) Asbestosis
• Workers working in the asbestos industry are caught by the serious lung disease called as asbestosis.
(f) Silicosis
• It is caused due to the deposit of silica in the lungs of workers working in silica industries or the sand
blasting sites.
(g) Emphysema
• The breaking down of sensitive tissue of lungs due to air pollution and smoke of cigarette is called as
Emphysema. Once this disease happens, the lungs cannot expand and contract property.
(h) Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
• Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a combination of ailments (a syndrome) associated with an individual’s
place of work or residence.
• Most of the sick building syndrome is related to poor indoor air quality.
• Sick building causes are frequently pinned down to flaws in the heating ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems. Other causes have been attributed to contaminants produced by out gassing of some
types of building materials, volatile organic compounds (VOC), molds, improper exhaust ventilation of
ozone, light industrial chemicals used within, or lack of adequate fresh-air intake air filtration.
Concept of Ecolabelling
Labeling of environmentally beneficial goods and resources extracted by more sustainable methods can
help consumers decide which goods and services to buy. Product ecolabelling can encourage companies
to develop green products and services and help consumers select more environmentally beneficial
products and services. Eco-labels are also being used to certify that the fish bearing ecolabels were
caught by using sustainable fishing methods and also for timber products to certify and trees were
harvested in accordance with the sustainable forest management principles.
Objectives of ecolabelling
• Protecting the environment and to make consumers aware of environmental issues.
• Encouraging efficient management of renewable resources to ensure their availability to future
generations.
• Promoting efficient management of nonrenewable resources, including fossil fuels.
• Encouraging protection of ecosystems and species diversity.
• Encouraging proper management of chemicals to prevent pollution.
Ecolabelling in India
• Ecolabelling scheme of Government of India supports cleaner (environmentally friendly) production
practices. There is strong emphasis on cleaner manufacturing processes in the criteria used for the
granting Eco-labels to products. Presently the scheme is limited to household and some consumer
products to meet certain environment criteria along with quality requirements of Indian standards. The
label is known as ‘Eco mark’.
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• The products for which notifications have been issued for the criteria are: toilet soaps, detergents, paper,
architectural points and laundry soaps.
• Eco-label is issued by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is represented by a pitcher or an
‘earthen pot’ indicating that the product is not harmful to the environment like as an earthen pot which
is made of soil and after its use returned to it the soil. It is without causing any harmful effect on the
environment.
HAZARDS AND DISASTERS
Volcano
Volcanic hazards and disasters are associated with volcanic eruptions of both types e.g. violent central
eruptions and fissure lava flows.
Distribution of Volcanoes
There are three major belts/zones of volcanoes
(1) circum-pacific belt or pacific ring of fire
(2) mid-continental belt
(3) mid-oceanic ridge belt
Hazardous effects of volcanic eruptions:
volcanic eruption causes heavy damage to human lives and property through advancing hot lavas; fallout
of volcanic materials; destruction to human structures such as buildings, factories, roads, rails and
airports, dams and bridges, reservoirs, fires caused by hot lavas.
Floods in the rivers and climatic changes.
(1) Huge volumes of hot and liquid lavas moving at considerably fast speed bury human structures, kill people
and animals, destroy agricultural farms and pastures, plug rivers and lakes, bum and destroy forests etc.
(2) Fallout of immense quantity of volcanic materials including fragmental materials,, dusts and ash, smokes
etc, covers ground surface and thus destroy crops, vegetations and buildings, disrupt and divert natural
drainage systems, creates health hazards due to poisonous gases emitted during the eruption and causes
acid rains.
(3) All types of volcanic emptions, if not predicted well in advance, cause tremendous losses to precious
human lives. Sudden eruption of violent and explosive type through central pipe does not give any time
to human beings to evacuate themselves and thus to save them from the clutches of death looming large
over them.
(4) Earthquakes caused before and after the under sea volcanic emptions generate destructive tsunami
seismic waves which create most devastating sea waves causing innumerable deaths of human beings
in the affected coastal areas.
Environmental impacts of volcanic emption:
Volcanic dust and climate changes: The formation of dust veils in the stratosphere whether due to
volcanic emption or from atmospheric dust storms causes lowering of temperatures of earth’s surface
and the lower atmosphere because (i) dusts reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's
surface as they scatter and reflect some amount of incoming short wave solar radiation, (ii) the dust veils
do not hinder in the loss of heat of the earth's surface through outgoing long wave terrestrial radiation.
Volcanic disaster reduction
There are certain precursor events which help in the prediction of emption of dormant and extincl
volcanoes as given below:
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 Increase in the frequency of tremors, as recorded by seismographs,

 Deformation of existing craters,
 Rise in the temperature of water of crater lakes,
 Emission of gases and smokes from existing craters
 Restlessness of birds and animals
The only effective preventive measure from the damages of impending volcanic eruption is to evacuate
the people living on the lower segments of volcanic cone and nearby locality to after places.
Earthquake
• An earthquake is a motion of the ground surface, ranging from a faint tremor to a wild motion capable
of shaking building apart and causing gaping fissures to open in the ground. The earthquake is a form
of energy of wave motion transmitted through the surface layer of the earth in widening circles from a
point of sudden energy release, the ‘focus’.
• The magnitude or intensity of energy released by an earthquake is measured by the Richter scale. The
number indicating magnitude or intensity (M) on Richer scale ranges between 0 and 9 but in fact the
scale has no upper limit of number because it is a logarithmic scale.
Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused due to disequilibrium in any part of the crust of the earth. A number of causes
have been assigned to cause disequilibrium in the earth's crust such as volcanic eruptions, faulting and
folding, upwarping and downwarping, hydrostatic pressure of man-made water bodies like reservoirs and
lakes, and of late the plate movements.
Distribution of Earthquakes
The world map of the distribution of earthquakes:
(i) Circum-Pacific,
(ii) Mid-Continental Belt representing epicenter located along the Alpine-Himalayan chains of Eurasis
and northern Africa and epicentres of east Africa fault zone, and
(iii) mid-Atlantic Belt representing the earthquakes located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge and its off-
shoots.
Adverse Effects of Earthquake Disaster
• An earthquake becomes disaster only when it strikes the populated area. Sometimes the moderate
earthquakes on Richter scale inflict great damages by stimulating and augmenting other natural physical
processes such as landslide, floods and fire.
• It may also be mentioned that it is not the earthquake that inflicts more damage, rather it is the buildings
of weak structures, that cause more damage and kill people.
• The direct and indirect disastrous effects of earth-quakes include deformation of ground surfaces, damages
and destruction of human structures such as buildings, rails, roads, bridges, dams, factories, destruction
of towns and cities, loss of human and animal lives and property, violent fires, landslides, floods, disturbance
in groundwater conditions etc.
Management of Earthquake Disaster
The overall management of earthquake disaster involves the following aspects:
 Risk assessment and analysis of earthquake hazards
 Preparation of earthquake vulnerability and risk zones maps
 Prediction of occurrence of earthquakes
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 Earthquake disaster preparedness
 Search and rescue operation
 Relief operation after the occurrence of earthquake disaster
 Recovery of disaster-affected people from mental, economic and social problems
 Rehabilitations of displaced people
Tsunamis
Tsunami disaster caused by killer waves in the oceans originating from a host of causative factors,
undersea earthquake being the most significant factor, claims human lives and inflicts huge damage to
human structures and properties in the coastal areas.
Nature and characteristics:
• Tsunamis are high energy waves in the oceans generated by high magnitude earthquakes in the ocean
floors or by massive landslides of coastal lands or of submerged continental shelves and slopes or in deep
oceanic trenches. Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning thereby ‘harbor waves’.
• Tsunamis are called as ‘seismic sea waves’ because most of the tsunamis are generated by undersea
seismic events. These are also called 'high energy tidal waves'.
Cause and origin of tsunamis:
Tsunamis are produced due to large scale displacement of immense volume of sea water due to sudden
tectonic disturbances in the sea floor. The changes and disturbances in the sea floor are produced by
a host of causative factors such as faulting in the sea floor, slumping and massive under sea landslides,
sliding of large blocks of ice near the ‘fiord coasts’, avalanches, submarine volcanic eruptions, undersea
seismic events etc.
The following factors may be identified as tsunami producing factors:
 Undersea powerful earthquake event
 Undersea massive landslides
 Collision of convergent destructive plates
 Explosive volcanic eruptions
Adverse effects of tsunami disaster:
• The adverse effects of tsunami attacks are many folds ranging from human casualties to loss of
properties including cattle, crops, fishing, tourisms, transport systen communication systems, destruction
of beaches, shifting of location of small islands, deposition of sands on coastal plains, destruction of
marine ecological resource mainly corals and fishes.
• Besides, the ferocity of powerful tsunamis also creates social problems such as mental stresses leading
to physiological disorder and several types of diseases, such as epidemics, restlessness, fear psychosis
etc.
Management of tsunami disaster:
The management of any disaster includes two principal components such as
(1) pre disaster stage and
(2) post disaster stage.
The stages of reduction of tsunami disaster include the following:
(1) Pre tsunami disaster stage:
 Identification and mapping of areas of tsunamigenic earthquakes.
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 Demarcation of coastal regulatory zones (CRZ) and to make it free from human settlements.
 Protection and conservation of natural line of protection from tsunami waves such as coastal
dunes, beaches, mangroves, corals etc.
 Installation of tsunami meters, tracking of undersea earthquakes and resultant tsunami waves.
 Provisions for early tsunami warning systems and preparedness for timely evacuation of
people living in the danger coastal zone to safer places.
(2) Post tsunami disaster stage:
The following steps should be taken after the tsunami has struck a particular locality of a country:
 Rescue and evacuation of stranded alive people
 Immediate relief work
 Recovery
 Rehabilitation
Landslides Hazards and Disasters
Landslides are natural as well as man-induced hazards when they occur in uninhabited area but they
become disasters when they strike populated area. Generally, hills and mountains and cliffed sea costs
are vulnerable to landslides of various sorts.
Landslides: Meaning and Concepts
• Disintegrated and fragmented rock materials due to mechanism of weathering processes (mechanical,
chemical, biotic and biochemical) are called rockwastes. Generally, movement of rockwaste enblock
down the hillslope is called mass movement of rockwaste or simply mass movement. Mass movement
is the detachment and downslope transport of soil and rock material under the influence of gravity.
• The sliding or flowing of these materials is due to their position and to gravitational force, but mass
movement is accelerated by the presence of water, ice and air. It may be mentioned that generally all
types of mass movements of rockwastes including soils and ice are collectively called as landslides.
• Landslides (downslope movement of different types of debris enblock) are divided into five major
categories e.g. fall, slide, topple, flows and lateral spread.
Landslide prone area:
The most vulnerable regions from the stand point of occurrences of landslides are the Himalayas mainly
in Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, sub Himalayan West Bengal, North-East Hill region etc.
Landslide disaster management:
Like other natural hazards landslide disaster reduction and management involves two stages of action i.e.,
(1) pre disaster stage, and
(2) Post disaster stage.
• It may be mentioned that besides natural causative factors, landslides are also caused by human activities
mostly deforestation, building activities, urbanization, quarrying and mining in landslide prone hill areas.
The foremost task in landslide management is to prepare landslide vulnerability maps on the basis of
susceptibility of an area to landslides, landslide history of the region, frequency and recurrence interval
of landslides, vulnerability index in terms of density of human settlements an population, economic
activities, risk factor, loss of property etc. Such areas of high landslides vulnerability should be avoided
for human settlements and building.

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• Removal of forest covers from hillslope should be immediately stopped and there should be massive
reforestation of already denuded hillslopes with sincerity.
• The post land slide disaster stage includes quick action of rescue of stranded alive people buried under
thick cover of debris and to evacuate them to safer places. Immediate medical help should be provided
to survivors.
Tropical Cyclones Disasters
• Tropical cyclone represents a closed low pressure system generally having a diameter of about 650
kilometers, counterclockwise and clock-wise air circulation in the northern and southern hemispheres
respectively. It one of the most powerful, destructive, dangerous and deadly atmospheric storms on the
planet earth.
• Tropical cyclones are differently called in different parts of the globe such as hurricanes in the North
Atlantic Ocean mainly in the Caribbean Sea and southeastern USA; typhoons in North Pacific Ocean,
mainly in China Sea, eastern and southern coasts of China, taifu in Japan, Philippines and S.E. Asia;
cyclones in Bangladesh and eastern coastal areas of India; and willy willy in Australia.
Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones
Cyclones developed in the regions lying between the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer are called tropical
cyclones which are not regular and uniform like extratropical or temperate cyclones. There are numerous
forms of these cyclones which vary considerably in shape, size, velocity, and weather conditions.
Types of tropical cyclones:
On the basis of intensity they are divided into two principal types and 4 subtypes.
(1) Weak cyclones
(i) Tropical disturbances
(ii) Tropical depressions
(2) Strong and furious cycles
(iii) Hurricanes and typhoones
(iv) tronadoes
(1) Tropical disturbances are migratory wave-like cyclones and are associated with easterly trade winds.
They are also called easterly waves. Winds move towards center with low speed. Though they move
in westerly direction under the influence of trade winds with low velocity but they are most extensive
and widespread and influence the weather conditions of both tropical and subtropical area.
They are associated with heavy cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds which yield moderate to heavy rainfall
with thunderstorms.
(2) Tropical depressions are centres of low pressure surrounded by more than one closed isobars and are
very small in size. Wind velocity around low pressure center rages between 40-50 km per hour. Their
direction and velocity highly variable. Sometimes, they remain stationary at a place for several days. They
usually develop in the vicinity of inter- tropical convergence (ITC) but seldom develop in the trade wind
belt. Tropical depressions generally influence the weather conditions of India and north Australia during
summer.
Hurricanes and Typhoons:
• Hurricanes are, infact, most violent, most awesome, and most disastrous hazards of all the atmospheric
disturbances. They move with average speed of more than 120 km per hour. Though hurricanes are most
extensive and violent but their climatic importance is limited because of their fewer numbers and their
occurrence in limited areas.
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• The area of 6 to 48 sq km around the centre of hurricane is generally dry and rainless and winds are
feeble. This is called ‘eyes of the cyclone’. The waves caused in the oceans due to ferocity of hurricanes
are called hurricane waves which are generally from 3 to 6 m in height.
Reduction and Management of Cyclonic Disaster
The reduction and management of tropical cyclonic disaster includes the following steps:
 Preparedness,
 Mitigation,
 Prevention,
 Relief work,
 Recovery and
 Rehabilitation
The state of preparedness basically revolves around the mechanism of (ECWS) early cyclone warning
system, and the establishment of cyclone warning centres (CWC) so that messages of advancing
cyclones may be timely converted to the concerned area and the people may be evacuated to safer
places in time.
Thunderstorms
• Thunderstorms, considered tertiary atmospheric circulation, are local storms characterized by swift upward
movement (updraft) of air and heavy precipitation including rainfall, hailstorm and squall with cloud
thunder and lightning.
• Thunderstorms differ from cyclones in that the latter are almost circular in shape wherein winds blow
from outside towards the center while the former is characterized by strong updraft of air.
Conditions of Thunderstorm Development
Atmospheric instability, updraft of potentially unstable air, abundant supply of warm and moist air, thick
clouds etc. are the factors which favour the development of thunderstorms. The upward movement of
warm and moist air is prerequisite condition for the origin of thunderstorms. Surface heating through
intense insolation causes convective mechanism resulting into updraft of air and atmospheric instability.
This is why thunderstorms originate mainly during summer season, warm day of a season, and warm
hours of day. It appears that warm, moist and rising unstable air is the most important factor in the
development of thunderstorms. This becomes possible when normal lapse rate of temperature is greater
than adiabatic rate of temperature change.
Thunderstorms and Weather
(i) Rainfall
Thunderstorms is in the form of heavy downpour with greatest intensity of all other forms of precipitation
but is of short duration because of two factors viz.
(i) The air rises abruptly with great force due to which there is quick condensation and cloud formation.
(ii) There is abundant absolute humidity due to high temperature during summer season.
(ii) Hailstorms:
When condensation occurs below freezing point, ice particles are formed which range from the size of
a pea to a large ball. Hail is not associated with every thunderstorm. Hails fall down on the ground
surface when the rising convection currents become weak and feeble. The sudden fall of hails inflicts
great damages to human health and wealth, birds and animal and standing agricultural crops.

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(iii) Lightning:
Electrical discharge centers are developed in a mature thunderstorm. The centres of positive and negative
electrical charges develop in the upper and lower portions of the clouds respectively. Lightning is
produced when the electrical potential gradient between the electrical.
(iv) Thundering
Sound is produced due to sudden and rapid expansion of air columns caused by intense heat (10,000°C)
resulting from lighting strokes. This deafening noise produced by vibrating pressure wave due to rapid
expansion of air column called clout thunder.
Flood Hazard and Disaster
Flood simply means inundation of extensive land area with water for several days in continuation. Floods
are considered to be associated with river and people conceive floods as the outcome of accumulation
of huge volume of water coming out of the rivers through overtopping of river banks during peak
discharge period.
Land-born floods or River floods
Types Coastal floods or storm surge flooding
of floods
Local water logged flooding
Causes of Floods
• Heavy incessant rainfall,
• Spell of extremely heavy rainfall,
• Highly sinous and meandering courses rivers,
• Large-scale deforestation,
• Increased urbanization,
• Faulty agricultural practices,
• Blocking of natural flow of water etc.
Management of Flood Disaster
The following flood control measures should be adopted to mitigate the adverse impacts of severe floods
and to prevent ordinary floods:
• Delay the return of runoff resulting from torrential rainfall to the rivers,
• Hasten the discharge of river water,
• Divert the flow of rivers, and
• Reduce the impacts of floods
Delay the Runoff
• The first and foremost step to control floods is to look into their basic cause which is perhaps the high
intensity rainfall and resultant surface runoff.
• What man can do is to delay the return of surface runoff resulting from the high intensity rainfall to the
rivers. This can be achieved by large-scale reforestation and afforestation in the hilly source catchment
areas of those rivers which are notorious for their recurrent disastrous floods.
Hasten the Discharge of River Water
Too much bends and meander loops in the highly sinuous and meandering rivers retard the quick disposal
of water. It is, therefore, advisable to straighten the sinuous and meandering courses of the rivers at some
places (where meanders and loops have become extremely sharpened) by performing artificial cutoff of
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individual bends or a series of bends so that the flood discharge may move downstream more rapidly and
the water may be disposed off by the rivers quickly.
Reduce the Volume of Water
The volume of water during flood stage of a river may be reduced through a series of engineering
devices such as construction of flood-control storage reservoirs. Such storage reservoirs impound enormous
volume of water during flood period and thus these help in two ways e.g. firstly, these storage reservoir
reduce the volume of water of the rivers, and secondly, these provide water for irrigation and drinking
purposes. If the reservoirs are succeeded by huge dams, they also help in the generation of hydro-
electricity.
Divert the Flood water
Flood-diversion systems imply diversion of flood water in lowlying areas, depressions or artificially
constructed channels bordered by artificial dykes so that the flood crests may be reduced and the flood
magnitude may be decreased.
Reduce the Impacts of Floods
Embankment, dikes and flood walls are used to confine the flood water within the valley or say within
a narrow channel. These engineering works include the building of artificial levees of earthen materials,
stones or even concrete walls.
Flood Forecasts and Early Warning
The flood forecasting centres collect data of rainfall and discharge rate, gauge level or flood level from
various data recording centres in the jurisdiction of each flood forecasting centre and thus warn the
inhabitants of particular river basin about the possible danger of floods much in advance, so that people
may be evacuated to safer places.
Droughts
• Droughts are more deadly natural environmental hazards because these are directly related to one of the
three basic requirements of any form of life (such as water, air food) that is water and are indirectly
related to food because upon water. Droughts resulting from accumulative effects of water scarcity
cause extensive and enormous damage to agriculture and natural vegetation and therefore cause famine
and starvation of human and animal population of the region concerned.
• Rainfall is the main parameter for the determination of droughts.
• Failure of monsoonal rainfall in India and adjacent countries adversely affects ‘kharif crops’ and causes
drought conditions. According to Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) drought is defined as a
situation occurring in any area when the mean annual rainfall is less than 75 percent of the normal
rainfall.
IMD has further classified droughts into two broad categories viz.
(i) severe drought when the deficiency of rainfall exceeds 50 percent of the normal rainfall, and
(ii) moderate drought when the deficiency of rainfall is between 25 percent and 50 percent of normal
rainfall.
IMPACT OF DROUGHTS
• The impacts of prolonged droughts include ecological, economic, demographic and political aspects.
• Prolonged drought conditions in a given region change the biotic component of the natural ecosystem
because

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(i) some species of plant and animals perish as they cannot withsand extreme drought conditions:
(ii) some animals migrate to other places and hence there is marked decrease in the population of
certain animal species
(iii) some animals die of hunger and starvation;
(iv) there is stiff competition for food due to scarcity created by drought among the animals which result
in the elimination of weaker animals etc. The most significant ecological impact of prolonged drought
is natural control of plant and animal populations.
The economic impact of droughts includes economic losses due mainly to marked decrease in agricultural
production, livestock yield and even industrial production because of short supply of water. Demographic
impact of droug includes depopulation of regions/areas and temporary migration of affected people and
animals.
Environmental impact:
Continued dry spells for several years may change the nature of dryland ecosystems because prolonged
drought cause desertification because prolonged drought cause desertification and desert spread. The dry
lands, in the absence of atmospheric and soil moisture are subjected to severe wind erosion. Even the
semi-arid ecosystem suffers most fro prolonged severe droughts.
Drought Control Measures
• Unlike floods, forewarning is not possible in the case of droughts.
• The usual practice prevalent in most of the country to combat droughts is to provide relief measures to
drought affected people. Besides, there should be long-term measures to ameliorate the severity of
droughts.
• Such measures include afforestation to increase the amount of precipitation, to increase the rate of
infiltration of rainwater and hence the replenishment of groundwater and rise of water table;
• Introduction of dry farming techniques to reduce the dependence of farming of rainwater; checking of
desertification or desert spread; introduction of water conservation schemes; development of horticulture
and pastures; revitalization of Drought-Prone Area Programmes (DPAP); construction or reservoirs,
digging of wells etc.
India’s Vulnerability and Hazard Profile
Indian sub-continent has unique geo-climatic and socio-political conditions that make it vulnerable to both
the natural as well as manmade disasters. Around 6% of the population of India is impacted annually by
the exposures to disasters.
According to a Planning Commission report, the key vulnerabilities of India include the following:
• Coastal States, particularly in the East Coast and Gujarat on west coast, are vulnerable to cyclones.
• 4 crore hectare land mass is vulnerable to floods and river erosion.
• 68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to drought.
• 55 per cent of total area is in Seismic Zones III-V and vulnerable to earthquakes of moderate to
high density.
• Sub-Himalayan/ Western Ghat are vulnerable to landslides.
Further, Disaster vulnerability is function of poverty and poverty is inextricably linked to disaster vulnerability.
Poverty compels the people to compromise in matters of shelters and dwellings and more and more
people live at unsafe places. Moreover, the low cost material used in making the dwellings makes them
more unsafe to live.

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India’s Hazard Profile

India is prone to disasters due to a number of factors; both natural and human-induced, including adverse
geo-climatic conditions, topographic features, environmental degradation, population growth, urbanisation,
industrialisation, non-scientific development practices etc. Various hazards to which India is prone to can
be broadly divided into three categories viz. Hydrological or climate related; Geological and Technological
hazards. They have been discussed below:
Hydrological and Climate related Hazards Floods
• Floods can be caused by heavy rainfall, inadequate capacity of rivers to carry the high flood discharge,
inadequate drainage to carry away the rainwater quickly to streams/rivers, Ice jams or landslides blocking
streams, typhoons and cyclones etc.
• Over 40 million hectare of landmass in India is prone to floods. Nearly 75% of the total annual rainfall
is concentrated over a short south-west monsoon season of three to four months from June to September.
As a result there is a very heavy discharge from the rivers during this period causing widespread floods.
• Flood problem is chronic in at least 10 states. From October to December each year, a very large area
of South India, including Tamil Nadu, the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and the union territory of
Puducherry, receives up to 30 percent of its annual rainfall from the northeast monsoon (or winter
monsoon). These have caused devastating floods in Chennai in 2015.
Cyclones
• India has a very long coastline which is exposed to tropical cyclones arising in the Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea. Indian Ocean is one of the six major cyclone-prone regions in the world.
• In India cyclones occur usually in April-May, and also between October and December. The Eastern
coastline is more prone to cyclones as about 80 percent of total cyclones generated in the region hit there.
• The worst hitting cyclones have been the Andhra Pradesh cyclone of November 1977 and the super
cyclone of Odisha in the year 1999. The impact of the cyclones is mainly confined to the coastal districts,
the maximum destruction being within 100 Km. from the centre of the cyclones and on either side of
the storm track.
• The principal dangers from a cyclone includes the gales and strong winds; torrential rain and high tidal
waves (storm surges). Most casualties are caused by coastal inundation by tidal waves and storm surges.
Heat Waves, Cold waves and Fog
• Heat waves refer to the extreme positive departure from the maximum temperature in summers. The
fatalities caused by heat waves have increased in recent decades. The problem of heat wave is compounded
by a decrease in diurnal temperature Range (DTR).
• Cold waves occur mainly due to the extreme low temperature coupled with incursion of dry cold winds
from north-west. Most affected areas of country due to the cold waves include the western and north-
western regions and also Bihar, UP directly affected by the western disturbances.
Thunderstorm, Hailstorm, Dust Storm etc
India’s central, north-eastern, north-western and northern parts are generally affected by these. The southern
coastal areas are less prone to thunderstorms, hailstorms and dust storms. The hailstorms are more
frequent in Assam, Uttarakhand and some parts of Maharashtra. Dust storms are common in Rajasthan,
MP and Haryana. Tornadoes are rare in India.
Droughts
• Drought refers to the situation of less moisture in the soil (which makes the land; unproductive) and
scarcity of water for drinking, irrigation, industrial uses and other purposes, usually caused by deficient/
less than average rainfall over a long period of time.
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• Sixteen percent of the country’s total area is drought-prone and approximately 50 million people are
affected annually by droughts. In India about 68 percent of net sown area in the country is drought-prone.
• Most of the drought-prone areas identified by the Government of India lie in arid, semi-arid and sub-
humid areas of the country. In the arid and semi-arid zones, very severe droughts occur once in every
eight to nine years.
• The severe drought-prone areas of India are divided into 3 zones as follows:
(1) Zone 1:
The region is characterized by low rainfall ranging between 350 mm and 750 mm per annum but the
extreme western desert areas receive even less than 350 mm of annual rainfall. This zone includes whole
of Rajasthan and Gujarat, western and southwestern part of Uttar Pradesh and narrow strip along the
western and north-western border of Madhya Pradesh.
(2) Zone 2:
The second chronic drought-prone zone forms a rectangular tract spreads over the rain shadow areas
of the Western Ghats. In fact, this zone is situated to the east of the Western Ghats and extends in a
width of 300 km. It includes south-western Andhra Pradesh, eastern Karnataka (east of Western Ghats).
This region characterized by highly erratic mean annual rainfall of less than 750 mm.
(3) Zone 3:
Besides the aforesaid two broad zones of severe droughts, there are some scattered pockets of droughts
in the country such as Tirunelveli ds district located to the south of Vagai river, Coimbatore area, Palamau
area of Jharkhand, Purulia District of West Bengal, Kalahandi region of Orissa etc.
GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS
Earthquakes
• Earthquake is almost impossible to be predicted, so it is the most destructive of all natural disasters. More
than half of India's total area is vulnerable to seismic activity of varying intensities.
• The most vulnerable regions are located in the Himalayan, Sub-Himalayan belt and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands. The Himalayan ranges are among world's youngest fold mountains so the subterranean Himalayans
are geologically very active. The Himalayan frontal arc, flanked by the Arakan Yoma fold belt in the east
and the Chaman fault in the west make one of the seismically active regions in the world.
Earthquake hazards in India:
India is frequently adversely affected by moderate to severe earthquakes in different parts of the country
mainly the Himalayan regions, north Bihar, N.E India, Gujarat etc. on the basis of magnitude of damage
risk India is divided into five damage risk zones as follows:
(a) Zone-I of least damage risk includes the places of some parts of Punjab and Haryana, plain areas of
Uttar Pradesh, portions of plains of north Bihar and West Bengal, delta areas of Godavari, coastal plain
areas of Maharashtra and Kerala, desert areas of Rajasthan and most areas of Gujarat except Kutch
region.
(b) Zone-II of low damage risk includes southern Punjab and Haryana, southern parts of plains of Uttar
Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan, coastal districts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu etc.
(c) Zone-III of moderate damage risk includes the areas of Southern and South-eastern Rajasthan, most
of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka, southern Bihar, Northern and North-western Orissa
etc.

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(d) Zone of high damage risk covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, northern Punjab, and Haryana,
Delhi, western Uttar Pradesh, 'tarai' and 'babar' regions and Himalayan regions of Uttarakhand and
Bihar, and Sikkim areas.
(e) Zone of very high damage risk includes parts of Jammu and Kashmir, some parts of Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, extreme north Bihar, entire north-eastern India and Kutch region of Gujarat.
Tsunami
• Tsunami refers to the displacement of a large volume of a body of water such as Ocean. Most Tsunamis
are seismically generated, result of abrupt deformation of sea floor resulting vertical displacement of the
overlying water.
• The east and west coasts of India and the island regions are likely to be affected by Tsunamis generated
mainly by subduction zone related earthquakes from the two potential source regions, viz. the Andaman-
Nicobar-Sumatra Island Arc and the Makran subduction zone north of Arabian Sea.
• Coastal zone regulation (CRZ) should be strictly enforced in order to save the humans from death traps
of tsunami waves. In India, CRZ were declared through government notification in 1991 where in coastal
and marine ecosystems are under continued threat. Such coastal zone natural ecosystems include coastal
zones, beaches, mangrove, forest and coral reefs. The coasts as per 1991 notification have been divided
into 4 zones as follows:
 Zone 1 includes most sensitive areas having mangroves and coral reefs. No development is allowed
within 500m of the high tide water.
 Zone 2 includes the areas above 500m distance line having towns and cities. Here, new constructions
are permitted further landward from the already constructed buildings.
 Zone 3 comprises undeveloped areas and tourist centres. Permission to new constructions and
development. plans is granted on the basis of review of individual cases.
 Zone 4 includes Andaman and Lakshadweep where a zone of 500m from the coast is fully
protected and no construction and new development plan is allowed.
Landslides
Landslides are common in India in Himalayan region as well as Western Ghats. The Himalayan ranges
are among the youngest fold mountains of world. They comprise a series of seven curvilinear parallel
folds running along a grand arc of around 3400 kilometers.
The landslides in this region are probably more frequent than any other areas in the world. The Westem
Ghats, particularly Nilgiri hills also are notorious for frequent landslides.
TECHNOLOGIC DISASTERS
Industrial, Chemical & Nuclear Disasters
• The industrial and chemical disasters can occur due to accident, negligence or incompetence. They may
result in huge loss to lives and property.
• The Hazardous industries and the workers in these industries are particularly vulnerable to chemical and
industrial disasters.
• The most significant chemical accidents in recorded history was the 1984 Bhopal Gas disaster, in which
more than 3,000 people were killed after a highly toxic vapour, (methyl isocyanate), was released at a
Union Carbide pesticides factory.

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DISASTERS MANAGEMENT
Aspects of Natural Disaster Reduction and Management
The Processes of reduction and management of natural disasters include the following aspects:
1. Components (elements) of reduction and management
(1) hazard analysis
(2) vulnerability analysis
(3) risk analysis
2. Stages of disaster reduction and management (PMP)
(1) Pre-disaster stage
(a) Disaster preparedness (P)
(i) level and nature of disaster preparedness
(ii) disaster research
(iii) disaster prediction
(iv) disaster warning system (DWS)
(v) disaster education
(b) Post-disaster stage
(a) relief measures (R)
(i) social response
(ii) participation in relief work
(iii) relief materials
(iv) execution of relief work
(b) rehabilitation (R)
(c) disaster recovery (R)
HAZARD ANALYSIS
The analysis of different types of hazards with previous history of occurrences and likely occurrences
in near future in a region or locality is a prerequisite condition for any purposeful management plan for
natural disaster reduction.
to ascertain the number of hazards,
likely to occur
to ascertain the degree of intensity
and severity
Objectives
to understand the likely adverse effects
of a disaster on human society
to understand the mode of occurrences
of different hazards
The hazard analysis also includes the consideration of hazard types and thier occurrences. On the basis
speed of movement hazards are divided into the following two major categories:
slow on-set hazards and disasters
(e.g. drought, sea level rise)
Hazards
(e.g. lava flow, earthquake,
tsunami, tornado etc.)

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Hazards may also divided on the basis of duration of hazards and disasters as follows:
DISASTER VULNERABILITY ANANLYSIS
• In environmental science vulnerability refers to capable of or susceptible to a particular hazard and
disaster.
• Vulnerability denotes the “conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors
or processes, which increase susceptibility of a community to the impacts of hazards. Vulnerability is thus
the probability of being damaged, destroyed or lost because of a natural hazard”.
DISASTER RISK ANALYSIS
• A disaster risk is defined as likely adverse impacts of a particular hazard on different aspects, such as
social, economic, political, medical, psychological etc., of human society.
• Since hazard/disaster risk is probability of likely adverse impacts of particular hazard on society, it is fall
uncertainties in terms of magnitude and severity of a hazard, speed, quantum of likely damage, duration
of persistence of disaster etc.
Disaster communication is in fact a warning system of the probable occurrences of hazards and
disasters. This is also called risk information which has two basic components as follows:
(1) risk communication system or transmission of disaster risks information to different segments of society,
government and non-governmental organizations (NGO), and
(2) takers (receiver) of disaster risk information i.e, vulnerable and threatened sections of society.
PRE-DISASTER STAGE
• Pre-disaster stage of disaster reduction and management aims at informing the people of the area to be
affected by a hazard and disaster well in advance; to make the community prepared and mentally ready
to face any sort of eventuality through various measures.
• The pre-disaster stage primarily aims at reducing the adverse impacts of hazards and disasters by
adopting certain measures.
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS (P)
• Preparedness means necessary arrangements to meet nay eventuality if a hazard strikes a locality and
community.
• It is apparent from above discussion that primary aim of disaster preparedness is to initiate such steps
and measures, pursue such activities and formulate and adopt such action plans which can reduce the
adverse impacts of disasters in terms of loss of lives and property of the human society to be affected
by a disaster.
• The following measures should be adopted to make the disaster preparedness effective:
 disaster research, which includes the following:
(i) mapping and preparation of disaster prone (vulnerable) areas and risk magnitude zone maps.
(ii) study of nature (types, characteristics, origin), magnitude and severity of hazards and disasters,
(iii) risk assessment of disasters,
(iv) study of past history and recurrence intervals of hazards and disasters,
(v) study of psychological, economic and social implications,
(vi) prediction techniques etc.

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 Preparation of contingency plans and creation of infrastructural facilities for relief work, recovery
and rehabilitation activities to be followed in the postdisaster stage of disaster management.
 adequate support systems are required to meet out the requirements of above mentioned infrastructural
feasibilities.
 disaster education and awareness
 disaster management training programmes
(i) Level and Nature of Disaster Preparedness
 household preparedness, each family should be mentally and materially should be in the state of
preparedness in the event of a disaster.
 organizational preparedness including both public and private sectors, NGOs may play major roles
in disaster management.
 governmental disaster preparedness includes the preparedness at the following levels:
(i) village level (‘gramsabha level’),
(ii) village 'panchayat' level,
(iii) development block level,
(iv) district level,
(v) state level, and
(vi) central government level
(ii) Disaster Research
Disaster research for the reduction and mitigation of natural hazards and disasters includes the following
aspects:
 types and nature of hazards and disasters
 contributing factors of hazards and disasters
 mapping of disasters vulnerable areas
 prediction of hazards and disasters
 monitoring of natural hazards
Mapping of disaster vulnerable areas: The prime objective of disaster research is to gather information
about different aspects of natural disasters such as topographical maps, aerial photographs, satellite
images, past history of the area in terms of the occurrences (including frequency, magnitude, severity,
recurrence interval of severe disasters), geographic information system (GIS), personal interviews, archives,
governmental and non-governmental sources, experiments and researches for preparing the maps of
‘terrain risk areas’ ‘disaster vulnerability maps’, ‘major disaster zone maps’ etc.
(iii) Disaster prediction
Disaster prediction is a significant component of disaster management. The disaster prediction is made
on the basis of the following:
 past history of the area, which is vulnerable to a particular hazard and disaster in terms of:
(i) disaster occurrence frequency,
(ii) recurrence intervals of major disasters,
(iii) magnitude and security of disasters,
(iv) dimension of disasters.
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 precursor events, slow events which herald the occurrence of major events, for example,
(1) there is surface creep of very slow rate of movement for longer duration before a major landslide
occurs;
(2) final violent eruption of a volcano is heralded by the bulging of ground surface, significant increase
in local seismic activity, emission of volcanic gases.
(3) long-duration incessant high intensity rainfall is precursor event of probable flood.
(4) regular occurrence of seismic tremors of minor to moderate intensities heralds the occurrence of
major earthquake etc.
(iv) Disaster Warning Systems Disaster warning system (DWS) comprises effective measures to
communicate the human community of the area. The DWS now a days uses advanced scientific
knowledge and technologies of early warning system (EWS) which includes the following components:
 trace indicators
 early warning tool, such as radars, television, radio, news papers, hooters and sirens of alarm, door
knocking, mobile loud speakers etc.
 elements of warning systems; detection of disaster, detectional warning, communication of disaster
warning to concerned segments of society, response and quick review of disaster warning etc.
 disaster warning centers, local centers, regional centers, national centers, global centers (involving
many countries, as is done in the case of tsunami occurrence in the Pacific Ocean).
 mobilization of masses for quick response to warning and to follow the safety measures.
(v) Disaster Education: The prime goal of disaster education is to educate the people about various aspects
of hazards an disasters.
Disaster education aims at the following:
 to arouse perception and awareness about hazards and disaster among decision and policy makers
and general public and to train the decision makers to handle the situation created by a disaster.
 to provide information about possible disaster well in advance.
 to provide disaster risk and vulnerability maps.
 to persuade the people to improve the standard of constructions so as to escape the disasters.
 to acquaint the people about safety measures in the event of occurrence of a disaster.
 to explain the disaster reduction techniques.
DISASTER MITIGATION
Disaster mitigation focuses on the following two major objectives:
(1) to minimize the disruptive forces of disaster, and to reduce the magnitude of disasters.
(2) to lessen the adverse impacts of disasters.
Disaster mitigation aims at reducing economic losses in case of disaster occurrences. The nature of
disaster mitigation depends on the nature of disaster and environmental conditions of the area which is
vulnerable to a particular disaster.
DISASTER PREVENTION
• Disaster prevention does not mean to prevent the occurrences of natural disaster rather it means to
prevent the adverse impacts of natural disasters by adopting certain measures much in advance of the
occurrence of a disaster.
• Disaster prevention is based on the outcome of disaster preparedness and disaster mitigation. Disaster
prevention includes all those activities which help in preventing the harmful effects of natural disasters
on human lives and property.

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• It may be mentioned that there are some natural safeguards against natural hazards and disaster. For
example, coral reefs, beaches, mangroves, coastal wetlands (swamps, marshes and backwaters), coastal
sand dunes etc. which act as natural or frontline buffers and absorb most of the energy of disruptive
forces of natural hazards and save the coastal zone and its inhabitants from the devastation caused by
natural oceanic disasters such as cyclonic storms and tidal surges, tsunamis etc.
• Mangroves are the most significant natural buffers against oceanic disasters.
• Stability of hillslopes covered with dense forests prevents massive landslides but massive deforestation
world over has exposed many hillslopes and has made them more vulnerable to frequent landslides.
• Avoidance of steep hillslopes for road and building construction, farming and horticulture; reforestation
and afforestation may be effective preventive measures for accelerated soil erosion and landslides.
POST-DISASTER STAGE
Post-disaster phase of disaster management reflects the resilience of disaster affected communities
towards facing the calamities introduced by a particular or a host of disasters. The post-disaster stage
comprises the following steps to absorb the adverseries of natural disasters:
(1) relief measures,
(2) recovery from shocks of disasters, and
(3) rehabilitation of displaced communities.
(1) Relief Measures
The moment a disaster occurs in an area, the immediate steps to be taken are to rescue people buried
under debris, to provide food, drinking water, shelter, medicines, to restore power and water supplies and
communication and transport systems. The following are the significant components of relief measures
at the time of occurrence of a disaster:
 social response and action,
 participants in relief work,
 organizational involvement,
 correct picture of nature, magnitude and severity of disasters and necessary requirements,
 priority fixation of relief measures,
 zonation of priority on the basis of magnitude of damage and
 active participation in relief work.
Disaster Recovery
• The recovery from adverse effects of a disaster begins from the individual to a community.
• The first and foremost step in disaster recovery process is to rebuild the confidence level of disaster
victims by bringing them in the mainstream of community programme. This process may be called mental
recovery.
• Economic recovery may be facilitated by granting liberal monetary fund for rebuilding dilapidated houses
and repairing partially damaged houses, for purchasing and maintaining infrastructural facilities to earn
livelihood, for giving education to children etc.


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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Consider the following statements regarding 2. Ammonia and water vapour are the only
'bioremediation'. It involves the use of bacteria end products in this decomposition which
and fungi to are released into the atmosphere.
1. Clean up aquifers Which of the statements given above is/are
2. Clean up toxic dumps correct?
3. Clean up oil spills (a) 1 only (b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. Cure bacterial and fungal disease
5. Which of the following are some important
(a) 1 and 2 are correct
pollutants released by steel industry in India?
(b) 1 and 3 are correct
1. Oxides of sulphur
(c) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
2. Oxides of nitrogen
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct
3. Carbon monoxide
2. What is an ECO-MARK? 4. Carbon dioxide
(a) A scheme for labelling pollution-free Select the correct answer using the
industrial unit code given below
(b) A scheme for labelling environment friendly (a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only
consumer product
(c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(c) A cost-effective production technique
6. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction
(d) An international certification recognizing among ?
eco-friendly building (a) NO2 , O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the
3. Consider the following statement about presence of sunlight
bioremediation: (b) CO, CO2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the
1. It may be defined as any proces that uses presence of sunlight
micro-organisms or their enzymes to return (c) CO, CO2 and NO2 at low temperature
the environment altered by contaminents to
(d) High concentration of NO2, O3 and CO in
its original condition
the evening
2. Bioremeditation may be employed in order
7. Which of the following can be found as pollutants
to attack specific contaminents, such as
in the drinking water in some parts of India ?
chlorinated pesticides that are degraded by
1. Arsenic
bacteria
2. Sorbitol
Which of the statement given above is/are
correct? 3. Fluoride
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 4. Formaldehyde
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 5. Uranium
4. With reference to bio-toilets used by the Indian Select the correct answer using the codes given
Railways, consider the following statements: below
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only
1. The decomposition of human waste in the
bio-toilets is initiated by a fungal inoculum. (c) 1, 3 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
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8. Recently, “oil zapper” was in the news. What is 14. Which one of the following consequens will
it ? happen if large quantities of domestic sewage
(a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the are Continuously discharged in a stream?
remediation of oily sludge and oil spills. (a) Increase in the algal bloom of the stream
(b) It is the latest technology developed for water
under-sea oil exploration. (b) Increase in the temperature level of the
(c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel- stream water
yielding maize variety. (c) Reduction in the carbon dioxide level of the
(d) It is the latest technology to control the stream water
accidentally caused flames from oil wells. (d) Reduction in the dissolved oxygen level of
9. Pneumoconiosis afflicts the workers who works the stream water
mainly in : 15. Eutrophication of water bodies is mainly caused
(a) Tanneries by
(b) Coal mining industry (a) carbonates and oxides
(c) Distilleries (b) hydrocarbons and metals
(d) Distilleries Glass industry (c) carbonates and sulphates
10. If water pollution continues at its present rate, it (d) phosphates and nitrates
will eventually 16. A high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
(a) stop water cycle indicates that water
(b) prevent precipitation (a) is pure
(c) make oxygen molecules unavailable to water (b) has high level of microbial pollution
plants (c) has negligible microbial action
(d) make nitrate unavailable to water plants (d) has low level of microbial pollution
11. Taj Mahal is reported to be in danger because 17. Which one of the following is permissible level
of of noise in a silent zone at daytime?
(a) Water pollution in Jamuna (a) 50 dB (b) 60 dB
(b) Stealing of marble bricks (c) 65 dB (d) 75 dB
(c) Decay of marble due to its age factor 18. Which of these is/are flood prevention and
(d) Air pollution due to nearby industries mitigation strategy?
12. Minamata disease, first identified in fish in Japan, 1. Construction of flood protection
is caused due to the poisoning effect of which embankments
one of the following heavy metals? 2. Depopulating the flood plains
(a) Chromium (b) Arsenic 3. Afforestation
(c) Lead (d) Mercury 4. Decongesting river channels
13. Workers of paint industry are exposed to which Select the correct option using the codes given
one of the following hazards? below
(a) Nickel Pollution (a) 1 and 2 only
(b) Cadmium pollution (b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) Strontium pollution (c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) Lead pollution (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
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19. The Chairman of the National Disaster ANSWERS SHEET

management Authority is?
1. Ans. (b)
(a) Home Minister
2. Ans. (b)
(b) Vice President
3. Ans. (c)
(c) Minister, Human Resource Development
4. Ans. (d)
5. Ans. (d)
20. By what measures can we significantly reduce
6. Ans. (a)
the impact of disasters on our people?
7. Ans. (c)
(a) Better planning
8. Ans. (a)
(b) Preparedness awareness
9. Ans. (b)
(c) Mitigation measures
10. Ans. (c)
11. Ans. (d)
12. Ans. (d)
13. Ans. (d)
14. Ans. (a)
15. Ans. (d)
16. Ans. (b)
17. Ans. (a)
18. Ans. (d)
19. Ans. (d)
20. Ans. (d)

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230 Environmental Laws and Conventions General Studies
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
AND CONVENTIONS
THEORY
TIME SCALE OF ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS
1961 The World Wildlife Fund, now the World Wide Fund for Nature, is established.
1962 Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring;" it is considered a turning point in our understanding of
the interconnections between the environment, the economy, and social well-being.
1968 Paul Ehrlich publishes the "Population Bomb;" it discusses the connection between human
population, resource exploitation, and the environment.
The Club of Rome is established; it commissions a study of global proportions to model and
analyze the dynamic interactions between industrial production, population, environmental
damage, food consumption, and natural resource usage.
1972 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment is held in Stockholm; it leads to the
establishment of numerous national environmental protection agencies and the United Nations
Environment Programme. The Club of Rome publishes "The Limits to Growth;" it predicts
consequences if population growth is not slowed; it calls for a state of global equilibrium.
1973 The Chipko Movement is born in India in response to deforestation and environmental
degradation, influencing forestry practices and women's participation in environmental issues.
1974 The United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora is opened for signature in Washington, DC; it is an important step in controlling illegal
commerce in ivory, furs, and other products of endangered species.
1979 The Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution is adopted.
1980 The term "sustainable development" is first introduced into the international policy debate by the
World Conservation Strategy.
1982 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is adopted; it sets rules for environmental
standards and enforcement provisions to deal with pollution of the marine environment.
1985 The Antarctic ozone hole is discovered.
1987 The World Commission on Environment and Development publishes "Our Common Future,"
also known as the Brandtland Report; it weaves together social, economic, cultural, and
environmental issues and global solutions; it popularizes the term "sustainable development."
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is adopted.
1988 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is established to assess the most up-to-date
scientific, technical, and socioeconomic research in the field.
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Energy & Environment Environmental Laws and Conventions 231
1992 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro;
agreements are reached on Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework
Convention on Climate Change, and nonbinding Forest Principles.
The United Nations General Assembly sets up the Commission on Sustainable Development to
oversee implementation of Agenda 21 into the programs and processes of the United Nations
system.
1993 The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development is established to ensure follow-up
to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, enhance international
cooperation, and rationalize intergovernmental decision-making capacity.
1994 Under the Global Environment Facility, billions of aid dollars are restructured to give more
decision-making power to developing countries.
The United Nations Convention on Desertification is adopted.
1995 The World Summit for Social Development is held in Copenhagen; this marks the first time hat
the international community makes a clear commitment to eradicating absolute poverty.
1977 Delegates to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change sign the Kyoto
Protocol; the protocol commits developed nations to reducing overall emissions of several
greenhouse gases and mechanisms to encourage North-South cooperation on emissions
reduction.
1998 Global environmental and food security concerns are raised over genetically modified food
products; the European Union blocks imports of genetically modified crops from North America
and farmers in developing countries rebel against "teiminator technology," seeds that will only
germinate once.
1999 The global sustainability index is launched, tracking leading corporate sustainability practices
worldwide; called the Dow Jones Sustainability Group Indexes, the tool provides guidance to
investors looking for profitable companies that follow sustainable development principles.
2000 The United Nations Millennium Summit agrees to a set of time-bound and measurable goals for
combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination
against women; the Millennium Development Goals are to be achieved by 2015.
2002 The World Summit on Sustainable Development is held in Johannesburg, marking the 10-year
anniversary of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development; the summit
promotes "partnerships" as a non-negotiated approach to sustainability.
2005 The Kyoto Protocol enters into force, legally binding developed country parties to goals for
greenhouse gas emission reductions and establishing the Clean Development Mechanism for
developing countries.
2007 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change publishes its fourth assessment report on
climate change; the report posits that climate change policies are best addressed by integrating
them within the broader framework of sustainable development strategies.
Former United States Vice-President Al Gore's documentary, "An Inconvenient Truth," wins an
Academy Award; the alarming forecasts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
about the planet's health make headlines; the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and Al
Gore share the Nobel Peace Prize.
2008 Notions of green economy enter the mainstream; a low-carbon economy and green growth
become new objectives. The World Glacier Monitoring Service points to strong acceleration of
glacier melting in 2000-2005, with a doubling of the rate compared to the two preceding decades.

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2009 The Group of 20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (G20) promises to phase out
fossil fuel subsidies; experts estimate that annual subsidies could amount to $500 billion, equal to
1% of world gross domestic product. The 15th session of the Conference of the Parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is convened in Copenhagen; the
domestic targets and actions of large emitters such as the Unites States and the People's Republic
of China take center stage.
2010 The 16th session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change is held in Cancun; it calls for the establishment of a Green Climate Fund and
a Climate Technology Center and network.
2012 The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development gathers in Rio de Janeiro to mark the
20th anniversary of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in
Rio de Janeiro and the 10th anniversary of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development
in Johannesburg; it focuses on two themes: a green economy in the context of sustainable
development and poverty eradication, and the institutional framework for sustainable
development.
2013 2013-COP19, This is the 19th yearly session of the conference of the Parties (COP19) to the 1992
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 9th session of the
Meeting of the Parties (CMP9) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. The conference led to an agreement
that all states would start cutting emissions as soon as possible but preferably by the first quarter
of 2015. The Warsaw Mechanism was also proposed.
2014 2014- The United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP20 or CMP10 was held in Lima,
Peru, from December 1 to 12, 2014. This was the 20th yearly session of the Conference of the
Parties (COP20) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). The overarching goal of the conference was to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
(GHGs) to limit the global temperature increase to 2 degrees Celsius above current levels.
2015 2015- The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in
Paris, France, from 30 November to 12 December 2015. It was the 21st yearly session of the
Conference of the Parties (COP) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement, a global agreement on the
reduction of climate change, the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of
the 196 parties attending it. The agreement says that its objective is to keep the global
temperature rise below 2°C, but pursue efforts to keep it below 1.5°C from pre-industrial times.
CONVENTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

(1) United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (1 st Earth Summit – 1992)
• United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio de
Janeiro Earth Summit, Rio Summit, Rio Conference, and Earth Summit was a major United Nations
conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.
• Results of the Earth Summit
 Documents were made:
o Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
o Agenda 21
o Forest Principles
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 3 legally binding agreements (Rio Conventions) were opened for signature:

o Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)  Covered under BioDiversity Conventions
o Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)  Covered under Atmosphere
Conventions
o United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)  Covered under
Environmental Degradation Conventions
• Earth Summit established the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD). In 2013, the CSD was
replaced by the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development that meets every year as par of
the ECOSOC meetings, and every fourth year as part of the General Assembly meetings.
• Agenda 21:
It is an action agenda for the UN other multilateral organizations, and individual governments around the
world that can be executed at loca national, and global levels. The “T” in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st
Century. It has been affirmed and had a few modifications at subsequent UN conferences.
2. 2nd Earth Summit– 2002 @ Johannesburg (Rio +10 Summit)
• The Johannesburg Declaration was the main outcome of the Summit
• Instead of new agreements between governments, the Earth Summit was organized mostly around almost
300 “partnership initiatives” known as Type II to include private and civil actors, as opposed to Type I
Partnerships which are the more classic outcome of international treaties. These were to be the key
means to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. These are kept in a database of Partnerships for
Sustainable Development.
3. 3rd Earth Summit– 2012 @ Rio de Janeiro (Rio +20 Summit)
• The third international conference on sustainable development aimed at reconciling the economic and
environmental goals of the global community.
• The conference had three objectives:
1. Securing renewed political commitment for sustainable development.
2. Assessing the progress and implementation gaps in meeting previous commitments.
3. Addressing new and emerging challenges.
o The primary result of the conference was the nonbinding document, “The Future We Want,”
Conventions on Atmosphere
1. Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLR-TAP), Geneva, 1979.
• It is known as Air pollution Convention.
• Parties shall endeavor to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce and prevent air pollution including
long-range transboundary air pollution.
• Some of Persistant organic pollutants covered under this convention are: Aldrin, Chlordane, Dieldrin,
Endrin, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, PCBs, DDT
2. Conventions on OZONE Layer (Vienna & Montreal)
(a) Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985)
• It is a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer. However, it does not
include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs, the main chemical agents causing ozone
depletion. These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol.

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(b) Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (ODS)
• It is the accompanying protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
emphasizing on Ozone Depleting Substances(ODS).
• Its aim is to protect ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous ODS.
• ODS are used in Refrigeration, Air Conditioners, Electronics, Fire extinguishers, Foams, Aerosol
fumigation etc..
• It intends to gradual phasing out of all of these ozone depleting substances contain either chlorine
or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer).
Ex: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), Hydro Chloro Fluorocarbons (HCFC)
• Hydro Fluorocarbons (HFCs) has been proposed as alternative to CFC and HCHC as HFCs do not
contain chlorine. But HFCs are greenhouse gases, with a high global warming potential (GWP),
comparable to that of CFCs and HCFCs.
• The Montreal Protocol does not currently address HFCs, but these substances figure in the basket
of six greenhouse gases under the Kyoto Protocol. Developed countries following the Kyoto Protocol
report their HFC emission data to UNFCCC; parties to the Montreal Protocol have no such
obligation.
• Recent Meeting of Parties of the Montreal Protocol has started working on an amendment to the
Protocol which will reduce production and consumption of HFCs.
• Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol is to assist developing country
parties to the Montreal Protocol whose annual per capita consumption and production of ozone
depleting substances (ODS) is less than 0.3 kg to comply with the control measures of the Protocol.
3. UNFCCC(1992) – Kyoto Protocol(1997) –Paris Agreement(2015)
• It is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the Earth Summit, 1992.
• Objective: To “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”.
• The framework set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains
no enforcement mechanisms. Instead, the framework outlines how specific international treaties (called
“protocols” or “Agreements”) may be negotiated to set binding limits on greenhouse gases.
• The convention states that parties should act to protect the climate system on the basis of “common but
differentiated responsibilities”, and that developed country Parties should “take the lead” in addressing
climate change.
• The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties (COP) to
assess progress in dealing with climate change. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established
legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period
2008-2012. The 2010 Cancun agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0
°C relative to the pre-industrial level. The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-
2020 in the Doha Amendment, which -as of December 2015-not entered into force. In 2015 the Paris
Agreement was adopted, governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries
in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions.
• Kyoto Protocol(1997) – COP3 as amended in 2012 Doha Summit
 It is a legally binding international agreement under UNFCC to control excessive Global
Warming that commits 192 signatory state Parties to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions to
a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system, based on
the premise that
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o Global warming exists and

o a Man-made CO2 emissions have caused it.
 The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations “at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system.”
 Parties to Kyoto Protocol are divided into:
o Annex I parties:
Industrialized countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and countries designated as Economies in Transition under the Framework Convention on
Climate Change (FCCC), that pledged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by
the year 2000.
o Non-Annex I parties:
Developing countries with no stabilization or reduction commitments under FCCC.
o Annex II parties:
The rich countries listed under this FCCC annex have a special obligation to help developing
countries with financial and technological resources. They include the 24 original OECD members
and the EU.
o Annex A Parties:
A list in the Kyoto Protocol of the six greenhouse gases and the sources of emissions covered under
the Kyoto Protocol. See also “Basket of Gases.”
o Annex B parties:
Industrialized countries which have limitation or reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol.
 GHG Basket:
They are listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol and include: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs), perfluoro carbons (PFCs), and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6).
 Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community (the European
Union-15, made up of 15 states at the time of the Kyoto negotiations) commit themselves to binding
targets for GHG emissions. The targets apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and two groups of gases, hydro
fluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluoro carbons (PFCs). The six GHG are translated into CO2 equivalents
in determining reductions in emissions. These reduction targets are in addition to the industrial gases,
chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
 CDM allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the
Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries.
Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one
tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
 A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels
or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers.
 The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized
countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation targets.

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3. Joint Implementation (JI):
 It allows a country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol
(Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission
removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be
counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.
 Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their
Kyoto commitments, while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer.
 Paris Agreement(2015):
At COP 21 in Paris, Parties to the UNFCCC reached a historic agreement to combat climate change
and to accelerate and intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future.
The Paris Agreement requires all Parties to put forward their best efforts through “nationally determined
contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years ahead.
 Other decisions
In addition to the Kyoto Protocol (and its amendment) and the Paris Agreement, parties to the
Convention have agreed to further commitments during UNFCCC Conferences of the Parties. These
include the Bali Action Plan (2007), the Copenhagen Accord (2009), the Cancun agreements (2010), and
the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action(2012)
• Bali Action Plan:
As part of the Bali Action Plan, adopted in 2007, all developed country Parties have agreed to “quantified
emission limitation and reduction objectives, while ensuring the comparability of efforts among them,
taking into account differences in their national circumstances.” Developing country Parties agreed to
[nationally] appropriate mitigation actions [NAMAs] context of sustainable development, supported and
enabled by technology, financing and capacity-building, in a measurable, reportable and verifiable manner
42 developed countries have submitted mitigation targets to the UNFCCC secretariat, as have 57 developing
countries and the African Group (a group of countries within the UN).
• Copenhagen Accord and Cancun agreements:
As part of the 2009 Copenhagen negotiations, a number of countries produced the Copenhagen Accord.
The Accord states that global warming should be limited to below 2 °C (3.6 F). This may be strengthened
in 2015 with a target to limit warming to below 1.5C.
The Accord does not specify what the baseline is for these temperature targets (e.g., relative to pre-
industrial or 1990 temperatures). According to the UNFCCC, these targets are relative to preindustrial
temperatures.
CONVENTIONS ON AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
1. London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter
(Marine Dumping)
• It is to control pollution of the sea by dumping and to encourage regional agreements supplementary to
the Convention. It covers the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft,
and platforms.
• It does not cover discharges from land-based sources such as pipes and outfalls, wastes generated
incidental to normal operation of vessels, or placement of materials for purposes other than mere disposal,
providing such disposal is not contrary to aims of the Convention.

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2. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

• Law of the Sea Convention defines the rights and responsibilities of nations with respect to their use of
the world’s oceans, establishing guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of
marine natural resources.
• Its aim is to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from any source that are
toxic, harmful and persistent substances.
CONVENTIONS ON NATURE AND BIOTIC RESOURCES
1. Antarctic Treaty- 1959
• It is to regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth’s only continent without a native
human population. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all of the land and ice
shelves south of 60°S latitude.
• This treaty sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation
and bans military activity on that continent.
• Antarctica is a very fragile ecosystem where biotic resources are at very early stage of evolution. The
protection of the Antarctic environment is identified through five specific areas on marine pollution, fauna
and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all
activities relating to mineral resources except for scientific use.
2. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the World
Heritage Convention) - 1972
• It is the Convention of UNESCO that prepares a list of properties that have outstanding cultural and
natural heritage value, called the World Heritage List.
• This Convention established that biological resources, such as plants, were the common heritage of
mankind need to be preserved to create great public banks of genetic resources, located outside the
source-countries.
• In 2005, the World Heritage Marine Programme was established to protect marine areas with Outstanding
Universal Values.
3. Convention on Biological Diversity - 1993
• It is one of the key agreement of Rio Earth Summit-1992
• While past conservation efforts were aimed at protecting particular species and habitats, the Convention
recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used for the benefit of humans. However, this
should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity.
• The convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on the precautionary principle that where
there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainly should
not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat.
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force from 1993. It has 3 main objectives:
 The conservation of biological diversity.
 The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
 The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
• The agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. It links traditional conservation
efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably.
• UN declared that 2010 was the International Year of Biodiversity and the decade of 2011-2020 as the
United Nations Decade on Biodiversity.
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• It has 2 protocols and 1 program
1. Cartegena Protocol on Biosafety
2. Nagoya Protocol and Aichi Targets
(i) The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety of the Convention- 2000
• It is also known as the Biosafety Protocol. It seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential
risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
• This protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on the precautionary
principle and allow developing nations to balance public health against economic benefits. It will, for
example, let countries ban imports of a genetically modified organism (GMO) if they feel there is
not enough scientific evidence the product is safe and requires exporters to label shipments containing
genetically modified commodities such as corn or cotton.
(ii) Nagoya Genetic Resources Protocol- 2010
• It is a supplementary agreement to CBD. Its aim is the implementation of one of the three objectives
of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources,
thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
• The Nagoya Protocol is on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits
arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is a supplementary agreement to
the Convention on Biological Diversity.
• It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the three objectives
of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
• The Protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Province, Japan, and entered into force
on 12 October 2014. Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization
of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
(iii) Aichi Targets:
• Nagoya Protocol adopted an updated Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, including the Aichi Biodiversity
Targets, for the period of 2011-2020.
• Some of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets are:
 At least halve and, where feasible, bring close to zero the rate of loss of natural habitats, including
forests.
 Establish a conservation target of 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of marine and
coastal areas.
 Restore at least 15% of degraded areas through conservation and restoration activities.
 Make special efforts to reduce the pressures faced by coral reefs.
(iv) Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC):
• The Strategy considers plants in the terrestrial, inland water and marine environments. Further, the
Strategy applies to the three primary levels of biological diversity as recognized by the Convention, hence
plant genetic diversity, plant species and communities and their associated habitats and ecosystem.
4. Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn- CMS)-
1979
• Conservation and effective management of migratory species of terrestrial and marine wild animals
through the concerted action of all countries within their national boundaries of which such species spend
any part of their life cycle.

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• CMS covers many mammals, including land mammals, marine mammals and bats; birds; fish; reptiles and
one insect.
• It is the only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats and
migration routes, CMS complements and co-operates with a number of other international organizations.
5. Washington Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)– 1973
• CITES is a multilateral treaty to prevent species from becoming endangered or extinct because of
international trade.
• Though this convention did not seek to directly protect endangered species, rather it aimed to reduce the
economic incentive to poach these species and destroy their habitat by closing off the international
demand.
6. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands- 1971
• The Convention uses a broad definition of wetlands. It includes all lakes and rivers, underground aquifers,
swamps and marshes, wet grasslands, peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, mangroves and
other coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs
and salt pans.
• The Convention's mission is “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national
actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout
the world”.
• Under the “Three Pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties commit to:
 Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
 Designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (the “Ramsar
List”) and ensure their effective management;
 Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared species.
The Montreux Record
• The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance
where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result
of technological developments, pollution or other human interference. It is maintained as part of the
Ramsar List.
7. Paris Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)- 1994
• Its objective is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing
serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, through effective action at all levels, supported
by international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach
which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievement of sustainable
development in affected areas.
• It is to be achieved through the long-term integrated strategies that focus on productivity, rehabilitation,
conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources, leading to improved living conditions,
in particular at the community level.
• The year 2006 was declared “International Year of Deserts and Desertification”

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FUNDING MECHANISM
Some of the important global funding mechanisms for these protocols include:
1. Green Climate Fund (GCF):
• GCF is a fund within the framework of the UNFCCC founded as a mechanism to assist developing
countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change.
• It is proposed through Copenhagen Accord at COP-15 of UNFCCC, held at Copenhagen.
• It is intended to be the centerpiece of efforts to raise Climate Finance of $100 billion a year by 2020.
2. Global Environmental Facility (GEF):
• GEF is the largest public funder of projects to improve the global environment. An independently
operating financial organization, the GEF provides grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate
change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants.
• The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following conventions:
 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
 Minamata Convention on Mercury (MCM)
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN INDIA
• Our constitution, originally, did not contain any direct provision regarding the protection of natural
environment. However, after the United Nations Conference on Human Environment, held in Stockholm
in 1972. Indian constitution was amended to include protection of the environment as a constitutional
mandate.
• The department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure a healthy environment for the
country. This later became the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985. Recently, Government again
renamed as M/O Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
• Environmental Laws in India can be categorized into:
 Pollution Related Acts(Water & Air Acts)
 Environment Acts
 Biodiversity Related Acts
POLLUTION RELATED ACTS
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 and Amendment, 1988
• The main objective of this act is to provide prevention and control of water pollution and maintaining or
restoring of wholesomeness and purity of water. Some important provisions of this Act are given below:
• The Act vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards and empowers these Boards to
establish and enforce effluent standards for factories discharging pollutants into water bodies. A Central
Pollution Control Board performs the same functions for Union Territories and formulates policies and
coordinates activities of different State Boards.
• The State Pollution Control Boards control sewage and industrial effluent discharges by approving,
rejecting or impose conditions while granting consent to discharge.
• The Act grants power to the Board to ensure compliance with the Act by including the power of entry
for examination, testing of equipment and other purposes and power to take the sample for the purpose
of analysis of water from any stream or well or sample of any sewage or trade effluents.
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• Board may close a defaulting industrial plant or withdraw its supply of power or water by an administrative
order; the penalties are more stringent, and a citizen's suit provision supports the enforcement machinery.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977
• The Water Cess Act was passed to generate financial resources to meet expenses of the Central and
State Pollution Boards. The Act creates economic incentives for pollution control and requires local
authorities and certain designated industries to pay a cess (tax) for water effluent discharge.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and amendment, 1987
• The Air Act's framework is similar to that of the Water Act of 1974. The main objectives of this Act
are to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control and abate air pollution in the country. Important
provisions of this Act are given below:
• The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state boards established under the Water Act, to
include air pollution control.
• All industries operating within designated air pollution control areas must obtain “consent” (permit) from
the State Boards.
ENVIRONMENT ACTS
The Environment (Protection) Act of 1986
• In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the Environment (Protection) Act
of 1986.
• The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment of 1972, in so far as they relate to the protection and improvement of the human environment
and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and property.
• The Act is an “umbrella” for legislations designed to provide a framework for Central Government,
coordination of the activities of various central and state authorities established under previous Acts, such
as the Water Act and the Air Act.
 In this Act, main emphasis is given to “Environment”, defined to include water, air and land and the
interrelationships which exist among water, air and land and human beings and other living creatures,
plants, micro-organisms and property.
 “Environmental pollution” is the presence of pollutant, defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
present in such a concentration as may be or may tend to be injurious to the environment.
 “Hazardous substances” include any substance or preparation, which may cause harm to human
beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the environment. The main provisions
of this Act are given below:
The Central Government is authorized:
• To set new national standards for the quality of the environment (ambient standards) as well as standards
for controlling emissions and effluent discharges;
• To regulate industrial locations, to prescribe procedures for managing hazardous substances;
• To establish safeguards preventing accidents, and
• To collect and dismantle information regarding environmental pollution.
By virtue of this Act, Central Government has armed itself with considerable powers which include
coordination of action by state, planning and execution of nationwide programmes, laying down environmental
quality standards, especially those governing emission or discharge of environmental pollutants, placing
restriction on the location of industries and so on.

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• The Act covers handling of hazardous substances, prevention of environmental accidents, inspection of
polluting units, research, establishment of laboratories, dissemination of information, etc.
• The Act allows the Central Government authority to issue direct orders, included orders to close, prohibit
or regulate any industry, operation or process or to stop or regulate the supply of electricity, water or
any other service to an industry, operation and process.
• Power granted to the Central Government was to ensure compliance with the Act which included the
power of entry for examination, testing of equipment and other purposes and power to analyze the sample
of air, water, soil or any other substance from any place.
• The Act explicitly prohibits discharges of environmental pollutants in excess of prescribed regulatory
standards.
• There is also a specific prohibition against handling hazardous substances except those in compliance with
regulatory procedures and standards. Persons responsible for discharge of pollutants in excess of prescribed
standards must prevent or mitigate the pollution and must also to report the governmental authorities.
• The Act provides provision for penalties. For each failure or contravention the punishment included a
prison term up to five years or fine up to Rs. 1 lakh, or both. If a failure or contravention occurs for
more than one year after the date of conviction, an offender may be punished with imprisonment term,
which may be extended to 7 years.
• The Act allows any person, in addition to authorized government officials, may file a complaint with a
court alleging an offence under the Act. This “Citizens Suit” provision requires that the person has to
give notice of not less than 60 days of the alleged offence of pollution to the Central Government or the
competent authority. Under the Act, the Central Government may, by notification in the office Gazette,
make rules for the enforcement of the Act.
BIODIVERSITY RELATED ACTS
The Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 and Amendment, 1982
• The Wild Life Act provides for State Wildlife Advisory Boards, regulations for hunting wild animals and
birds, establishment of sanctuaries and national parks, regulations for trade in wild animals, animal
products and trophies, and judicially imposed penalties for violating the Act.
• Harming endangered species listed in Schedule 1 of the Act is prohibited throughout India. Hunting
species, like those requiring special protection (Schedule II), big game (Schedule III), and small game
(Schedule IV), is regulated through licensing. A few species classified as vermin (Schedule V), may be
hunted without restrictions. Wildlife wardens and their staff administer the act.
• An amendment to the Act in 1982, introduced a provision permitting the capture and transportation of
wild animals for the scientific management of animal population.
• India is a signatory to the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora
(CITES, 1976). Under this convention, export or import of endangered species and their products are
governed by the conditions and stipulations lay down therein. Indian government has also started some
conservation projects for individual endangered species like Hungal (1970), Lion (1972), Tiger (1973),
Crocodiles (1974), Brown-antlered Deer (1981) and Elephant (1992), Snow Leopard (1999).
The Forest (Conservation)Act of 1980
• First Forest Act was enacted in 1927. It was enacted to consolidate the law related to forest, the transit
of forest produce and the duty livable on timber and other forest produce.
• Subsequently, the Forest (Conservation) Act was promulgated in 1980 to make certain reforms over the
preceding Act of 1927.The 1927Act deals with the four categories of the forests, namely

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 Reserved forests,
 Village forests,
 Protected forests and
 Private forests.
• A state may declare forest lands or waste lands as reserved forest and may sell the produce from these
forests. Any unauthorized felling of trees quarrying, grazing and hunting in reserved forests is punishable
with a fine or imprisonment, or both reserved forests assigned to a village community are called village
forests.
• The state governments are empowered to designate protected forests and may prohibit the felling of
trees, quarrying and the removal of forest produce from these forests. The preservation of protected
forests is enforces through rules, licenses and criminal prosecutions. Forest officers and their staff
administer the Forest Act.
• Alarmed at India's rapid deforestation and resulting environmental degradation, Centre Government
enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act in 19 80. Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the
Central Government is required for diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes.
• An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Centre on these approvals.
Biodiversity Act 2000
• India’s richness in biological resources and indigenous knowledge relating to them is well recognized. One
of the major challenges is in adopting an instrument which helps realize the objectives of equitable benefit
sharing enshrined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The legislation aims at regulating
access to biological resources so as to ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use.
• The Act covers conservation, use of biological resources and associated knowledge occurring in India
for commercial or research purposes or for the purposes of bio-survey and bio-utilisation. It provides a
framework for access to biological resources and sharing the benefits arising out of such access and use.
The Act also includes in its ambit the transfer of research results and application for intellectual property
rights (IPRs) relating to Indian biological resources.
• Salient features of the biodiversity legislation:
 The main intent of this legislation is to protect India’s rich biodiversity and associated knowledge
against their use by foreign individuals and organizations without sharing the benefits arising out of
such use, and to check Biopiracy.
 The Act provides for setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity
Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) in local bodies. NBA and SBB
are required to consult BMCs in decisions relating to use of biological resources or related knowledge
within their jurisdiction and BMCs are to promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation
of biodiversity.
 All foreign nationals or organizations require prior approval of NBA for obtaining biological resources
and associated knowledge for any use. Indian individuals /entities require approval of NBA for
transferring results of research with respect to any biological resources to foreign nationals/
organizations. Collaborative research projects and exchange of knowledge and resources under
these projects are exempted provided they are drawn as per the policy guidelines of the Central
Government and have its approval the objectives of conservation, sustainable use and benefit
sharing. However, Indian citizens/entities/local people including vaids and hakims to have free
access to use biological resources within the country for their own use, medicinal purposes and
research purposes.
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 While granting approvals, NBA will impose terms and conditions to secure equitable sharing of
benefits. Before applying for any form of IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) in or outside India for
an invention based on research or information on a biological resource obtained from India, prior
approval of NBA will be required.
 There is an enabling provision for setting up a framework for protecting traditional knowledge.
 The monetary benefits, fees, royalties as a result of approvals by NBA to be deposited in National
Biodiversity Fund, which will be used for conservation and development of areas from where
resource has been accessed, in consultation with the local self-government concerned.
 This Act intends to check biopiracy, protect biological diversity and local growers through a three-
tier structure of central and state boards and local committees. These will regulate access to plant
and animal genetic resources and share the benefits.
INSTITUTIONS RELATED ENVIRONMENT IN INDIA
• The initial steps were taken in 1972 with the formation of the National Committee on Environmental
Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) that gradually evolved as a separate department of environment and
reached the full-fledged stage of Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985. Initially the Constitution
of India did not contain any provision towards the promotion/protection of environment.
However, the 42nd amendment of the constitution in 1977 added some important clauses that entrusted
the government the responsibility of providing a clean and wellprotected environment.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forest, Central Pollution Control Board, Indian Board for Wildlife are
the main national environmental agencies.
The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
• The MoEFCC is the nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central Government, for planning,
promoting, coordinating and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes in
the country.
• The main activities undertaken by the ministry include conservation and survey of the flora and fauna
of India, forests and other wilderness areas; prevention and control of pollution; afforestation and reducing
land degradation. It is responsible for the administration of the national parks of India.
• The main tools utilized for this include surveys, environmental impact assessment, control of pollution,,
regeneration programmes, support to organizations, research to find solutions and training to augment the
requisite manpower, collection and dissemination of environmental information and creation of environmental
awareness among all sectors of the country’s population.
• The Ministry is also the nodal agency in the country for the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
Central Pollution Control Board
• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), is statutory organisation, under the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. Further, CPCB was entrusted with the powers and functions under the
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and
Forests of the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• Principal functions of the CPCB,
(i) to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by prevention, control
and abatement of water pollution, and
(ii) to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
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Air Quality Monitoring is an important part of the air quality management. The National Ambient Air
Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) Programme has been established with the objectives to determine the
present status of air quality, for controlling and regulating emission of air pollutants from industries and
other sources to meet the air quality standards. It also provides background air quality data needed for
setting of industries and town planning.
Similarly the National Water Quality Monitoring (NWQM) and Surveillance are of utmost importance.
The National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB)
• The National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB) was set up under the Ministry of Environment
& Forests in 1985 with the objective of
(i) to increase tree and other green cover on wastelands.
(ii) to prevent good land from becoming wasteland, and
(iii) to formulate within the overall nodal policy, perspective plans and programmes for the management
and development of the wastelands in the country.
• In 1992, the Board was transferred to the Ministry of Rural Development, putting under a New Department
of Wastelands Development under the charge of a Minister of State.
Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL)
The IBWL is the apex advisory body in the field of Wildlife Conservation in the country and is headed
by the Honorable Prime Minister of India
Institutions related to the National Biodiversity Act
To realize the initiatives pertaining to access and benefit sharing (ABS) and the protection of traditional
knowledge (TK) in compliance with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a three-tiered structure
at the national, state and local level is to be established under the Biological Diversity Act of 2002. A
brief description of the institutions is as follows:
National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
The Authority deals with all matters relating to requests for access by foreign individuals, institutions or
companies, and all matters relating to transfer of results of research to any foreigner.
State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs):
All matters relating to access by Indians for commercial purposes are under the purview of the State
Biodiversity Boards (SBBs). The Indian industry is required to provide prior intimation to the concerned
SBB about the use of biological resource. The State Board has the power to restrict any such activity,
which violates the objectives of conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits.
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs):
Institutions of local self-government are required to set up Biodiversity Management Committees in their
respective areas for conservation, sustainable use, and documentation of knowledge relating to biodiversity.
Technical support and guidance is also provided to the biodiversity management committees for the
preparation of people’s biodiversity register.
National Green Tribunal (2010)
• It is established for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection
and conservation of forests and other natural resources, including enforcement of any legal right relating
to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters
connected therewith or incidental thereto.

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• With the establishment of the NGT, India has joined the distinguished league of countries that have a
dedicated adjudicatory forum to address environmental disputes. The specialized architecture of the NGT
will facilitate fast track resolution of environmental cases and provide a boost to the implementation of
many sustainable development measures. NGT is mandated to dispose the cases within six months of
their respective appeals and has its principal bench of sitting in New Delhi.
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
India is the home to world’s largest tiger population. Tiger is an endangered wildlife species in India
despite its ecological importance and cultural significance, and enormous funds have been provided for
its conservation and the protection of its habitat since the early 1970s. The major proximate reason for
the endangered status of the tiger is the widespread loss of tiger habitats, decline in the density of prey
animals, illegal poaching and killing. The government has initiated measures to protect tigers by creating
national parks, protected areas and exclusive tiger reserves.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
• NDMA was established in 2006 to coordinate and institutionalize the disaster management responses as
delineated in the Disaster Management Act, 2005. It works in tandem with state disaster management
authorities (SDMAs) to attain the national vision of ‘a safe and disaster-resilient India by developing a
holistic, proactive, multi-disaster and technology-driven strategy for disaster management’.
• NDMA functions as the apex body to design polices and develops guidelines and action plans for disaster
management to facilitate timely and effective prevention and mitigation of both natural and man-made
disasters.
• The Authority involves several agencies at national, state and local levels in formulating its policies and
guidelines. Other core activities include the preparation of the national plan, technical support and
approval of plans of different ministries of the national government and the SDMAs; initiate preventive
measures for disasters, such as forecasting and early warning systems, awareness campaigns, mitigation
strategies and activities for preparedness and capacity building.
• NDMA has inculcated several innovative approaches, such as community-based disaster preparedness
programmes, mainstreaming disaster management into the development planning process, partnership
with media and NGOs, making reconstruction an opportunity to establish disaster resilient structures in
post disaster scenarios. The NDMA is headed by the Prime Minister and the SDMAs are headed by
the Chief Ministers of respective states.
INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• UNEP was created by United Nations General Assembly, as an outgrowth of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. It is headquartered in Nairobi (Kenya).
• UNEP’s main mandate is to coordinate the development of environmental policy for keeping the global
environment under review and bringing emerging issues to the attention of governments and the international
community for action.
• Its activities cover a wide range of issues encompassing the atmosphere, marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
• UNEP has played a significant role in developing international environmental conventions, promoting
environmental science and information and illustrating the way those can work with national governments
and regional institution and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).
• UNEP has also been active in funding and implementing environment related development projects for
promoting sustainable development through sound environmental practices.

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COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (CSD)

Goal of the sustainable development is:
• Integration of the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainable development in policy-
making at international, regional and national levels;
• Wide-spread adoption of an integrated, crosssectoral and broadly participatory approach to sustainable
development;
• Measurable progress in the implementation of the goals and targets of the Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
• It is a specialized agency of the United Nations, headquartered in Rome with a member states that leads
international efforts to defeat hunger.
• Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet
as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy.
• FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in
transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and
food security for all.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
• The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization working on
issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of the environment, formerly named the World
Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in the United States and Canada.
• It is the world's largest independent conservation organization supporting conservation and environmental
projects around the world.
• Currently, much of its work focuses on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world's
biodiversity forests, freshwater ecosystems and oceans and coasts.
• Among other issues, it is also concerned with endangered species, pollution and climate change.
Green peace
• Greenpeace is an international organisation that prioritises global environmental campaigns on most urgent
environmental and social issues. Greenpeace's cornerstone principles and core values are:
 to prevent environmental destruction in a peaceful, non-violent manner;
 financial independence from political or commercial interests;
 seek solutions for and promote open, informed debate about society’s environmental choices.
Vision and Mission
T o collectively ensure environmental and social justice, human dignity, and respect for human rights and
peoples rights so as to secure sustainable societies.
• To halt and reverse environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources, nurture the earth’s
ecological and cultural diversity and secure sustainable livelihoods.
• To secure the empowerment of indigenous peoples, local communities, women, groups and individuals,
and to ensure public participation in decision making.
• To engage in vibrant campaigns, raise awareness, mobilize people and build alliances with diverse
movements, linking grassroots, national and global struggles.
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Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI)
• TERI is a public interest research and advocacy organisation that promotes environmentally sound and
equitable development strategies.
• It was established in 1974, Delhi, with the purpose of tackling and dealing with the rapid depletion of the
earth's finite energy resources which are largely non-renewable, and on account of the existing methods
of their use which are polluting.
• TERI has been actively working for developing solutions to global problems in the fields of energy,
environment and current patterns of development, which are largely unsustainable.
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
Chipko Movement
• It is social-ecological movement that practiced the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and with growing
awareness towards rapid deforestation.
• The landmark event in this struggle took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of peasant women in
Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India, acted to prevent in cutting of trees and
reclaim their traditional forest rights that were threatened by the contractor system of the state Forest
Department.
• Their actions inspired hundreds of such actions at the grassroots level throughout the region.
• By the 1980s the movements had spread throughout India and led to formulation of people-sensitive
forest policies, which put a stop to the open felling of trees in regions as far reaching as Vindhyas and
the Western Ghats.
• The first recorded event of Chipko however, took place in village Khejarli, Jodhpur district, in 1730 AD,
when 363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Dive sacrificed their lives while protecting green Khejri trees, considered
sacred by the community, by hugging them, and braved the axes of loggers sent by the local ruler, today
it is seen an inspiration and a precursor for Chipko movement of Garhwal.
Appiko Movement
• Appiko movement was a revolutionary movement based on environmental conservation in India.
• The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand in the Himalayas inspired the villagers of the district of Karnataka
province in southern India to launch a similar movement to save their forests.
• In September 1983, men, women and children of Salkani “hugged the trees” in Kalase forest. (The local
term for ‘hugging’ in Kannada is appiko).
• Appiko movement gave birth to a new awareness all over southern India.
INITIATIVES TAKEN BY INDIA FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Policy measures:
• India’s environment policy is anchored in the Constitution of India, Article 48-A of the Constitution states
that “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and
wildlife of the country”.
• The Indian development process is guided by the aspiration of making India prosperous and progress on
the path of “Development without Destruction”.
• The broad policy framework on environment and climate change is laid down by the National Environment
Policy (NEP) 2006, which promotes sustainable development along with respect for ecological constraints
and the imperatives of social justice.
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• The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) provides a sharper focus on required interventions.
Currently, NAPCC is implemented through eight National Missions, outlining priorities for mitigation and
adaptation to combat climate change.
• The Energy Conservation Act has been enacted to encourage efficient use of energy and its conservation.
• The National Policy for Farmers focuses on sustainable development of agriculture.
• The National Electricity Policy (NEP) underscores the focus on universalizing access to electricity and
promoting renewable sources of energy, as does the Integrated Energy Policy (IEP).
• Policies to promote actions that address climate concerns also include fiscal instruments like coal cess,
cuts in subsidies, increase in taxes on petrol and diesel, market mechanisms including Perform Achieve
and Trade (PAT), Renewable Energy Certificates (REC) and a regulatory regime of Renewable Purchase
Obligation (RPO). The institutional arrangement for off take of renewable power will be further
strengthened.
India’s Progress in Combating Climate Change
In recognition of the growing problem of Climate Change, India declared a voluntary goal of reducing
the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20-25%, over 2005 levels, by 2020, despite having no binding
mitigation obligations as per the Convention. A slew of policy measures were launched to achieve this
goal. As a result, the emission intensity of our GDP has decreased by 12% between 2005 and 2010.
NAPCC (National Action Plan on Climate Change)
NAPCC is a comprehensive action plan which outlines measures on climate change related adaptation
and mitigation while simultaneously advancing development.
It has 8 missions:
I. National Solar Mission
Objective:
 Make solar energy competitive with fossil-based energy options.
 Launch an R & D programme facilitating international co-operation to enable the creation of
affordable, more convenient solar energy systems.
II. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
 The Energy Conservation Act of 2001 provides a legal mandate for the implementation of energy
efficiency measures through the mechanisms of The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in the
designated agencies in the country.
 A number of schemes and programmes have been initiated which aim to save about 10,000 MW
by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan in 2012.
III. National Mission on Sustainable Habitats Objective:
Make habitats sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency in buildings, management of solid
waste and a modal shift to public transport.
National Water Mission
Objective:
 Conserving water, minimizing wastage, and ensuring more equitable distribution and management of
water resources.
 Optimizing water use efficiency by 20% by developing a framework of regulatory mechanisms.

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V. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem
Objective:
Empowering local communities especially Panchayats to play a greater role in managing ecological
resources.
VI. National Mission for a Green India
Objective:
 To increase ecosystem services including carbon sinks.
 To increase forest and tree cover in India to 33% from current 24%.
VII. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
Objective:
 Make Indian agriculture more resilient to climate change by identifying new varieties of crops
(example: thermally resistant crops) and alternative cropping patterns.
 Make suggestions for safeguarding farmers from climate change like introducing new credit and
insurance mechanisms and greater access to information.
VIII. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change
Objective:
 Work with the global community in research and technology development by collaboration through
different mechanisms. It also has its own research agenda supported by climate change related institutions
and a Climate Research Fund.
 Encourage initiatives from the private sector for developing innovative technologies for mitigation
and adaptation.
MITIGATION STRATEGIES
Clean and Efficient Energy System
• Energy is a vital input for production and growth. Considering universal energy access and energy
security as one of the fundamental development goals for the country, Government of India (Gol) has
undertaken a two pronged approach to cater to the energy demand of its citizens while ensuring minimum
growth in carbon emissions.
• On the generation side, the Government is promoting greater use of renewables in the energy mix mainly
through solar and wind power and shifting towards supercritical technologies for coal based power plants.
• On the demand side, efforts are being made to efficiently use energy through various innovative policy
measures under the overall ambit of Energy Conservation Act.
• Promotion of Clean Energy India is running one of the largest renewable capacity expansion programs
in the world. Between 2002 and 2015, the share of renewable grid capacity has increased over 6 times,
from 2% (3.9 GW) to around 13% (36 GW). This momentum of a tenfold increase in the previous decade
is to be significantly scaled up with the aim to achieve 175 GW renewable energy capacity in the next
few years. India has also decided to anchor a global solar alliance, In SPA (International Agency for
Solar Policy & Application), of all countries located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn.
1. Wind energy has been the predominant contributor to the renewable energy growth in India accounting
for 23.76 GW (65.2%) of the renewable installed capacity, making India the 5th largest wind power
producer in the world. With a potential of more than 100 GW, the aim is to achieve a target of 60 GW
of wind power installed capacity by 2022.
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2. Solar power in India is poised to grow significantly with Solar Mission as a major initiative of the
Government of India. Solar power installed capacity has increased from only 3.7 MW in 2005 to about
4060 MW in 2015. The ambitious solar expansion programme seeks to enhance the capacity to 100 GW
by 2022, which is expected to be scaled up further thereafter. A scheme for development of 25 Solar
Parks, Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects, canal top solar projects and one hundred thousand solar pumps
for farmers is at different stages of implementation. Government is also promoting solarization of all the
55,000 petrol pumps across the country.
3. Biomass energy constitutes about 18% of total primary energy use in the country and more than 70%
of the country’s population depends on it. However, it is currently used in an inefficient manner with high
levels of indoor pollution. A number of programmes have been initiated for promotion of cleaner and more
efficient use, including biomass based electricity generation. It is envisaged to . increase biomass installed
capacity to 10 GW by 2022 from current capacity of 4.4 GW.
4. Hydropower contributes about 46.1 GW to current portfolio of installed capacity, of which 4.1 GW is
small hydro (upto 25 MW) and 41.99 GW is large hydro (more than 25 MW). Special programmes to
promote small and mini hydel projects, new and efficient designs of water mills have been introduced for
electrification of remote villages. With a vast potential of more than 100 GW, a number of policy
initiatives and actions are being undertaken to aggressively pursue development of country’s vast hydro
potential.
5. India is promoting Nuclear Power as a safe, environmentally benign and economically viable source to
meet the increasing electricity needs of the country. With a 2.2% share in current installed capacity, total
installed capacity of nuclear power in operation is 5780 MW. Efforts are being made to achieve 63 GW
installed capacity by the year 2032, if supply of fuel is ensured.
6. Clean Coal policies: Coal based power as of now accounts for about 60.8% (167.2 GW) of India’s
installed capacity. In order to secure reliable, adequate and affordable supply of electricity, coal will
continue to dominate power generation in future. Government of India has already taken several initiatives
to improve the efficiency of coal based power plants and to reduce its carbon footprint. Coal beneficiation
has been made mandatory. Introduction of ultra-supercritical technology, as and when commercially
available is part of future policy. Besides, stringent emission standards being contemplated for thermal
plants would significantly reduce emissions.
7. National Smart Grid Mission has been launched to bring efficiency in power supply network and
facilitate reduction in losses and outages. Green Energy Corridor projects worth INR (Indian National
Rupee) 380 billion (USD 6 billion) are also being rolled out to ensure evacuation of renewable energy.
The Government’s goal of Electricity for All is sought to be achieved by the above programs that would
require huge investments, infusion of new technology, availability of nuclear fuel and international support.
ENHANCING ENERGY EFFICIENCY
• With the goal of reducing energy intensity of the Indian economy, Ministry of Power through Bureau of
Energy Efficiency (BEE) has initiated a number of energy efficiency initiatives. The National Mission
for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) aims to strengthen the market for energy efficiency by
creating a conducive regulatory and policy regime.
• Demand Side Management programmes have been launched to replace existing lowefficiency appliances:
1. During the last decade, there has been rapid transformation of efficient lighting in India. India has also
launched an ambitious plan to replace all incandescent lamps with Lightemitting diode (LED) bulbs in the
next few years leading to energy savings of upto 100 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) annually.

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2. Standards and Labeling Programme launched by the Government of India enables consumers to make
informed decision by providing information about the energy consumption of an appliance. The programme
has contributed to an increase of 25% to 30% in the energy efficiency of an average refrigerator or air-
conditioner in 2014 compared to those sold in 2007. Super Efficient Fan (that uses half as much energy
as the average fan) programme has been launched. Further, two sets of Corporate Average Fuel
Consumption standards for cars have been notified, with one corning into force in 2017 and the second
set in 2022.
3. Partial Risk Guarantee Fund for Energy Efficiency (PRGFEE), a risk sharing mechanism to provide
financial institutions with a partial coverage of risk involved in extending loans for energy efficiency
projects, and Venture Capital Fund for Energy Efficiency (VCFEE), a trust fund to provide “last mile”
equity capital to energy efficiency companies, have been established.
4. The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) sets minimum energy standards for new commercial
buildings. Eight states have already adopted and notified the ECBC, and over 300 new commercial
buildings have become compliant. The Code would be made more stringent to promote construction of
even more (Near-Zero) energy-efficient buildings. “Design Guidelines for Energy Efficient Multi-storey
Residential buildings” have also been launched.
5. In order to both recognize energy-efficient buildings, as well as to stimulate their large scale replication,
India has developed its own building- energy rating system GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat
Assessment), based on 34 criteria like site planning, conservation and efficient utilization of resources etc.
A number of buildings including Commonwealth Games Village have been rated using GRIHA system.
Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, the headquarters of Central Government’s Ministry of Environment, Forest
& Climate Change is a model building of Government of India and has received LEED India Platinum
and a 5 Star GRIHA rating. It is a ‘Net Zero Energy’ building with 100% onsite power generation.
ENHANCING ENERGY EFFICIENTY IN INDUSTRIES
Infrastructure sectors, viz. electricity, coal and cement have seen a growth rate of 4.5% in the year 2013-
14. The recent initiatives like Make in India, Digital India, creating National Industrial Corridors,
streamlining environment and forest approvals, labour reforms and undertaking other measures for the
ease of doing business have also fuelled the spurt in their growth rates. Amidst all this, policies to enable
industries reduce their energy consumption play a critical role as an instrument for sustainable environment
through various interventions like:
1. Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT), as a market based energy efficiency trading mechanism, at
present covers 478 plants (designated consumers) in eight energyintensive industrial sectors accounting
for one-third of total energy consumption in the country. The mandated decrease in the specific energy
consumption under PAT programme has led to a decline of 4 to 5% in their specific energy consumption
in 2015 as compared to that in 2012. Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts) are issued to consumers who
overachieve the target. The scheme is to be widened and deepened to include additional sectors like
railways, electricity distribution and refineries in the next cycle and would cover more than half the
commercial energy consumed in India.
2. Zero Effect, Zero Defect (ZED): The Make in India campaign with ZED is a policy initiative to rate
Medium & Small Industries on quality control and certification for energy efficiency, enhanced resources
efficiency, pollution control, use of renewable energy, waste management etc. using ZED Maturity
Assessment Model. The scheme launched in 2015, envisages coverage of about 1 million medium and
small enterprises.

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DEVELOPING CLIMATE RESILIENT URBAN CENTERS:

Government of India in recent times has launched a number of schemes for transformation and rejuvenation
of urban areas including Smart Cities Mission, Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
(AMRUT) and National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY).
Urban Greening
• Population growth and high densities in cities can adversely impact natural and environmental resources.
Preservation of vegetated areas or green spaces improves the quality of life by providing residents with
natural settings for leisure and re creation and by safeguarding the quality of basic resources such as
air and water. In fact, adequate tree cover is an essential link in the bio-diversity chain.
• The biggest challenge for urban development is not only to ensure greening of cities and towns but also
to maintain and strengthen the existing green cover. Urban greening is an integrated approach to the
planting, care and management of all vegetation in cities, towns, townships and informal settlements in
urban and peri-urban areas.
• The objectives of the Urban Green Guide lines are:
 To highlight the impact of urbanization on urban greenery.
 To suggest practices and methods for protecting and enhancing urban greenery in a sustainable
manner.
 To identify the key stages in planning and development where urban greenery may be integrated
with the built environment.
 To recommend suitable guidelines for enhancing urban greens.
Urban Green Spaces are critical for making our cities sustainable, healthy and energy efficient. However,
for Urban Green Spaces to contribute to the optimum, they have to be planned, designed, developed and
managed/maintained appropriately so that they are accessible both in terms of area and population
coverage.
Promoting Waste to Wealth Conversion
India recognizes the dual benefits that can arise from efficient waste disposal leading to enhanced
environmental benefits along with conversion to energy. Incentives are being granted to cities to take up
waste to energy conversion projects.
1. The Waste to Energy capacity is sought to be enhanced. Government is also encouraging conversion of
waste to compost by linking it with sale of fertilizers and providing market development assistance.
2. Government has invested significantly in Solid Waste Management (SWM) projects over the years and
has provided INR 25 billion (USD 397 million) as grant in aid to states and Urban Local Bodies
specifically for SWM through public-private partnerships.
3. Similarly, initiatives on waste water management would cover an additional population of 41 million and
enhance recycling and reuse of treated water. There are about 816 Sewage Treatment Plants (522
operational and rest at different stages of construction and planning) having a combined capacity of
23,277 million of liters per day across 28 States and Union Territories.
4. Government of India has recently launched a one-of-its kind ‘Swachh Bharat Mission’ (Clean India
Mission) with the objective of making the country clean and litter free with scientific solid waste
management in about 4041 towns covering a population of 306 million. It aims to construct 10.4 million
individual household toilets and 0.5 million Community and Public Toilets.

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Citizens and Private Section Contribution to Combating Climate Change
• Citizens of India are an integral part of country’s strategies to combat climate change. The Constitution
of India vide Article 51-A lays down that, as a fundamental duty of every citizen to “protect and improve
the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living
creatures”. Policies like Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission), cleaning of our rivers, achieving
energy efficiency are all examples of policies which are contingent upon full participations of India’s
citizens for their successful implementation.
• In addition to being involved in Government initiatives related to climate change and resource efficiency,
private sector has also embarked on a number of voluntary actions. It plays a key role in sustainable
development efforts in the country, some of which are enumerated below:
1. Companies Act 2013 directs companies having a certain level of profits, to spend 2% of their annual
profit on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities. Estimates indicate that a fair share of the
available CSR funding of about INR 220 billion (USD 3.5 billion) annually will be invested in environment
initiatives from this window.
2. The Indian industry has also participated in voluntary carbon disclosure programmes whereby they report
their carbon management strategy and GHG emissions. Latest Report by Carbon Disclosure Project,
India indicates a reduction of 165 million metric tonnes of CO2 equivalent by Indian industries. “India
GHG Programme” is another voluntary programme to support development of Indiaspecific emission
factors and for corporates to measure their carbon footprints.
3. Indian industry has undertaken many initiatives to reduce their water consumption. A study of 100
companies over a 5 year period covering 12 sectors indicate that the Indian companies on an average
have been reducing then specific water consumption by 2.8 to 3% per year. A few companies have
achieved ‘water positive’ status.
4. Smart Power for Environmentally-sound Economic Development (SPEED) is a program that aims at
electrification of rural areas based on a decentralized renewable energy system.
5. India currently has about 2.68 billion sq. ft. of registered green building space across 3,000 projects
(second largest in the world), of which 600 are certified and fully functional.
6. Green Co Rating System is first of its kind in the world which assesses companies on their environmental
performance across 10 different parameters to help them develop a roadmap to improve further.
7. New Ventures India (NVT) is an initiative to support clean tech entrepreneurs in developing their
business plans and access finance and markets.
8. The Small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) Cluster Programs for Energy Efficiency covers more
than 150 clusters all over the country and has resulted in substantial energy saving, quality improvement
and improved competitiveness. Another initiative by SLDBI (Small Industry Development Bank of India)
in 500 SMEs spread over 40 industrial clusters is expected to save annually 30,000 tonnes of GHG
emissions.
AGRICULTURE
Government of India is implementing policies/missions targeting various threats facing agriculture. Some
of the important ones are National Food Security Mission, Mission for Integrated Development of
Horticulture, National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture, Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana to promote
organic farming practices, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana to promote efficient irrigation practices
and National Mission on Agricultural Extension & Technology.

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1. The National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) aims at enhancing food security and protection
of resources such as land, water, biodiversity and genetics. The mission focuses on new technologies and
practices in cultivation, genotypes of crops that have enhanced CO2 fixation potential, which are less
water consuming and more climate resilient. India has developed 580 district level (covering many states)
contingency plans based on early warning systems and other weather forecasting systems.
2. Government of India adopted a mega project called the National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA). Its four main modules include Natural Resource Management, improving crop production,
livestock and fisheries and institutional interventions.
3. A Scheme has been launched to provide in mission mode Soil Health Card to every farmer. Additionally,
100 mobile soil-testing laboratories have been setup across the country.
4. National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) of India aims at encouraging and expanding tree plantation in
complementarity and integrated manner with crops and livestock. It will help protect and stabilize ecosystems,
and promote resilient cropping and farming systems to minimize the risk during extreme climatic events.
It will also complement achieving the target of increasing forest/ tree cover.
WATER
The adaptation strategies for the water sector focus on enhancing efficient use of water, ensuring access
and tackling the adverse impact of Climate Change. The transboundary and regional issues also need to
be factored in.
1. The main objective of India’s National Water Mission (NWM) is “conservation of water, minimizing
wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through integrated
water resources development and management”. One of the key goals of the mission is to enhance water
use efficiency by 20%.
2. Groundwater is the major component of the total available water resources. Rapid expansion of groundwater
use in India in the last three decades has resulted in a steep decline in the groundwater table in vast areas
of the country. Rainwater harvesting, which offers a promising solution to replenish and recharge the
groundwater is a significant component of Watershed Development Programme, taken up under different
schemes of the central and state governments. Several municipal authorities, including Delhi have amended
their existing building bye-laws, making it compulsory for every large house or hotel (200 yards or more
in area) to undertake rainwater harvesting.
3. Neeranchal is a recent programme by Government to give additional impetus to watershed development
in the country.
4. Another important initiative relating to rivers is the National Mission for Clean Ganga which seeks to
rejuvenate the river along its length of more than 2,500 km through multifarious activities such as pollution
inventorization, assessment and surveillance and laying of sewage networks, treatment plants etc.
5. The total flood prone area in the country is about 45.64 million ha. Existing flood management mechanisms
involve both Central and State Government.
6. Government of India has also set up the National River Conservation Directorate for conservation of
rivers, lakes and wetlands in the country and improving the water quality which covers stretches of 40
rivers in 190 towns spread over 20 States.
HEALTH
• India is now formulating a ‘Health Mission’ under the ambit of NAPCC to evolve strategies for mitigating,
containing and managing the adverse impact of Climate Change on health. The mission aims at analysing
epidemiological data, identify vulnerable population and regions, build knowledge base and expertise,
increase awareness and community participation.
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• Apart from the overall public heath infrastructure at the national and sub national levels, the Government
of India has launched programmes like integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP), National
Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) to deal with vector borne diseases like malaria,
dengue etc. As part of this programme India aims to eliminate malaria by 2030.
Disaster Management
• The Indian subcontinent is among the world’s most disaster prone areas. Almost 85% of India’s area is
vulnerable to one or multiple hazard.
• India has enacted National Disaster Management Act-2005 to deal with disasters in India. India is one
of the active participant of Hygo Framework of Action and recent Sindai Framework of Action Disasters.
• India has set up Disaster Relief Funds at all levels and launched the National Disaster Relief Fund, which
is financed through the levy of a cess.
1994 First World Conference on Natural Disasters in Yokohama
• The First World Conference on Natural Disasters in Yokohama, Japan from 23 to 27 May 1994, adopted
the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and
Mitigation and its Plan of Action, endorsed by the UN General Assembly in 1994.
• It was the main outcome of the mid-term review of the International Decade of Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR) and established 10 principles for its strategy, a plan of action and a follow-up.
Furthermore, it provides guidelines for natural disaster prevention, preparedness and mitigation.
2005 Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe
• The Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction conference was held in Kobe, Japan from 18 to
22 January 2005.
• The World Conference adopted plans to put in place an International Early Warning Programme (IEWP).
The goal of the World Conference was to find ways to reduce the toll of disasters through preparation,
and ultimately to reduce human casualties. Due to the proximity to the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami,
developing a global tsunami warning system was high on the agenda.
• The Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015): Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to
Disasters was an outcome of the 2005 conference. The Hyogo Framework (HFA) was the first plan to
explain, describe and detail the work required from all different sectors and actors to reduce disaster
losses. It was developed and agreed on with the many partners needed to reduce disaster risk-governments,
international agencies, disaster experts and many others- bringing them into a common system of
coordination. The HFA, ran from 2005 to 2015.
2015 Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR) in Sendai
• The Third UN United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction was held in Sendai, Japan.
Many developed nations announced they would partner with smaller countries to prepare for future
disaster relief operations.
• The Sendai Framework is a 15-year nonbinding agreement which recognizes that the State has the
primary role to reduce disaster risk but that responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders
including local government and the private sector. It aims for the following outcome: The substantial
reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social,
cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries.
• The conference adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The Sendai
Framework is the first major agreement of the post-2015 development agenda, with seven targets and
four priorities for action. It was endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015.
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• The Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities for action:

1. Understanding disaster risk;
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk;
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience;
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to “Build Back Better” in recovery,
rehabilitation and reconstruction.
PROTECTION BIODIVERSITY & HIMALAYAN ECOSYSTEM
Biodiversity:
• India, a mega diverse country with only 2.4% of the world's land areas, harbours 7-8% of all recorded
species, and 4 out of 34 global biodiversity hotspots.
• In order to protect the biodiversity from changing climate, India has developed a biogeographic classification
for conservation planning, and has mapped biodiversity rich areas in the country. The protected area
network has increased from 427 (3.34% of total geographical area) in 1988 to 690 (5.07% of total
geographical area) in 2014.
Himalayan Ecosystem:
• The Himalayas form the most important concentration of snow covered region outside the polar region.
It is highly sensitive to global warming.
• The detailed glacier inventory of Indian Himalayas indicates presence of 9579 glaciers in the Himalayas,
some of which form the perennial source of major rivers.
• The National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) addresses important issues
concerning Himalayan Glaciers and the associated hydrological consequences, biodiversity and wildlife
conservation and protection, traditional knowledge societies and their livelihood and planning for sustaining
of the Himalayan Ecosystem.
• Government has also launched National Mission on Himalayan Studies to complement NMSHE with
the objective of building a body of scientific and traditional knowledge along with demonstrating replicable
solutions to the problems in thematic areas including natural resource management, capacity building,
long-term ecological monitoring etc.
Adaptation Actions Under State Action Plans On Climate Change
• All the 29 states and 7 Union Territories in India are preparing a State level action plan to deal with the
challenges of climate change incorporating local needs and priorities. SAPCCs are envisioned to encompass
the vision of the NAPCC and aligned with the 8 National Missions.
• SAPCCs describe in detail the impact of climate and vulnerability assessment, adaptation, mitigation
options and financing and capacity building needs to implement the identified interventions. Key sectors
covered by SAPCCs include agriculture, water, habitat, forestry, health and disaster management among
others.
India’s Climate Change Finance Instruments
Maximum share of India’s current climate finance comes from budgetary sources, as most of the
resources for adaptation and mitigation are built into the ongoing sectoral programmes. The availability
of funds for such purposes is largely guided by the overall resources and requirement of different sectors.
At the same time India is not relying solely on budgetary resources and is experimenting with a careful
mix of market mechanisms together with fiscal instruments and regulatory interventions to mobilize
finance for climate change.
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NATIONAL FUNDS
To augment the availability of assured targeted resources, Government of India has set up two dedicated
funds at the national level for mobilizing financing for mitigation and adaptation respectively.
1. Cess on Coal: India imposed a cess on coal in 2010 @ LNR 50 (USD 0.8) per tonne of coal. Recently
it has been quadrupled to LNR 200 (USD 3.2) per tonne of coal. The coal cess translates into a carbon
tax equivalent, using the emission factor for coal, of around USD 2 per tonne. This forms the corpus for
the National Clean Environment Fund, used for financing clean energy, technologies, and projects
related to it.
2. India has set up a National Adaptation Fund with an initial allocation of LNR 3,500 million (USD 55.6
million) to combat the adaptation needs in sectors like agriculture, water, forestry etc. in addition to
sectoral spending by the respective ministries.
OTHER FISCAL INSTRUMENTS AND INCENTIVES FOR LOW CARBON GROWTH
Some of the other fiscal measures incentivizing green actions in India are as follows:
1. With a series of steps taken recently, India has cut subsidies and increased taxes on fossil fuels (petrol
and diesel) turning a carbon subsidy regime into one of carbon taxation. Further, in its effort to rationalize
and target subsidies, India has launched ‘Direct Benefit Transfer Scheme’ for cooking gas, where
subsidy will be transferred directly into the bank accounts of the targeted beneficiaries. In fact, over the
past one year India has almost cut its petroleum subsidy by about 26%.
2. Recent actions have led to an implicit carbon tax (USD 140 for petrol and USD 64 for diesel) in absolute
terms. This is substantially above what is now considered a reasonable initial tax on CO2 emissions of
USD 25-USD 35 per tonne. Estimates suggest that these measures will help India achieve a net
reduction of 11 million tonnes of CO2 emissions in less than a year.
3. Tax Free Infrastructure Bonds of LNR 50 billion (USD 794 million) are being introduced for funding
of renewable energy projects during the year 2015-16.
4. Finance Commission (FC) Incentive for creation of carbon sink: Another important initiative has
been the 14th FC recommendation on incentives for forestry sector. The devolution of funds to states
from the federal pool would be based on a formula that attaches 7.5 % weight to the area under forest.
According to the estimations based on 14th FC data, this initiative has effectively given afforestation a
massive boost by conditioning about USD 6.9 billion of transfers to the states based on their forest cover,
which is projected to increase up to USD 12 billion by 2019-20. Implicitly, India is going to transfer to
states roughly about USD 174 per hectare of forest per year which compares very favorably with other
afforested countries.
EXTERNAL COOPERATION:
• India is committed to engaging actively in multilateral negotiations under the UNFCCC, CBD and other
International conventions in a positive, creative and forward-looking manner. Our objective is to establish
an effective, cooperative and equitable global architecture based on Environmental justice. The principles
of Equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities, under the UNFCCC
must be adhered by all parties. Such an approach should be anchored in the vision inspired by Mahatma
Gandhi’s famous exhortation; “Earth has enough resources to meet people’s needs, but will never have
enough to satisfy people's greed”.
• COP-19 of UNFCCC at in Warsaw in 2013 invited all Parties to initiate domestic preparations for their
LNDC towards achieving the objective of the Convention and to communicate them, well in advance of
the 21st session of the Conference of Parties. The concept of ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’,
taking into account the outcomes of both Warsaw COP 19 and Lima COP 20 has to
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(i) reflect the principles of equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) and
(ii) the Country’s contributions must be seen in a balanced and comprehensive context.
India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) under COP-19 under UNFCCC
1. To put forward and further propagate a healthy and sustainable way of living based on traditions and
values of conservation and moderation.
2. To adopt a climate friendly and a cleaner path than the one followed hitherto by others at corresponding
level of economic development.
3. To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 from 2005 level.
4. To achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based
energy resources by 2030 with the help of transfer of technology and low cost international finance
including from Green Climate Fund (GCF).
5. To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest
and tree cover by 2030.
6. To better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in development programmes in sectors
vulnerable to climate change, particularly agriculture, water resources, Himalayan region, coastal regions,
health and disaster management.
7. To mobilize domestic and new & additional funds from developed countries to implement the above
mitigation and adaptation actions in view of the resource required and the resource gap.
8. To build capacities, create domestic framework and international architecture for quick diffusion of
cutting edge climate technology in India and for joint collaborative R&D for such future technologies.


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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is/are part of National Which of the statements given above is/are
action plan on climate change? correct?
(a) National Mission on Enhanced Energy (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Efficiency (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) National Solar Mission 6. With reference to the International Union for
(c) Both Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) and the Convention on International
(d) None Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
2. Which one of the following Union Ministries Flora (CITES), which of the following statements
implements the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety? is/are correct?
(a) Ministry of Science and Technology 1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nations
(b) Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and CITES is an international agreement
between governments.
(c) Ministry of Environment and Forests
2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects
(d) Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers around the world to better manage natural
3. The United Nations Framework Conventions on environments.
Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international 3. CITES is legally binding on the States that
treaty drawn at: have joined it, but this Convention does not
(a) United Nations Conference on the Human take the place of national laws.
Environment, Stockholm, 1972. Select the correct using the code given below:
(b) UN conference on Environment and (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992. (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) World Summit on Sustainable Development, 7. What is Rio+20 Conference, often mentioned in
Johannesburg, 2002. the news?
(d) UN Climate Change Confer ence (a) It is the United Nations Conference on
Copenhagen, 2009. Sustainable Development
4. The concept of carbon credit originated from (b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the World
which one of the following? Trade Organization
(c) It is a Conference of the Intergovernmental
(a) Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro
Panel on Climate Change
(b) Kyoto Protocol
(d) It is a Conference of the Member Countries
(c) Montreal Protocol of the Convention on Biological Diversity
(d) G- 8 Summit, Heiligendamm 8. Which of the following statements regarding
5. Consider the following statements: ‘Green Climate Fund’ is/are correct?
1. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in 1. It is intended to assist the developing
respect of carbon credits in one of the Kyoto countries in adaptation and mitigation
Protocol Mechanisms. practices to counter climate change.
2. It is founded under the aegis of UNEP,
2. Under the CDM, the projects handled pertain
OECD, Asian Development Bank and World
only to the Annex-I countries.
Bank.
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Select the correct answer using the code given Select the correct answer using the code given
below. below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (a) Only 1
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (b) Only 2
9. The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (c) Both 1 and 2
is constituted under the (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 13. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafely deals with
(b) Geogr aphical Indications of Goods (a) establishing or promoting in xilu conservation
(Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 facilities for rare and endangered organisms
(c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (b) maintaining the worldwide network of gene
(d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 banks for all the known flora and
10. How does National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) (c) monitoring and regulating the development
help in protecting the Indian agriculture? of living modified organisms
1. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects the (d) ensuring safe handling, safe use and safe
indigenous and traditional genetic resources. trans-boundary movement of living modified
2. NBA directly monitors and supervises the organisms
scientific research on genetic modification 14. If a wetland of international importance is
of crop plants. brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does
3. Application for Intellectual Property Rights it imply?
related to resources genetic/biological cannot (a) Changes in ecological character have
be made without approval of NBA. occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur
Which of the statements given a above is/are in the wetland as a result of human
correct? interference.
(a) 1 Only (b) 2 & 3 Only (b) The country in which the wetland is located
should enact a law to prohibit any human
(c) 1 & 3 only (d) 1, 2 & 3
activity within five kilo meters from the edge
11. “Chipko movement” in Uttar Pradesh relates to of the wetland.
(a) Prevention of felling green trees (c) The survival of the wetland depends on the
(b) Prevention of felling of old trees by cultural practices and traditions of certain
unauthorized persons communities living in its vicinity and therefore
(c) Prevention of felling of dead trees by the cultural diversity therein should not be
destroyed.
governmental agencies
(d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage
(d) Planting frees on private plots
Site’.
12. Which of the following statements about National
Green Tribunal is/are correct? 15. What is the main subject of the Kyoto Protocol?
(a) Bio-diversity
1. It is a specialized body equipped with the
necessary expertise to handle environmental (b) Global warming
disputes involving multidisciplinary issues. (c) Alternative sources of energy
2. The Tribunal shall be bound by the procedure (d) Genetically modified organisms
laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure,
1908.

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16. With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’. ANSWER SHEET
Which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Ans. (c)
(a) It serves as financial mechanism for
2. Ans. (c)
‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and
3. Ans. (b)
‘United Nations Framework Convention on
Cliamte Change’. 4. Ans. (b)
(b) It undertakes scientific research on 5. Ans. (c)
environmental issues at global level. 6. Ans. (b)
(c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate 7. Ans. (a)
the transfer of technology and funds to 8. Ans. (a)
underdeveloped countries with specific aim 9. Ans. (c)
to protect their environment.
10. Ans. (c)
(d) Both (a) and (b)
11. Ans. (a)
12. Ans. (a)
13. Ans. (d)
14. Ans. (a)
15. Ans. (b)
16. Ans. (a)

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Energy & Environment Important Species in India 263
IMPORTANT SPECIES IN INDIA

THEORY
MAMMALS-CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
1. Pygmy Hog
Is the world's smallest wild pig. This species constructs a nest throughout the year. It is one of the most
useful indicators of the management status of grassland habitats. The grasslands where the pygmy hog
resides are crucial for the survival of other endangered species such as Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
unicornis), Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), Wild Buffalo (Bubalus arnee), Hispid Hare (Caprolagus
hispidus), Bengal Florican (Eupodotis bengalensis) and Swamp Francolin (Francolinus gularis).
Habitat:
Relatively undisturbed, tall ‘terai’ grasslands.
Distribution:
Formerly, the species was more widely distributed along the southern Himalayan foothills but now is
restricted to only a single remnant population in Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and its buffer reserves.
Threats:
The main threats are loss and degradation of grasslands, dry-season burning, livestock grazing and
afforestation of grasslands.
Hunting is also a threat to the remnant populations.
2. Andaman White-toothed Shrew, Jenkin's Andaman Spiny Shrew
White toothed Shrew and the Nicobar Whitetailed Shrew are endemic to India. They are usually active
by twilight or in the night and have specialized habitat requirements.
Habitat:
Leaf litter and rock crevices.
Distribution:
The Andaman White-toothed Shrew is found on Mount Harriet in the South Andaman Islands. The
Jenkin's Andaman Spiny Shrew is found on Wright Myo and Mount Harriet in the South Andaman
Islands.
The Nicobar White-tailed Shrew is found in the southern tip of Greater Nicobar Island and is also
recorded in the area extending from the Campbell Bay National Park to the Galathea River in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Threats:
Habitat loss due to selective logging, natural disasters such as the tsunami and drastic weather changes.

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264 Important Species in India General Studies
3. Kondana Rat
Is a nocturnal burrowing rodent that is found only in India. It is sometimes known to build nests.
Habitat:
Tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests and tropical scrub.
Distribution:
Known only from the small Sinhagarh Plateau (about one km2), near Pune in Maharashtra. Reported
from an elevation of about 1,270 m above mean sea level.
Threats:
Major threats are habitat loss, overgrazing of vegetation and disturbance from tourism and recreational
activities.
4. The Namdapha Flying Squirrel
Is a unique (the only one in its genus) flying squirrel that is restricted to a single valley in the Namdapha
Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh.
Habitat:
Tropical forest. Distribution: Found only in Namdapha Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh.
Threats:
Hunted for food.
5. The Malabar Civet
Is considered to be one of the world’s rarest mammals. It is endemic to India and was first reported from
Travancore, Kerala. It is nocturnal in nature and found exclusively in the Western Ghats.
Habitat:
Wooded plains and hill slopes of evergreen rainforests. Distribution: Western Ghats.
Threats:
Deforestation and commercial plantations are major threats.
6. The Sumatran Rhinoceros
Is the smallest and most endangered of the five rhinoceros species. It is now thought to be regionally
extinct in India, though it once occurred in the foothills of the Himalayas and north-east India. The Javan
Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is also believed to be extinct in India and only a small number survive
in Java and Vietnam.
7. Kashmir stag/hangul
• It is a subspecies of Red Deer which is native to India.
• Habitat/distribution in dense riverine forests, high valleys, and mountains of the Kashmir valley and
northern Chamba in Himachal Pradesh.
• State animal of J & K.
• Threat – habitat destruction, over-grazing by domestic livestock and poaching.
MAMMALS-ENDANGERED
8. Wild ass/khur
• Once extended from western India, southern Pakistan, Afghanistan, and south-eastern Iran Today, its last
refuge lies in the Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary, Little Rann of Kutch.

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• Threat
 Diseases-in 1985-1960, surra disease, caused by Trypanosoma evansi and African Horse Sickness.
 Other threats include habitat degradation due to salt activities, the invasion of the Prospis juliflora
shrub, and encroachment and grazing by the Maldhari.
9. Dhole/Asiatic wild dog or Indian wild dog
• Threat-habitat loss, depletion of its prey base, competition from other predators, persecution and possibly
diseases from domestic and feral dogs.
10. Eld’s deer/thamin or brow-antlered deer
Status-endagered, deer indigenous to Southeast Asia.
• Found in the Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), Manipur.
11. Himalayan Brown/ Red Bear
Status– endangered.
• India’s largest animals in the Himalayas, omnivores. Himalayan Brown Bears exhibit sexual dimorphism.
• Distribution-Nepal, Pakistan and Northern India.
12. Himalayan wolf
• Habitat/distribution-trans-Himalayan region of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir in northern India.
• Status-Endangered
13. Himalayan/White-bellied Musk Deer
• Habitat/distribution-Kashmir, Kumaon and Sikkim.
• Musk deer lack antlers, but they possess a pair of enlarged canines that grow continuously.
• Status-endangered
• Threat-poaching & illegal trade for its musk
• Deer musk is a substance with a persistent odor obtained from a gland of the male musk deer (Only
males produce the musk). The substance has been used as a perfume fixative, incense material, and
medicine.
14. Hispid hare/Assam rabbit
• Habitat/distribution-southern foothills of the central Himalayas. Status-endangered.
• The habitat of hispid hares is highly fragmented due to increasing agriculture, flood control and human
development.
15. Hog deer
• Status-endangerd
• Habitat/distribution-northern India.
• Name-The hog deer runs through the forests with its head hung low (hog-like manner) so that it duck
under obstacles instead of leaping over them like most other deer do.
16. Lion-tailed macaque/wanderoo
Endemic to the Western Ghats.
• Status-endangered. Avoid human presence and they do not live, feed or travel through plantations.
• Habitat:
Lion-tailed macaques live in southwest India in pockets evergreen forests, called shoals, in the Western
Ghats range.
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Today, they only live in mountain forests scattered across three Indian states: Karnataka, Kerala, and
Tamil Nadu.
• Threat-habitat fragmentation due to spread of agriculture and tea, coffee, teak and cinchona, construction
of water reservoirs and human settlements to support such activities.
17. Markhor
• Exhibit sexual dimorphism. National animal of Pakistan.
• Habitat/distribution-mountains of central Asia. In India-some parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Status-endangered
• Threat-hunting (both for meat and for its twisted horns), armed conflict and habitat loss
• Conservation-listed on Appendix I of CITES
18. Nilgiri langur/Nilgiri leaf monkey
Status-endangered
• Threat-habitat degradation, development activities, introduction of exotic tree species.
• Habitat/distribution-hilly areas of Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Tropical wet evergreen,
semi-evergreen and riparian forests.
19. Nilgiri tahr
• The Nilgiri tahr is the largest of the three tahr species, inhabit montane grasslands of western ghats.
• It is the state animal of Tamilnadu. Status in the Wild: Endangered
• Shoals forest (stunted evergreen forests) are typically avoided by tahr.
• Threats-habits loss, overgrazing, illegal hunting.
20. Great Indian One horned Rhinoceros
• Habitat: Found only in the tall grassland and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas.
• National Parks: Kaziranga National Park, pabitora wildlife sanctuary, Manas National Park, Assam
• Status in the Wild: Endangered
• Threat-Oriental belief that its horn, among other parts, has medical properties.
• Captive breeding– arinchar anna zoological park.
VULNERABLE MAMMALS
21. Chiru/Tibetian Antelope
• Status-vulnernable
• Habitat: Tibet cold desert
• Threat: The chiru is threatened by hunting for its fine wool which is used to make the shahtoosh scarves,
meat, magnificent horns.
22. Himalayan tahr
• Status-vulnerable
• habitat-Himalayas
• tahr have many characters in common with true goats, but lack a beard and have several other unique
features.

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23. Black buck

• habitat-Himalayas
• Threat-excessive hunting for meat and sporting trophies, as well as habitat loss. Black buck show sexual
dimorphism.
24. Gaur
• The gaur (Bos gaurus), also called Indian bison, is a large bovine native to South Asia and Southeast Asia.
The species is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
• Gaur are largely confined to evergreen forests or semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests, but also
occur in deciduous forest areas at the periphery of their range.
• The domesticated form of the gaur, Bos frontalis, is called gayal or mithun.
25. Four-horned antelope, Chousingha
• Status–vulnerable
• The four-horned antelope must drink water regularly in order to survive.
26. Takin
• Mountainous regions in the Himalayan Mountains and western China
27. Nillgiri marten
• Endemic to the Western Ghats, inhabits areas that are far from human disturbance.
• Semi-arboreal lifestyle. Martens are Carnivorous animal.
• Only species of marten considered vulnerable to extinction.
• Threat-habitat loss and fragmentation, hunting for its fur.
• Only species of marten found in southern India.
28. Red Panda
• Red panda is endemic to the temperate forests of the Himalayas.
• Diet-omnivorous (mainly on bamboo).
• Habital/distribution-Sikkim and assam, northern arunachal Pradesh.
• Threat-habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and inbreeding depression.
29. Marbled cat
• Habitat/distribution-from northern India and Nepal, through south-eastern Asia to Borneo and Sumatra
• In India-Sikkim, Darjeeling. Moist tropical forest.
• Arboreal in nature
• Threat-hunting, habitat destruction for marbled cat and its prey.
30. Barasingha or swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelu)
• Habitat/distribution-isolated localities in northern and central India, and southwestern Nepal.
• Status-vulnerable.
31. Oriental small-clawed otter/Asian smallclawed otter
• Otters-any of 13 living species of semiaquatic mammals which feed on fish and shellfish, and also other
invertebrates, amphibians, birds and small mammals.

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• It is a smallest otter species in the world.
• It lives in mangrove swamps and fresh water wetlands.
• Status-vulnerable. Threat-habitat loss, pollution and hunting.
32. Clouded leopard
Habitat/distribution-Himalayan foothills through mainland Southeast Asia into China.
• They occur in northern West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland
and Tripura.
• Status-vulnerable. Threat-deforestation and poaching.
33. Asian black bear/moon bear or whitechested bear
Medium-sized species of bear, largely adapted for arboreal life.
• Habitat/distribution-seen across much of the Himalayas, Korea, northeastern China, the Russian Far East
and the Honshu and Shikoku Islands of Japan.
• Status-vulnerable species
• Threat-deforestation and active hunting for its body parts.
MARINE MAMMALS
34. Freshwater/river dolphin
• Habitat/distribution-India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan which is split into two subspecies, the Ganges
river dolphin and Indus river dolphin.
35. Ganges river dolphin
• Habitat/distribution-Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers and their tributaries in Bangladesh, India and Nepal.
• The Ganges river dolphin has been recognized by the government of India as its National Aquatic Animal.
36. Indus river dolphin
• Habitat/distribution– Indus River in Pakistan and its Beas and Sutlej tributaries.
37. Herbivorous Marine Mammals
• Include dugong and manatees and they inhabit swamps, rivers, estuaries, marine wetlands and coastal
marine waters.
38. Dugong
• (Dugong dugong) also called as sea cow.
• Status-vulnerable. Threat-hunting (meat and oil), habitat degradation and fishing-related fatalities.
FEW EXCEPTIONS
39. Egg Laying Mammals
The unique feature of monotremes, a sub division of mammal, is that monotremes lay eggs rather than
giving birth to their young. There are only five living Monotreme/egg laying Mammals species: they are
– the duck-billed platypus and four species of spiny anteaters (also known as enhidna). All of them are
found only in Australia and New Guinea.
40. Echidnas are also known as spiny ant eaters
• Habitat/distribution-Australia and New Guinea
• In echidnas, the egg is carried in a pouch on the female's belly until the young hatches, at which point
the barely-developed young must find a mammary gland and latch onto it for nourishment.

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41. Platypus is a semi-aquatic mammal

• Habitat/distribution-endemic to eastern Australia, including Tasmania.
• In the platypus, the female retires to a burrow in the bank of a river or pond. The burrow is lined with
dry vegetation, and there the eggs are laid.
• The male platypus has venom strong enough to can kill a small dog, or cause excruciating pain among
humans.
42. Marsupials
• Marsupials are the group of mammals commonly thought of as pouched mammals (like the wallaby and
kangaroo).
• Marsupial mammals have placenta but it is very short-lived and does not make as much of a contribution
to fetal nourishment.
• They do not have long gestation times like placental mammals. The short gestation time is due to having
a yolk-type placenta in the mother marsupial.
• Extinct-Marsupial-quagga, the marsupial wolf.
• Placental mammals all bear live young, which are nourished before in the mother's uterus through a
specialized embryonic organ attached to the uterus wall, the placenta.
• Placental mammals nourish the developing embryo using the mother's blood supply, allowing longer
gestation times.
List of Marsupials
Phalangers Opossum
Kola Tasmanian devils
Kangaroo Mursupial Mole (4 foot)
Wallaby Bandi coot
Wombats Tasmanian Wolf/Tiger
Dasyure
43. Flying squirrel
• Flying squirrels are mammals too, but they don't really fly.
• They jump from high in a trees glide through the air like a kite.
REPTILES-CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
44. Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
Is the most uniquely evolved crocodilian in the world, a specialized, river-dwelling, fish- eater. The dire
condition of the gharial reflects the tragedy of our rivers, where we stand to not only lose other
endangered taxa such as the Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica) but also the use of their waters
for human consumption and other needs.
Habitat:
Clean rivers with sand banks. Distribution: Only viable population in the National Chambal Sanctuary,
spread across three states of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh in India. Small non-breeding
populations exist in Son, Gandak, Hoogly and Ghagra rivers. Now extinct in Myanmar, Pakistan, Bhutan
and Bangladesh.

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Threats:
The combined effects of dams, barrages, artificial embankments, change in river course, pollution, sand-
mining, riparian agriculture and ingress of domestic and feral livestock caused irreversible loss of riverine
habitat and consequently of the gharial.
45. Leatherback Turtle
Is the largest of the living sea turtles, weighing as much as 900 kg. Adult leatherback turtles are excellent
swimmers. Jellyfish is their primary food. The population spikes of leatherbacks coincide with abundance
of jellyfish, making them important top-predators in marine environments.
Habitat:
Tropical and subtropical oceans.
Distribution: Found in tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
Threats:
High sea fishing operations, harvesting of eggs, destruction of nests by wild predators and domesticated
species such as cats, dogs and pigs. Artificial lighting disorients hatchlings and adults and causes them
to migrate inland rather than towards the sea. Threats to habitat include construction, mining and plantation
of exotics.
CORALS
46. Fire corals
They are more closely related to jellyfish than corals. On contact, one usually feels a burning sensation
similar to a sting from a jellyfish. They are usually yellow-green or brown in colour.
Habitat:
Generally found in murky inshore waters and display a tolerance for siltation. They often are found in
clear offshore sites.
Distribution:
Indonesia, Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama Pacific Province. Possibly extinct from Australia, India, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Panama, Singapore and Thailand.
Threats:
Collected for decoration and jewellery trade. This group is also sensitive to temperature rise, and is
thought to have completely disappeared from the majority of marine areas possibly because of growing
global warming related bleaching effects.
BIRDS-CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
47. Jerdon’s Courser
Is a nocturnal bird found only in the northern part of the state of Andhra Pradesh in peninsular India.
It is a flagship species for the extremely threatened scrub jungle. The species was considered to be
extinct until it was rediscovered in 1986 and the area of rediscovery was subsequently declared as the
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.
Habitat:
Undisturbed scrub jungle with open areas. Distribution: Jerdon's Courser is endemic to Andhra Pradesh.
However, 19th century records do attribute its presence in the neighbouring areas of the state of
Maharashtra.
Threats:
Clearing of scrub jungle, creation of new pastures, growing of dry land crops, plantations of exotic trees,
quarrying and the construction of the Telugu-Ganga Canal. Illegal trapping of birds is also a threat.
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48. Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti)

Had been lost for more than a century. It has an interesting history. When not sighted for decades,
posters were printed and Salim Ali, the premier ornithologist of India made a public appeal to look for
the bird. After 113 long years, the owlet was rediscovered in 1997 and reappeared on the list of Indian
birds.
Habitat:
Dry deciduous forest. Distribution: South Madhya Pradesh, in north-west Maharashtra and north-central
Maharashtra.
Threats:
Logging operations, burning and cutting of trees damage roosting and nesting trees of the Forest Owlet.
49. White-bellied Heron
Is an extremely rare bird found in five or six sites in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, one or two sites
in Bhutan, and a few in Myanmar. It is inherently rare, and populations have never been known to be
very high.
Habitat:
Rivers with sand or gravel bars or inland lakes. Distribution: Bhutan and north-east India to the hills of
Bangladesh and north Myanmar.
Threats:
Loss and degradation of lowland forests and wetlands through direct exploitation and disturbance by
humans.
50. White-backed Vulture
Slender-billed Vulture and Long-billed Vulture has declined by 99%. The Red- headed Vulture has also
suffered a rapid decline in the recent past. Vultures keep the environment clean, by scavenging on animal
carcasses. The decline in vulture populations has associated disease risks, including increased risk of
spread of rabies and anthrax, besides adversely impacting the observance of last rites by the Parsis in
the Towers of Silence.
Habitat
Forests, villages etc. Distribution: Across India.
Threats:
A major threat to vultures is the painkiller diclofenac used by veterinarians to treat cattle. When vultures
consume these carcasses, diclofenac enters their system, but they are unable o metabolize it. Accumulation
of diclofenac results in gout-like symptoms such as neckdrooping, ultimately leading to death.
51. Bengal Florican
Is a rare bustard species that is very well known for its mating dance. Among the tall grasslands,
secretive males advertise their territories by springing from the ground and flitting to and fro in the air.
Habitat:
Grasslands occasionally interspersed with scrublands. Distribution: Native to only 3 countries in the
world– Cambodia, India and Nepal. In India, it occurs in 3 states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh.
Threats:
Ongoing conversion of the bird’s grassland habitat for various purposes including agriculture is mainly
responsible for its population decline.
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The Himalayan Quail
Is presumed to be extinct since no reliable records of sightings of this species exist after 1876. Intensive
surveys are required as this species is hard to detect due to its reluctance to fly and its preference for
dense grass habitats. Possible sighting of this species was reported in Nainital in 2003.
Habitat:
Tall grass and scrub on steep hillsides.
Distribution:
Western Himalayas. Threats: Indiscriminate hunting during the colonial period along with habitat
modification.
45. Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarious)
Is a winter migrant to India. This species has suffered a sudden and rapid population decline due to which
it has been listed as critically endangered.
Habitat:
Fallow fields and scrub desert.
Distribution:
Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Armenia, Georgia,
Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, Egypt, India, Pakistan and Oman. In India, distribution
is restricted to the north and north-west of the country.
Threats:
Conversion of habitat to arable land, illegal hunting and proximity to human settlements.
SIBERIAN CRANE
Is a large, strikingly majestic migratory bird that breeds and winters in wetlands. They are known to
winter at Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan. However the last documented sighting of the bird was in
2002. Habitat: Wetland areas.
Distribution:
Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan.
Threats:
Pesticide pollution, wetland drainage, development of prime habitat into agricultural fields, and to some
extent, hunting.

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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The term ‘Bali Action Plan’, is sometimes seen 5. A warm-blooded animal is one which
in news in the context of: (a) has a fluctuating body temperature
(a) Global climate change (b) does not lose heat to surroundings
(b) Global terrorism (c) absorbs heat from surroundings
(c) Global wildlife trafficking (d) has a constant body temperature
(d) World trade 6. Consider the following:
2. Consider the following statements:
1. Palm civet
1. Snakes are always at the end of a food
2. Puma
chain.
3. Cheetah
2. Some snakes are viviparous
Which of the above is/are found in India in their
natural habitat?
correct?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
7. With reference to ‘Seshachalam Biosphere
3. Consider the following statements:
Reserve’, which of the following statements is/
1. Red panda in its natural habitat is found in are correct?
Eastern Himalayas.
1. It is located in the Eastern Ghats
2. Gharial in its natural habitat is found in
2. It is a unique tropical rain forest
Bhitarkanika mangroves.
below:
correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. With reference to carbon dioxide, which of the 8. Which of the following is associated with the
following statements is/are correct? issue of control and phase out of the use of
ozone depleting substances?
1. It is released from the interior of the Earth
during volcanic eruption. (a) Bretton Woods Conference
2. It corrodes metal surfaces. (b) Doha Development Agenda
3. It is required for the green plants for their (c) Geneva II Conference
survival. (d) Montreal Protocol
Select the correct answer using the code given 9. At which of the following places is the Marine
below. National Park located?
(a) 1 and 2 only (a) Chandipur-on-sea
(b) 3 only (b) Jamnagar
(c) 2 and 3 only (c) Puducherry
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Visakhapatnam
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10. ‘Fly ash’, which can be used in making bricks, Select the correct answer using the code given
is emitted from: below:
(a) Burning of agricultural waste (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(b) Burning of municipal solid waste (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Mining of aluminum and iron ores 15. With reference to Loktak lake, consider the
following statements:
(d) Thermal power plants
1. Loktak is a freshwater lake in northeastern
11. Which of the following is/are World Heritage
India.
Properties as per UNESCO?
2. Loktak lake carries floating islands that are
1. Bhitarkanika National Park
made up of decaying masses of Vegetation,
2. Bandhavgarh National Park soil and organic matter.
3. Sundarbans National Park Which of the statements given above is/are
Select the correct answer using the code given correct?
below? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 16. There is a growing concern about the release of
12. Which of the following places have nuclear a particular gas into the atmosphere form the
power plants? permafrost of Arctic region. Which one of the
following is that gas?
1. Amarkantak 2. Kaiga
(a) Carbon monoxide
3. Rawatbhata 4. Visakhapatnam
(b) Ethane
below: (c) Methane
(d) Sulfur dioxide
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
17. Which of the following is/are among the main
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
objective/objectives of G20 group of countries?
13. Consider the following pairs:
1. Discussing key issues in the global economy.
Well known Lake State
2. Promoting international financial stability.
1. Chilika Lake : Odisha
2. Kolleru Lake : Kerala below:
3. Pulicat Lake : Karnataka (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
matched? 18. Consider the following crop plants:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 1. Banana
(c) l and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Potato
14. With reference to carbon dioxide, which of the 3. Turmeric
following statements is/are correct? Which of the above is/are propagated by
1. It is released from the interior of the Earth vegetative methods?
during volcanic eruption. (a) 1 only
2. It corrodes metal surfaces. (b) 1 and 2 only
3. It is required for the green plants for their (c) 2 and 3 only
survival.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
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19. Which of the following, considered a carcinogen, 23. Statement (I): Denuding of forest cover followed
is often secretively used by some for artificial by quarrying and/or terrace levelling may cause
fruit ripening? landslides.
(a) Calcium carbonate Statement (II): These activities aid in recharging
(b) Calcium carbide into the ground water storage locally.
(c) Sodium benzoate (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(d) Sodium sulfate individually true; and Statement (II) is the
20. The UN Conference on Environment and correct explanation of Statement (I)
Development, known as Rio Summit, led to the (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
final development of which international treaty? individually true; but Statement (II) is NOT
(a) Kyoto Protocol the correct explanation of Statement (I)
(b) World Environment Treaty (c) Statement (I) is true; but Statement (II) is
false
(c) Environment Treaty of the G8 Nations
(d) Universal Environment Treaty (d) Statement (I) is false; but Statement (II) is
true
21. Consider the following statements regarding the
generation of biomass energy: 24. Statement (I): Greenhouse gases increase the
earth's surface temperature.
1. It is generated from organic material, plant
or animal waste Statement (II): Greenhouse gases help to retain
the incoming heat energy from the Sun.
2. It is easily available
3. Biomass boilers are less expensive than gas (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true; and Statement (II) is the
or oil boilers
correct explanation of Statement (I)
Which of the above statements are correct?
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
individually true; but Statement (II) is NOT
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 the correct explanation of Statement (I)
22. Which of the following items will be relevant to
(c) Statement (I) is true; but Statement (II) is
properly conduct the needful Environmental
false
Impact Assessment at a locality for any project
(d) Statement (I) is false; but Statement (II) is
coming up there?
true
1. The lay of the land, particularly large
depressions which may hold water of any ANSWER SHEET
source. 1. Ans. (a) 13. Ans. (b)
2. Prevailing or predominant wind directions 2. Ans. (b) 14. Ans. (d)
throughout the year in the locality. 3. Ans. (a) 15. Ans. (c)
3. Food habits of the local population 4. Ans. (d) 16. Ans. (c)
4. Whether sanitary fills for disposal of
5. Ans. (d) 17. Ans. (c)
Municipal wastes are in the neighbourhood.
6. Ans. (a) 18. Ans. (d)
5. Nearness to National Highways.
7. Ans. (a) 19. Ans. (b)
6. Availability of higher educational institutions
in the vicinity. 8. Ans. (d) 20. Ans. (a)
Select the correct answer using the codes given 9. Ans. (b) 21. Ans. (a)
below: 10. Ans. (d) 22. Ans. (c)
(a) 2, 3 and 6 (b) 1, 3 and 5 11. Ans. (b) 23. Ans. (c)
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 4 and 6 12. Ans. (b) 24. Ans. (a)
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Chirag Goyal Rahul Kumar Bhatia Pratibha Kuri Sukhpal Kaur

Ph. : 0141-6540910 / 111, +91-8094441777 / 999

S.No. Topic Page No.

4. Climate Change ...............................................................................134 – 148

5. Environmental Impact Assessment .................................................149 – 158

6. Sustainable Development ................................................................159 – 171

7. Environmental Degradation and Pollution ......................................172 – 229

8. Environmental Laws and Conventions ...........................................230 – 262

9. Important Species in India ...............................................................263 – 275

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KOTA LPU CAMPUS LUDHIANA LUCKNOW PATNA SIKAR

KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY

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Based on Based on Based on

Primary Conventional Non- Commercial Fossil

1.2.1 Classification based on Usage

(c) Secondary Resources

Rank (Lowest to High) Properties

Peat is recently accumulated organic sediment. It has a carbon content of

Bituminous coal is formed when a peat, Lignite coal is subjected to

Anthracite is the highest rank of coal it has a carbon content of over 87 on

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Constituent is methane Constituents are propane and butane

Release of green house gas is greater but relatively

• Uses of Natural Gas:

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(i) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC):

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• Under Direct use, sunlight can be converted into

Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Thermal

Solar Hot Water

C. Solar Chemical Energy (Solar Fuel):

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Sunlight is absorbed This solar energy

Water Carbon Oxygen Fuel

Hydrogen can be used a transport

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(2) Liquid Biofuels:

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Ranking of renewable energies

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Technology Recent developments Key conditions for faster deployment

 In 2014, 72 GW of nuclear capacity  Promote incentives for all types of low

 Impacted by the price declines in crude

1.8 MAJOR PIPELINES IN INDIA

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Small Hydro Wind Power

Total Reserves = 147615 Mega Watt

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These are, in decreasing order of potential:

• Major cause for Energy Crisis:

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1.15 ENERGY POLICIES AND ACTS IN INDIA

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2. Ans. (c) 8. Ans. (c)

3. Ans. (d) 9. Ans. (b)