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SOUTHERN AFRICAN PLASTIC PIPE

MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION (SAPPMA)

SAPPMA TECHNICAL MANUAL

Technical Manual
MARCH 2009
2nd Edition Copyright Protected 1
2nd EDITION MARCH 2009
FOREWORD

FOREWORD BY THE CEO OF SAPPMA


SAPPMA published its first Technical Manual late in 2006. At the time I wrote about the long- standing need
for reliable/relevant technical information by engineers and users of plastics piping systems and the mission
of SAPPMA to satisfy just that. I furthermore emphasized the fact that as a first edition, it would inevitably
undergo a process of evolution and improvement, becoming an indispensable tool for design engineers.

Some two years have passed since then and time has proved us right. The first edition was very well received
and we have by now obtained valuable comments to help improving the content.

We have great pleasure therefore in publishing this second edition of the SAPPMA Technical Manual for the use
of PVC and PE piping systems.

Again as before, we extend an open invitation to all users to let us have your constructive criticism in order to
improve this publication.

Copies in print or electronic format will be available from all members, as well as directly from the SAPPMA
office at the Plastics Federation in Midrand. It will also be available on our website.

Finally it is very important to again take note of the motive behind this project. One of the main aims of our
Association is to be a catalyst in the on-going process of improving the quality of plastic piping systems. Watering
down of standards, products and services is unfortunately part of life and without pro-active intervention the
tendency is downwards.

SAPPMA is not a commercial enterprise and is aimed purely at improving the availability of relevant technical
knowledge and ensuring the maintenance/improvement of quality standards in the plastics piping industry. We
therefore invite you as a consulting/design engineer or user of these products to partner us in this process. We
strongly recommend you to include the SAPPMA qualification in your tender documents.

More information about SAPPMA is available on our website www.sappma.co.za

Jan Venter
March 2009

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Table of Contents

PART I GENERAL.............................................................................................................. 3

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 4
Purpose and Scope of Manual.......................................................................................... 4
Plastic Pipe Applications................................................................................................ 4
Pipe Material Properties................................................................................................ 4
International Market..................................................................................................... 6
South African Market.................................................................................................... 6
Pipeline Design and Selection.......................................................................................... 8
Gravity and Pressure Systems.......................................................................................... 8

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION .......................................................................................... 10


Soil Structure Systems.................................................................................................. 10
Flexible and Rigid Pipes................................................................................................ 11
Classification of Plastics............................................................................................... 13
Comparison of Various Flexible Pipes................................................................................ 13
Regression Curves (stress/time relationship)....................................................................... 15

PART II SELECTION AND INSTALLATION................................................................................... 19

HYDRAULIC REQUIREMENTS............................................................................................... 20
Basic Principles.......................................................................................................... 20
Operating Pressure, Hoop Stress and Wall Thickness.............................................................. 23
Surge and Fatigue....................................................................................................... 24
Factory Tests............................................................................................................. 25

EXTERNAL LOADS............................................................................................................ 26
Design Basis.............................................................................................................. 26
Load Classification...................................................................................................... 26
Pipe Stiffness............................................................................................................ 27
Determining Required Pipe Stiffness................................................................................. 28
Vertical Deflection...................................................................................................... 30

DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS............................................................................................... 31
Durability................................................................................................................. 31

SYSTEM COMPONENTS...................................................................................................... 31
Secondary loads......................................................................................................... 31
Manholes................................................................................................................. 31
Joints And Fittings...................................................................................................... 31
Valves..................................................................................................................... 32

INSTALLATION................................................................................................................ 32
Preconstruction Activities............................................................................................. 32
Excavation............................................................................................................... 32
Embedment.............................................................................................................. 33
Pipe Laying and Jointing............................................................................................... 33
Backfilling................................................................................................................ 34

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Table of Contents

Anchoring................................................................................................................. 35
Site Tests................................................................................................................. 35

PART III PLASTIC PIPE PROPERTIES........................................................................................ 37

Polyethylene (PE)........................................................................................................ 38
Typical Physical Properties............................................................................................ 38
Benefits of PE.............................................................................................................38
Polymers.................................................................................................................. 38
Applications.............................................................................................................. 39
Benefits of PE 100....................................................................................................... 40
Design..................................................................................................................... 41
Other Relevant Values.................................................................................................. 44
PE in Gas Distribution.................................................................................................. 44
Cost Benefits of PE...................................................................................................... 45
Pipe Dimensions......................................................................................................... 46

POLYVINyl Chloride (PVC)............................................................................................... 50


Composition of PVC Pipe material.................................................................................... 50
Physical Properties.......................................................................................................50
Benefits of PVC.......................................................................................................... 51
Design......................................................................................................................52
Pipe Dimensions......................................................................................................... 54
Impact Properties....................................................................................................... 61
Strength and Toughness................................................................................................ 62
Effect of Temperature Change........................................................................................ 63

POLYPROPYLene (PP)....................................................................................................... 65
Benefits and Specifications.............................................................................................65

APPENDICES.................................................................................................................. 66
Appendix A: Identification of Plastics.................................................................................66
Appendix B: Chemical Resistance of Thermoplastics used for pipes............................................ 67

SAPPMA MEMBERSHIP ...................................................................................................... 81

INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 4
Purpose and Scope of Manual.......................................................................................... 4
Plastic Pipe Applications................................................................................................ 4
Pipe Material Properties................................................................................................ 4
International Market..................................................................................................... 6
South Africa Market...................................................................................................... 6

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PART 1 General

Pipeline Design and Selection......................................................................................... 8


Gravity and Pressure Systems......................................................................................... 8

PIPE MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION ..........................................................................................10


Soil Structure Systems................................................................................................. 10
Flexible and Rigid Pipes............................................................................................... 11
Classification of Plastics............................................................................................... 13
Comparison of Various Flexible Pipes............................................................................... 13

Regression Curves (stress/time relationship)...................................................................... 15

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Introduction

Purpose and Scope of Manual • Rehabilitation of deteriorated pipelines used in


the above applications
The behaviour of plastic pipes used for buried
pipelines has been researched and studied for many Plastic pipes fall into two broad categories, namely
years. There is however, in general, a lack of technical thermoplastics such as PVC and PE and thermoset
understanding amongst designers, specifiers and users plastics such as GRP. Thermoplastics can tolerate
of plastic pipes and fittings about these products. high strains and can be recycled. Thermoset plastics
This lack of understanding relates specifically to the can tolerate high stress and cannot be recycled.
differences between the various types of plastic pipes The current edition of this publication focuses on
and how the principles developed should be applied thermoplastics. A future revision will include sections
to ensure that these products provide a long trouble on the thermoset plastics.
free service life.
Pipe Material Properties
The purpose of this manual is to provide the basic
information and guidance needed to ensure that
Like all materials there are positive and negative
plastic pipes for water supply and waste-water
properties that need to be considered. Positive
disposal applications are correctly selected and
characteristics are:
specified. This publication does not attempt to replace
published text books and codes on the subject, but is • Resistance against chemicals, corrosion and
a basic guide to the use, selection and specification of abrasion
these products. It covers the differences between the • Light weight and ease of handling
various types of plastic pipe and the basic procedures
for determining product size, strength and material • Available in long lengths, reducing the number
properties for a range of applications. of joints
• Flexibility and toughness
It has been written from the perspective of the civil
• Excellent hydraulic properties with low friction
or municipal designer who probably has no formal
resistance throughout life
education or training in the use of these products
• Able to withstand water hammer
Plastic Pipe Applications • Very low thermal conductivity

Plastic pipe is used throughout the entire spectrum of There are also some characteristics that need special
potential pipe applications, including: care in the design of pipelines:
• Water distribution and wastewater disposal • High coefficient of expansion/contraction with
temperature changes compared to steel pipe
• Mining applications such as the conveyance of
potable water, cooling, slurries and air • Flexibility requires shorter support distances
when installed above ground
• Irrigation
• Flammability (PVC is self-extinguishing and PE
• Plumbing
not)
• Effluent conveyance in the chemical and other
industries By understanding these properties the designer can take
• Telecommunications applications such as them into account and take the necessary precautions.
conduits for cables or fibre optics
• Gas distribution

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introduction

TABLE 1: GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THERMOPLASTICS

Property PE PP PVC

Surface feel Waxy Waxy Smooth

Usual colours Black Ivory white, blue, green Blue, Sand, White
brown

Sound when dropped Clatter Clatter High clatter

Combustibility Bright flame: Drops Bright flame: Drops Self Extinguishing


continue to burn while continue to burn while
falling falling

Odour of smoke after Like candles Like resin Pungent like


flame is extinguished hydrochloric acid

Nail test impression Impression possible Very slight impression Impression not possible
possible

Floats on water Yes Yes No

Notch sensitivity No No Yes (not in case of


PVC-M & PVC-O)

Method of joining Thermal or mechanical Thermal or mechanical Solvent cement and/


welding and/or spigot or welding and/or spigot or or thermal, chemical
socket socket or mechanical welding
and/or spigot or socket

Linear expansion 0.2 0.15 0.07


mm/m/oC

Thermal conductivity 0.40 0.19 0.10


- kcal/mhoC

Specific heat 0.55 0.46 0.23


- kcal/mhoC

Specific weight 0.96 0.91 1.45


- kg/m3

Tensile yield at 20oC


17-24 23-31 48-75
- MPa (Short Term)

Young’s modulus at 20oC


800 - 1100 1250 - 1700 3000-4000
- MPa (Short Term)

Note: The designer should check with the pipe supplier about the product and its properties.

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Introduction

International Market as the ability to produce larger diameter pipes. The


advancement of modern polymers has enabled the
Worldwide, the most popular plastic pipe materials production of solid wall polyethylene (PE 100) pipe
are PVC (polyvinyl chloride), PE (polyethylene), PP in diameters up to 2 000 mm with wall thicknesses
(polypropylene), GRP (glass reinforced polyester), around 100 mm; structured wall pipe is made in even
ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) and PB bigger sizes. In the US PVC pressure and sewer pipes
(polybutylene). are produced in diameters up to 1200 mm.

Plastics are a by-product of only ±4% of the world’s South African Market
oil consumption. In exchange, plastics help conserve
fossil fuels for power and heat. The increasing use The South African (SA) plastic pipe industry is well
of plastics in motor vehicles for instance, has led to developed and compares very well with its counterparts
decreases in overall mass and better fuel efficiency. in Europe and the US. The latest technology is used
Europe, as an example, saves 12 million tons of oil for processing and testing, polymers that comply with
per year in the automotive sector by using lightweight international standards. Several local companies are
plastics. This is equivalent to 30 million tons of carbon either subsidiaries of international firms, or are linked
dioxide each year. with technical licenses, thereby sharing in the benefits
of the international research and development (R&D)
Plastic pipes are used in many infrastructural and and benchmarking against the best in the world.
industrial applications such as water, gas and sewerage
conveyance. In the European pipe market, plastic Current (2008) production of PVC and PE polymer in SA
pipes rank first among all pipe materials and globally is about 130,000 tons per annum, while an additional
about 54% of all pipes in terms of length installed are 30,000 tons are imported. The annual sales of about
plastic. Plastic pipelines have encroached on steel and 160,000 tons is split into 110,000 tons of rigid PVC
asbestos cement in traditional pressure systems and and 50,000 tons of PE. An additional 3,000 tons of
asbestos cement and concrete in the sewer market. LDPE is produced for small diameter irrigation pipe.

Old pipe installations in the developed world lose vast The main source of the thermoplastic polymers is
quantities of water, costing billions (11 million cubic ethylene, obtained from either oil or coal. All have
meters of treated drinking water per day in the hydro-carbon molecular structures. PVC & LDPE
United States, with similar situations in Europe). The polymers are locally produced by Sasol Polymers
properties of certain types of plastic pipes are ideally and PE by Safripol. The ethylene they both use as
suited to the rehabilitation of these deteriorated basic feedstock is obtained from Sasol Oil. A big
pipelines, promising continuous growth in plastic pipeline recently completed from the Mozambique
pipe use. gas fields to Sasol in Secunda supplies natural gas
as an additional source of feedstock. Some high
The continuous drive for competitive advantages performance polymers are imported.
in the piping industry has stimulated a great deal
of research and development (R & D) by polymer Plastic pipes for various applications are made to
scientists in the quest for higher performance at lower SA national standards as detailed in Table 2. These
cost. Design stresses have increased from 10 to 32 MPa standards are comparable to international standards
in PVC and 5 to 8 MPa in PE. Further developments and many are based on European documents.
can be expected, which will result in considerable
reductions in wall thickness and product mass, as well

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Introduction

TABLE 2: CURRENT SOUTH AFRICAN PLASTIC PIPE RANGES AVAILABLE


Pipe Material Nominal Design Pressure Pipe Specification Nominal
& application size Stress Rating (bar) Stiffness Stiffness
(mm) (MPa) (kPa) kN/m/m

PVC-U Rigid 20 - 500 10, 12.5 4 - 25 SANS 966:1


Pressure Pipe

PVC-M Rigid 50 - 500 18 6 - 25 SANS 966:2


Pressure Pipe

Mine Pipe 55 - 355 10 - 12.5 6 - 25 SANS 1283

PVC-O Rigid 110 - 250 28 9 - 16 SANS 1808 - 85


Pressure Pipe

PVC Solid Wall 110 - 500 100, 300 SANS 791 2, 6


Sewer Pipe

PVC Multilayer 110 - 250 100, 200, 400 SANS 1601 2, 4, 8


Sewer Pipe

PVC –U. 110 - 250 400 SANS 1601 8


Corrugated
pipe

PE100 Pressure 16 -1000 8.0 6 - 20 SANS ISO 4427


Pipe

PE80 Pressure 16 - 1000 6.3 3 - 20 SANS ISO 4427


Pipe

PE100 Gas Pipe 16 - 630 5.0 10 SABS ISO 4437

PE Structured 280 - 1800 200, 400, 800 ISO 9969 4, 8, 16


Wall Pipe

PE Corrugated 75 - 160 400 ISO 9969 8


Wall Pipe

PP Pipe 8 - 1000 6.3 6 - 20 SANS 1315

PP - R Hot & 16 - 125 6.93 10 - 20 SANS 15874


Cold pressure
pipe

These standards are all performance specifications that prescribe the minimum requirements that the products
must meet. They do not cover how the product should be selected or installed.

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Introduction

Pipeline Design and Selection understanding of a complex system consisting of soil


and traffic loads, soil properties, water movement
The primary function of any pipeline is to convey a through the soil and pipes and appurtenant structures
fluid. It’s size is based on predictions of the future made from a wide range of materials. The designer
demand. It is usually not economic to design for the can do little about the installation conditions, but he
maximum predicted future flow. If a pipeline proves can make decisions about the requirements the pipe
to be too small at some future date an additional must meet and then choose the most appropriate pipe
pipeline can be constructed with minimal or no material for the conditions on a particular project.
disruption to the operation of the existing one.
There are two broad categories of pipelines, namely
To meet this primary requirement the pipeline must pressure and gravity systems and the way in which
also meet the secondary or supporting requirements they operate is very different. There are also two
of strength, water-tightness and durability. Usually it broad categories of pipe materials, namely rigid and
is in not meeting one of these secondary requirements flexible and the way in which they respond to load is
that a pipeline fails. Irrespective of whether a pipeline also very different. It is essential that the designer
is designed to serve a 20 year, 40 year or some other understands these two sets of differences.
predicted population or demand it must be designed to
meet the secondary requirements based on the worst Gravity and Pressure Systems
case scenario. If it fails to meet these requirements,
any remedial work will cause a major disruption to its Pressure pipelines flow full and the energy in them
operation and may necessitate its replacement even has three components in addition to pipe diameter
though it still has the required hydraulic capacity. namely, velocity head, pressure head and frictional
losses. With pressure pipelines it is the energy
When there are junctions, transitions and changes in difference between the inlet and outlet that
vertical or horizontal alignment access is generally determines the discharge capacity. As the hydraulic
needed. This takes the form of manholes or other performance of this type of pipeline is not dependant
appurtenant structures. In the case of pressure on its gradient the vertical alignment is essentially
pipelines the accumulation of air in the system and determined by the ground surface and it is placed
the structures needed to house air relief valves or at relatively shallow depths. The dominant stresses
other devices also have to be considered. As these are in the pipe wall will be those due to the internal
vertical structures the loading on these is different pressure however the influence of external loads
from that on the adjacent sections of pipeline that cannot be ignored.
are loaded with soil and as a result there can be
relative movement between these structures and the Gravity pipelines on the other hand, especially
adjacent pipes. stormwater drains and sewers that flow partly full,
have no pressure component to their energy so they
Many of the failures on pipelines occur at joints and can flow down hill only. This means that gravity
in particular those at the interfaces with structures pipelines must be laid at gradients that will ensure
such as manholes. If the correct measures are not self cleansing velocities for efficient operation. With
taken to minimize the disruption to flow through gravity pipelines it is the gradient of the flattest
these structures and the associated energy losses section that will determine the capacity. To maintain
not considered, the hydraulic performance of a self cleansing velocities it may be necessary to install
pipeline can be seriously compromised. If measures such pipelines in deep trenches and at gradients that
are not taken to accommodate any potential relative are not parallel to the ground surface. To achieve this
movement between pipes and these structures, pipes they are frequently placed at depth below the surface.
can crack or deform resulting in leakages. As a result the dominant stresses developed in the
pipe wall are due to the external earth loads, although
The structural design of buried pipelines involves the

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Introduction

under certain circumstances internal pressure may is different. Internal pressure generates direct tension
also have to be considered. When pipes are used for in the pipe wall, whereas external earth and traffic
low pressure or gravity applications it is the external loads are non symmetrical and cause circumferential
loads that will determine the required wall thickness bending of the pipe wall. In most soils the vertical loads
or pipe stiffness. will exceed the horizontal loads and the pipe deforms
to form a horizontal ellipse. This effectively activates
It needs to be appreciated that the way in which a pipe the lateral soil pressures resulting in the transfer of load
handles internal fluid pressures and external earth loads to the surrounding soil.

(a) PRESSURE CONDUIT FLOWING FULL (b) GRAVITY CONDUIT FLOWING PARTLY FULL

Figure 1: Difference between gravity and pressure pipelines

Where: hf - head loss due to friction (m)


V - velocity (m/sec)
g - acceleration due to gravity (m/sec2)
hp - pressure head (m)
D - pipe diameter (m)
z - height above datum (m)
Y - Depth of flow partially full pipe (m)

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pipe material classification

Soil Structure Systems


The way in which the loads are carried will depend on the relative stiffness of the pipes and the surrounding soil.
SANS 10102 part I (p18), uses the approach given in Young and Trott, namely:

Y = E’/SR (1) and SR = EI/D3 (2)


Where Y - flexural stiffness ratio,
E’ - the soil stiffness
SR - pipe ring stiffness
E - elastic modulus for pipe material
D - undeformed vertical diameter of pipe
I - moment of inertia of section

Figure 2: Range of flexural stiffness ratios for pipe materials used in South Africa

This ratio ‘Y’ is directly proportional to soil stiffness surrounding soil to >2 000kN/m/m for rigid pipes
and indirectly proportional to pipe ring stiffness, or where the pipes carry the load directly by moment
flexural stiffness as it is defined in this document. and shear. The ‘Y’ value of a rigid system is thus two
Soil stiffness can vary from 1 to 20 MPa. Pipe ring to five orders of magnitude less than that of a flexible
stiffnesses ranges from 1kN/m/m for flexible pipes system. A comparison of the pipe materials commonly
where the pipes deform and shed the load to the used in SA is shown in Figure 3.

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pipe material classification

As the flexural stiffness ratio increases so the strength Flexible and Rigid Pipes
of the pipe/soil system becomes more dependant
on the properties of the surrounding material. The
Rigid pipes have to carry the imposed loads on their own
emphasis shifts from ensuring that the pipe, produced
and the critical structural parameter is their strength.
in a factory has the required strength to carry the
The main determinant of these loads is usually the
loads, to ensuring that the embedment around the
installation condition. On the other hand flexible pipes
pipe, constructed on site has the strength to provide
deflect under imposed loads and are reliant on the
the pipe with the required lateral support.
horizontal soil support that develops and the critical
structural parameter is the soil stiffness around them.
This figure also shows the difference between the various
The main determinant of deflection will be the stiffness
types of plastics, which the civil designer frequently does
of the surrounding material.
not appreciate. It should be appreciated that there is a
significant difference between the performance of the
thermoplastics such as PE and PVC and the thermoset The standard installation conditions for rigid pipes are
plastics such as GRP and GRE. This publication focuses illustrated in Figure 3. A useful concept is the geostatic
on the former where the development of high strains load, which is the load on the pipeline due to the prism
will not cause the structural failure of the pipe wall. of material directly over it. With a trench installation
The same can not be said for GRP and GRE pipes where the loading will always be less than the geostatic
strain is a limiting factor. Excessive deflection of PE or loading because the frictional forces act upwards and
PVC pipe could however cause operational problems reduce the loading on the pipe. With an embankment
such as the water tightness of joints and accessibility installation the loading will always be greater than
for maintenance. the geostatic load because the frictional forces act
downwards and increase the loading on the pipe.
No matter what pipe material is used care must be taken
to ensure that the foundation support is uniform.

TRENCH GEOSTATIC EMBANKMENT

Figure 3: Comparison of installation conditions for rigid pipes

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pipe material classification

The geostatic load on a flexible pipe will be the founding level. Once the fill height exceeds + 1.7BC
column of earth directly on top of it. The pipe will there is a straight line relationship between load and
deform more under this load than the columns of fill height and there will be no limiting value to the
earth on either side of it and as a result upward load. These earth loads will be:
frictional forces will develop between the column
of earth directly above the pipe and the columns of WE = 1.69γBc H in sand (4)
earth on either side of the pipe. The vertical load on
the pipe will therefore be less than the prism load. WE = 1.54γBc H in clay (5)
Irrespective of the installation condition the load on
a flexible pipe will always be less than the geostatic For trench installations upper limits to loading on
load calculated by using its outside diameter. a rigid pipe occur when complete arching action
occurs.
The basic formula for calculating the soil load on a
buried pipe is: WE = 2.63γBt2 in sand (6)

WE = CEγB2 (3) WE = 3.84γBt2 in clay (7)

Where WE - total earth load in kN/m of pipeline In practice the walls of a trench dug through a
CE - earth load coefficient sandy material will not stand and the equation (5) is
hypothetical. Open trench installations are seldom so
γ - fill material density
deep that full arching action and limiting loads can be
B - outside pipe diameter (BC) or trench achieved and hence it would be uneconomic to use
width (BT) these values to determine the required pipe strength.

For embankment installations the most severe loading A comparison of the loading on rigid and flexible
on a rigid pipe occurs when the founding conditions pipes under trench installation conditions is given in
are unyielding and the whole pipe projects above the Figure 4.

RIGID GEOSTATIC FLEXIBLE

Figure 4: Comparison of rigid and flexible pipe in a trench installation

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pipe material classification

As the thermoplastic pipes such as those made from PVC,


PE and PP have a high strain tolerance, they will deform
more than the columns of earth next to them and the
frictional forces that develop between the columns of
earth will act upwards and reduce the load on the pipe.
If the fill height is great enough full arching will take
place and the earth load will have an upper limit as given
by formulae (6) and (7) above where the trench width
is replaced by the outside diameter of the pipe. This
approach, however, is seldom taken.

PVC, PE & PP pipe have a proven track record of over 40


years.In the absence of details of actual soil properties
and installation conditions the earth loads on flexible
pipes can conservatively be taken as:

WE = γBc H (8)

Where the terms are as defined above.

Classification of Plastics
Plastics cover a wide range of synthetic materials which
can be molded or formed when soft and set. They fall into
two broad categories, thermoplastics and thermosets.

Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when


cooled. This cycle can be repeated over and over again.

Thermosets on the other hand are materials that when


processed and shaped are hardened by heating. They
cannot be softened again by further heating.

An international system for identifying plastics that uses


a polymer identifying logo has been developed. This is
given in Appendix A. Only some of these materials are
used to manufacture pipes.

Comparison of Various Flexible Pipes


There are significant differences between plastic pipes
and steel pipes both in terms of their properties and
applications. Some of the differences between PE, PVC
and steel are listed in Table 3.

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pipe material classification

TABLE 3: COMPARISON OF VARIOUS FLEXIBLE PIPES

PE PVC Steel

Flexibility

• Less affected by soil • Affected to some extent by • Affected to some extent by


settlement soil settlement soil settlement
• Can be wound onto drums • Only corrugated pipes • Cannot be wound onto
in diameters [Up to 160 mm can be wound onto drums drums
in SA] (single wall)
• Difficult to use for relining
• Suitable for relining and • Limited use for relining pipe
ploughing in
• Cold bending not possible • A limited amount of
• Cold bending radius at 20°C bending is possible
• Laying at sub-zero
= 30D
temperatures risky for
• Suitable for temperatures PVC-U, less so for PVC-M
down to minus 40°C and PVC-O
• Can withstand crushing • PVC-U cannot withstand
crushing, PVC-M can
withstand to some extent
and PVC-O can withstand
crushing

Jointing Technique

• Can be fusion welded • Bonded joints with good • Can be welded


tensile strength. Can be
• Joints have good tensile • Joints have good tensile
bonded without costly
strength strength
special equipment
• Special equipment required
• Push-in joints easily made
• Victaulic restrained joints

Chemical Resistance

• Resistant to acids, alkalis, • Resistant to acids, alkalis, • Limited resistance to


solvents, alcohol salt solutions and many chemicals
organic compounds such
• Not resistant to oxidizing • Unsuitable for
as fats, oils, aliphatic
acids, ketones, aromatic concentrated oxidizing
hydrocarbons.
hydrocarbons and acids
chlorinated hydrocarbons • Resistant to microbial
• Not resistant to microbial
corrosion
• Resistant to microbial corrosion
corrosion • Resistant to natural gas
• Not resistant to acid
• Resistant to all natural gas containing condensates
constituents (corrosion)

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pipe material classification

PE PVC Steel

Weather Resistance

• Due to the required carbon • Normal periods of outdoor • UV resistant


black additive, outdoor storage present no loss in
• Corrosion could be a
weathering has virtually creep rupture strength.
problem
no effect on creep rupture Addition of stabiliser
properties products to improve UV • Can be painted
resistance is required
• Cannot be painted
• Can be painted

Thermal Expansion

• 0,2mm/m/°C • 0,07mm/m/°C • 0,012mm/m/°C

Abrasion (depends on type of material being pumped)

• 0,25mm after 600 000 cycles • 0,75mm after 600 000 • Wear rate 1,42
cycles
• Wear rate 0,23

Flammability

• Normal flammability: ignites • PVC pipe is self- • Non flammable


on contact with flame. extinguishing
Continues to burn when the
ignition source is removed
and melts with burning drips

Young’s Modulus

• 800 - 1100 Mpa (Short Term) • 3000 - 4000 MPa (Short Term) • 210 000 MPa

Regression Curves All plastics used for the manufacture of pipeline systems
(stress/time relationship) are classified and their allowable stress limits determined
by long term performance under hydrostatic pressure in
accordance with ISO 9080 (2003)
With plastic materials the relationship between
stress and strain is time dependant. This means that
Classification is achieved by testing pipe samples
if the stress is kept constant the strain will increase
at different temperatures and internal pressures
with time. This is called the creep phenomenon. In and recording the time to failure. The data is then
practical terms this creep means that failure will occur extrapolated in accordance with ISO TR 9080 in order
after a certain loading period. As the time to burst to predict the stress after 50 years. These results are
is inversely dependent on the stress it is possible to plotted to give a regression curve. This classification
determine a stress level at which the time to failure system is based on the predicted minimum required
will far exceed the pipeline’s design life. stress (MRS) that would cause failure after 50 years.

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pipe material classification

The 97.5% lower confidence limit of the predicted hydrostatic stress at a temperature T and a
stress is rounded down to give the MRS value for time t.
each manufacturer’s material.
• SLPL (MPa): Lower Prediction Limit 97.5% =
The values given assume an operating temperature of lower prediction (extrapolation) limit of the
20°C. The MRS value increases at lower temperatures predicted (extrapolated) hydrostatic stress
and vice versa. When designing pipelines for use at for a single value at a temperature T and a
temperatures above 20°C the correct MRS value time t.
must be therefore be used for the given operating
temperature. The failure can be either ductile (which corresponds
to creep rupture) or brittle (which corresponds
As these regression curves are the basis for designing to environmental stress cracking). Ductile failure
plastic piping, a detailed description of how they are occurs at “high” hoop stress and gives a short failure
constructed follows. time. Brittle failure occurs at “low” hoop stress and
gives a long failure time. The two kinds of failure
At a fixed temperature the pipe is put under a fixed give rise to a linear curve made of two branches of
hoop stress and the failure time t is measured. A range different slope: almost horizontal for ductile failure
of hoop stresses are investigated (from 2 to 20MPa, (short failure time), and then steep for brittle failure
depending on the polymer and the temperature), (long failure time). The transition point between the
resulting in a range of failure times from 1 to 10 2 modes of failure, which is represented by a change
000 hours. The regression curve is calculated and of slope on the regression curve, is called the “knee”
presented as a log/log plot. of the regressi on curve.

The long term hydrostatic strength (SLTHS) is the PVC as well as the latest grades of PE will not display
predicted mean strength at a given temperature, a “knee” on the curves.
calculable over a time range from 1 hour to 50
years. It is extrapolated from the 20/40/60/80 At between 60 and 80°C it may be possible to
degree C curves (failure times measured from 1h to observe the knee before 10 000 h but at 20°C the
10 000h = 416 days). To ascertain the reliability of knee should not be observed before 10 000 h - it
the extrapolation, the lower prediction limit sLPL is can only be determined through extrapolation. As
calculated: the behaviour of a resin can not be known before
starting its regression curve, the exact failure times
• SLTHS (MPa): Long Term Hydrostatic Stress = can not be predicted. In practice the creation of a
predicted mean stress at a temperature T and regression could take 18 months or longer.
time t.
The permissible design stress is obtained by applying
• SLCL (MPa): Lower Confidence Limit 97,5% = a safety factor (1,25 – 2,5) to the projected burst
lower confidence limit of the interpolated stress at 50 years.

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Example of regression curve displaying a “knee”.


Reference Stress (MPa)

Time (Hours)

Figure 5: Typical Regression Curve for Hydrostatic Stress

Ductile failure is a creep induced failure, or plastic In failure induced by creep, the failure time depends
deformation – the pipe stretches and deforms under on the applied pressure. This means that a small
pressure. Ductile failure resistance can be enhanced change in pressure implies a large change in failure
by increasing the crystallinity and therefore the time. Conversely, environmental stress cracking /
density of the polymer. The material is then slow crack growth corresponds to an age induced
stiffer. Brittle failure is the result of (age induced) degradation of the polymer. When the polymer
environmental stress cracking (slow crack growth) becomes older, the polymeric chains disentangle
through the disentanglement of the polymeric chains. themselves; micro cracks build and grow, so that the
It can be prevented by increasing the entanglement polymer loses its stress resistance.
(higher molecular weight, chain branching).

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PERSONAL NOTES

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PARt ii selection and installation

HYDRAULIC REQUIREMENTS................................................................................................ 20
Basic Principles.......................................................................................................... 20
Operating Pressure, Hoop Stress and Wall Thickness............................................................ 22
Surge and Fatigue....................................................................................................... 23
Factory Tests............................................................................................................. 24

EXTERNAL LOADS............................................................................................................ 25
Design Basis.............................................................................................................. 25
Load Classification ..................................................................................................... 25
Pipe Stiffness............................................................................................................ 26
Determining Required Pipe Stiffness................................................................................ 27
Vertical Deflection...................................................................................................... 29

DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS............................................................................................... 30
Durability ................................................................................................................ 30

SYSTEM COMPONENTS....................................................................................................... 31
Secondary loads......................................................................................................... 31
Manholes ................................................................................................................. 31
Joints And Fittings ..................................................................................................... 31
Valves...................................................................................................................... 31

INSTALLATION................................................................................................................. 32
Preconstruction Activities............................................................................................. 32
Excavation................................................................................................................ 32
Embedment.............................................................................................................. 33
Pipe Laying and Jointing............................................................................................... 33
Backfilling................................................................................................................. 34
Anchoring................................................................................................................. 35

Site Tests.................................................................................................................. 35

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Hydraulic Requirements

Basic Principles losses in a pipeline are due to friction and transitions.

The three principles used in the hydraulic design of Friction is developed as a fluid moves past the pipe wall.
pipelines are continuity, energy and momentum. The The rougher the surface the higher the energy required
continuity principle states that the flow rate at one to overcome this friction.
section of a pipeline will be the same as at any other
section, provided there is no change in the discharge. In a pipe flowing full, the energy to overcome friction
is provided by the pressure gradient, where as in an
Q =A V =Q =A V (9) open channel this energy is provided by the weight of
1 1 1 2 2 2
the water running down the slope. In a closed conduit
The energy equation or Bernoulli expressed in SI units the friction resisting the flow is around the whole
states that boundary. In an open channel there are two types of
surfaces, a free air water interface where there is
negligible friction and the interface between the fluid
V12/2g + p1/γ + Z1 = V22/2g + p2/γ + Z2 + hL
and the pipe wall, where friction is developed.
(10)
V – velocity in m/s In its simplest form the velocity through a conduit
g – acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 can be described by the Chezy equation.

S – gradient in m/m
V= C RS (12)
P – pressure in kPa
Where V - is the velocity
γ – unit weight of fluid kN/m3
C - the Chezy coefficient
Z – height above datum in m
R - describes the conduit geometry
h – head loss between sections 1 and 2 in m
S - describes the gradient
Q - Volumetric flow rate in m3/sec
There are several derivatives of this basic equation.
The momentum principle states that the change in Equations such as Manning and Hazen-Williams
momentum between two sections of a pipeline equals are based on empirical roughness values, whereas
the sum of the forces causing the change. Colebrook-White is theoretically correct and based
on absolute roughness values.
ΔFx = ρQΔVx (11)
The empirical equations are easier to apply and are
F - force in direction x in kN/m2
adequate for most applications.
ρ - unit mass of fluid in kg/m3
1
Q - volumetric flow rate in m3/s Manning is used for
n both pipes flowing full and partly full.
V - velocity in m/s V = 1/n R S1/2 (13)
Subscript x refers to the velocity in the ‘x’ Where V - velocity
direction
n - roughness coefficient
The hydraulic capacity of any conduit will be R - hydraulic radius
determined by a combination of factors, namely the
S - slope of energy line for pipes flowing
energy difference between the inlet and outlet, the
full (m/m)
geometric properties of pipe, pipeline alignment and
the physical properties of pipe material. The energy slope of pipeline for pipes flowing partly

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Hydraulic Requirements

full (m/m) Colebrook-White gives a more rigorous formula that


accounts for the absolute roughness of the pipe material
and the viscosity of the fluid. The values are more
Hazen-Williams is the preferred formula for pipes accurate, but also more difficult to calculate and it is
flowing full and has a similar format. not so easy for the designer to develop a feel for how
the formula responds to changes in the variables. It is
V = 0.345CD0,63S0.54 (14) expressed as:

Where V - velocity (m/s)


V = -2 2gDS log(ks/3.7D + 2.51v/D 2gDS) (15)
C - roughness coefficient
Where ks - absolute roughness of pipe
D - diameter in m material (mm)
S - hydraulic gradient (m/m) v - kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/s)
Values of the roughness coefficient for use in the
The other symbols are already defined. It should be
Hazen Williams equation are given in table 4.
noted that v is temperature dependant and this must
be taken into account when accurate results are
TABLE 4: PIPE ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT
required.

25 yrs 50 yrs Badly A comparison of different absolute roughness values is


Pipe Material New
old old corroded
given in Table 5.
Do not
PE, PP & PVC 150 140 140
corrode TABLE 5: ABSOLUTE ROUGHNESS VALUES
Smooth Material k (mm)
150 130 120 100
concrete & FRC
Polyethylene & PVC 0,002
Steel - Bitumen GRP 0,01
lined/ 150 130 100 60
galvanised Steel, new 0,05

Cast iron 130 110 90 50 Galvanised Iron, new 0,15


Does not Ductile Iron, new 0,5 – 1,0
Vitrified Clay 120 80
corrode
Ductile Iron, corroded 1,0 – 1,5

For diameters smaller than 1000mm reduce the value For a quick determination of flow parameters
of C by the nomograph in Figure 6 can be used. However,
when accurate values are required, they should be
calculated.
0,1 [1 - dia (mm)] c

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Hydraulic Requirements

For practical reasons the velocities in


pressure pipelines should fall in the
range of 0.8 to 2.5 m/s. the lower limit
to maintain self cleansing flow and the
upper limit to minimize air release at
high points.

The velocity range in gravity systems


is the same with the proviso that
downstream velocities should not be
appreciably lower than upstream values,
to prevent the deposition of the bed
load being carried. (A drop in velocity
to 0.7 of the upstream value is probably
the maximum that should be allowed.
Another factor to consider in pipes that
flow partly full is super critical flow.
When this occurs the velocity should not
exceed 2.5 m/s. or the velocity head
should be contained in the pipe.

Figure 7: Flow in a pressure pipeline

Figure 6: Nomograph for solving Colebrook White. Applied to PVC or PE

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Hydraulic Requirements

Operating Pressure, Hoop Stress and Wall Thickness

The operating pressure at any section along a pressure The relationship between the internal pressure,
pipeline will be determined by the vertical alignment diameter, wall thickness and the hoop stress in the
and the energy losses that occur. pipe wall, is given by the Barlow formula, which can
be conservatively expressed as follows:
The total energy as described by Bernoulli’s equation,
given earlier is applicable to all sections along a
pipeline. The operating pressure will be the total
head above the pipe invert less the velocity head. P Dm
e = (16)
This internal pressure will generate stresses in the 2σs

pipe wall.
Where: P - internal pressure (MPa)
The hydrostatic pressure capacity of plastic pipe is
related to a number of variables: e - minimum wall thickness (mm)
• The ratio between the outside diameter and Dm - mean pipe diameter (mm)
the wall thickness (standard dimension ratio)
• The hydrostatic design stress of the material σs - hoop stress across the pipe
wall (MPa)
• The operating temperature
• The duration and variability of the stress applied This formula has been standardized for use in
by the internal hydrostatic pressure design, testing and research and is applicable at all
levels of pressure and stress. For design purposes,
Although plastic pipes can withstand short-term P is taken as the maximum allowable working
hydrostatic pressures at levels substantially higher pressure and σs the maximum allowable hoop stress
than the pressure rating, the design is always based at 20°C.
on the long-term strength at 20°C to ensure a design
life of at least 50 years.

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Hydraulic Requirements

When this equation is used for the design of an Surge generates pressures that generally rise above
installed pipe it is written: the static rating of the pipeline and these pressures
are applied over very short periods. The initial rate
Dm of pressure change is rapid but of short duration.
σs ≤ PN (17)
2e
where σs - permissible design stress (MPa) Fatigue is associated with cyclic pressure variations
that are repeated over a long period. It is a condition
PN - nominal pressure rating often occurring below the rated pressure. This is
not a problem with the slow daily pressure cycles
which frequently occur in distribution systems, but
Surge & Fatigue
in circumstances where short-term surges may be
repeated at frequent intervals, there is concern that
It should be noted that the modern thermoplastics
the pipes may weaken due to fatigue.
such as PE and PVC-O are very tolerant to the rapid
loading which occurs with transient pressures. They
Fatigue response studies show that fatigue cracks initiate
develop great short term strength and stiffness as the
from a dislocation in the material matrix, usually towards
structure of the materials’ molecular chain reacts to
the inside surface of the pipe, where stress levels are
resist the deformation. Hence, at high pressurisation
highest and propagate or grow with each stress cycle
rates pipes are better able to resist the higher stress
at a rate dependent on the magnitude of the stress.
levels associated with surge. The strength of the
Ultimately the crack penetrates the pipe wall.
material increases with high rates of loading.
Typically surge occurs when valves are opened or
Surge and fatigue are often combined as a single closed or pumps are stopped or strated. The maximum
parameter. Although both phenomena arise from the theoretical surge can be calculated from Joukowsky’s
events such as valves closing quickly and pump shut formula:
down, they should be considered separately, since
they have a different effect on the pipe material.

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External loads

Figure 8: Internal Pressure in pipe


The pressure change or surge in a pipe line TABLE 6: ELASTIC MODULUS IN N/mm2 OF PIPE
(water hammer) can be determined by applying MATERIALS SUBJECT TO SURGE PRESSURES
Joukowsky’s equation
rH = C rv/g (18) Temperature PE PP

Where r H - change in head due to water 20oC 1680 1470


hammer (m)
40oC 1230 950
c - wave celerity through the pipe
60oC 760 560
material (m/s)
80oC 390
rv - change in flow velocity of fluid
(m/s)
Values for wave celerity rate at 20oC in water are
g - acceleration due to gravity shown in Table 5.
(9,81m/s)
Because PE has a low elastic modulus, the wave
Values for wave celerity through various materials propagation rate and surge intensity are considerably
conveying water at 20ºC are given in table 5. lower than in elastic pipe material (steel,
concrete).
The elastic modulus of the pipe ER under surge
pressure is temperature dependant. Applicable In tests with PE pipes under dynamic pressure loading
values for PE and PP are given in Table 6. it has been shown that the pressure surges can with
good approximation be calculated according to the
pressure surge theory of Joukowsky.
TABLE 5: WAVE CELERITY (m/s) FOR RANGE OF
PIPES AT 20OC Furthermore, it may be concluded from tests carried out
by Lortsch that surges do not damage PE pipes provided
Wave that the mean stress is not higher than the stress at
Pressure
SDR Celerity C nominal pressure; i.e. for example with a SDR 17 (PN 6)
rating pipe at an operation pressure of 6 bar at 20oC the mean
rating (m/s)
(bar) PE PP PVC PVC-m pressure does not exceed 6 bar or a relative stress of 5
MPa. The surge amplitude in this case could be ± 6 bar.
SDR 33 6 195 215 340 249
SDR 26 9 240 240 420 270
SDR 17 12 280 290 485 312
Factory Tests
SDR 11 16 320 370 560 363 A comprehensive testing program is carried out at the
SDR 9 20 360 405 625 407 plastic pipe factories to ensure that the performance
requirements of the specifications are met. Of particular
significance to the designer are those that deal with the
structural performance and water tightness. For details
of these tests the reader is referred to the relevant
SANS or ISO documents as listed in Table 2.

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External loads

These tests, however, do not guarantee the consists of determining the load and then ensuring
performance of the installed pipeline. For this it is that acceptable deflection is not exceeded by using an
essential that the pipeline installation is checked and embedment material that has the required properties
the necessary testing done on site. and compaction.

Design Basis Load Classification


The strength of a buried pipe must be selected so The loads imposed on a buried pipeline are due to
that it will be strong enough to carry the most severe primary forces such as soil loads, superimposed
combination of loads that could be imposed on it. If traffic loads and internal pressures and secondary
the imposed loads exceed the pipe strength the pipe ones resulting from soil movements caused by the
will fail. flow of water, temperature effects and settlement
under buildings. The pipes provide the conduit and
The failure mode of a pipe can be due to its inability may or may not provide the structure designed to
to handle circumferential or longitudinal loading. take the primary forces. The joints are designed to
This section addresses the external loads which ensure that the conduit remains watertight and copes
cause circumferential stress. Failure can occur due with secondary forces. The primary forces can be
to high bending stresses in the walls of rigid pipes calculated, but the secondary forces cannot, hence
or the excessive vertical deflection of flexible pipes. they have to be estimated.
Buckling is rarely a problem with plastic pipes.
The primary loads on any buried pipe are influenced
For flexible pipes the stiffness of the surrounding by the installation conditions and initially will be
material is more important for limiting deflection the same irrespective of the type of pipe material.
than the stiffness of the pipe itself, so controlled However, the way in which the loads are carried will
backfill is particularly important. The design process vary significantly depending on the interaction of the

components in the pipe/soil system. These components are the pipes, the virgin soil, the embedment material
and the founding conditions as shown in Figure 9 below.

VIRGIN BACKFILL VIRGIN


SOIL SOIL

BLANKET EMBEDMENT
BEDDING
CRADLE
FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION
RIGID PIPE FLEXIBLE PIPE

Figure 9: Comparison of rigid and flexible pipe installation details

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External loads

The interaction of these components will determine support, the pipes will settle more than the adjacent
how the pipe chosen will handle the load. Hence, material and the frictional forces will act upwards
any design guidelines must cover the interaction and reduce the load that the pipes have to carry. The
between them, describe what to do as they vary worst combination of values for these limiting factors
and where necessary, set limits to their structural could result in loads that are in excess of twice the
properties. value of those for the most favourable conditions for
the same fill height.
For rigid pipes it is assumed that the reaction from
the bedding cradle is vertical only. Hence it is only Traffic loading is distributed from the contact
necessary to provide support around the bottom areas on the surface through the fill. At fill heights
portion of the pipe. For flexible pipes it is essential greater than ±1.25m earth loads make a greater
that the reaction from the surrounding material also contribution than traffic loads to the total load. At
gives side support. This means that the pipes should fill heights less than 600mm or half the conduit’s
be encased in a suitable material at least up to the outside diameter traffic and other transient loads
level of the pipe crown. In this case the supporting are not uniformly distributed over the conduit and
material is called embedment. they cannot be evaluated in the same way as earth
loads. Not withstanding the calculated radius it is
The earth load on a buried conduit is the mass of the recommended that the fill height over flexible pipes
earth prism directly above it that is either increased under a roadway should be at least the larger of 900
or decreased by the arching action resulting from the mm or the pipe diameter.
friction between adjacent columns of earth above
and next to the pipe. The arching is dependent on Although gravity pipelines usually flow partly full,
installation type, founding conditions and properties there are times when they may be pressurised due to
of insitu and backfill materials: operating conditions or problems such as blockages
that occur. These pipes and their joints should
• limiting installation types are narrow trench
therefore be designed and manufactured to cope
and complete embankment projection where
with a nominal operating pressure of 1 bar, which is
the load is minimum and maximum respectively.
well within the capability of pipes supplied for these
• limiting founding conditions are yielding and applications.
rigid, where the load is minimum and maximum
respectively.
Pipe Stiffness
• the most significant properties of the insitu and
backfill materials are their mass, stiffness and
Various parameters are used to define pipe stiffness.
friction angles. The friction angle is the most
They all relate to the ability of a pipe to resist
significant for rigid pipes and the stiffness the
deformation. The incorrect understanding of these
most significant for flexible pipes.
parameters can lead to serious overloading of pipes.
In practice most pipelines are installed in conditions
falling somewhere between these limiting cases. Pipe stiffness is obtained by subjecting a pipe to a
Irrespective of the pipe material the soil loads on parallel plate test.
the horizontal plain level with the top of the pipe,
before any deflection has taken place will be the PS = F/ΔY (19)
same for any given installation. However, when the Where - PS is pipe stiffness
material on top of the pipeline is compacted, the - F is the force necessary to deflect the
critical plane which is the horizontal line over the pipe by a given percentage taken from
top of the pipeline will deform either side of the the relevant specifications
pipeline line depending upon whether the frictional
- ΔY is the vertical deflection
forces that develop will act upwards or downwards.
With flexible pipes that have the required side This is usually expressed as kPa.

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External loads

Pipe stiffness factor is calculated from the pipe pressure at the level of the top of the pipe can be
material properties and the pipe geometry. evaluated using column theory:

PSF = EI/r3 (20) WE = γHD (23)

Where - PSF is the pipe stiffness factor in kN/m/m Where: W - Downward, or geostatic load on pipe
(kN/m)
- E is the elastic modulus of pipe material
H - Depth (m)
- I is the moment of inertia of the pipe wall
γ - Unit weight of the soil (kN/m )
- r is the pipe radius D - External pipe diameter (m)

Pipe ring stiffness is also calculated from the pipe Most pipes are laid in trenches. The loading will be
material properties and the pipe geometry. It is an reduced by the friction and cohesion between the
eighth of the PSF. backfill material and the trench walls. Friction in the
side of the trench supports some of the fill. The load in
PRS = EI/D3 (21) kN/m i.e. per unit length of trench of width B is thus:
Where - PRS is the pipe ring stiffness in kN/m/m
WE = C1 γHB (24)
- E is the elastic modulus of pipe material
Where C1 is obtained from in Figure 10 as a function of
- I is the moment of inertia of the pipe wall
H/B and k tan θ, k is the ratio of lateral to vertical soil
- D is the pipe diameter stress and θ is the soil angle of friction. This is similar
to equations 4 and 5 given in an earlier section.
The relationship between these factors is:
k TAN θ
0.149 PS = PSF = 8 PRS; PS = 6.71 PSF = 53.69 PRS (22)

TABLE 7: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PS, PSF AND PRS


PIPE PIPE STIFFNESS PIPE RING
STIFFNESS FACTOR STIFFNESS
kPA kN/m/m kN/m/m
100 14.9 1.860
200 29.8 3.725
300 44.7 5.588
400 59.6 7.450

Determining Required Pipe Stiffness


The vertical soil is generally the dominant
loading causing the deflection of flexible pipes or C1
circumferential bending of rigid pipes. For flexible
pipes, irrespective of whether they are installed Figure 10: Load coefficients for trench conditions
under embankment of trench conditions the vertical

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External loads

When the side fill is correctly compacted, flexible pipes In service light field loads are all a flexible pipe should
deform more under load than the material adjacent to take. Heavier loads should be accommodated with
them. Load sheds to the side fill so the final load on the sleeves or placing a concrete slab over the pipes. The
pipe is less than what the column theory indicates. The live load WL could be corrected for load shedding, but
actual soil load on a flexible pipe will be: as it is only a temporary load, it activates a higher
pipe modulus, E, than the soil load does.
WE = C1γHD (25)

The calculation of C1 involves determining the soil


properties which can be complex. For practical
reasons the conservative approach to calculating the
load on a flexible pipe can be done using equation
(25) with C1 having a value of unity.

There are various ways of calculating the live loads on


a buried pipe. Some of these are tedious to apply by
hand and do not give answers that differ much from the
simple approach of just distributing the load through
the fill material at 45°, as shown in equation (26).

The load on a pipe in kN/m due to a live load of P at Figure 11: Wheel Load on Buried Conduit
the surface is:
However, during construction any buried pipeline could
WL = PxD (26) be subject to the same traffic loads as roads, because
(x + 2H)(y + 2H) there are deliveries to site. In South Africa the legal
limits for road vehicles is a 40 kN wheel load. Table 8
Where x and y are the footprint dimensions with has been compiled for two such vehicles parked next
formula of the load P at the surface. Other symbols to each other with a space of 400 mm between them.
defined elsewhere.
TABLE 8: : LOADS IN KN/M ON BURIED CONDUITS FROM A GROUP OF 40KN WHEELS

PIPE OD FILL HEIGHT OVER PIPES IN M


MM 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
50 1.18 0.69 0.41 0.27 0.20 0.15 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.03
90 2.13 1.25 0.74 0.49 0.35 0.26 0.20 0.16 0.11 0.08 0.06
110 2.60 1.52 0.91 0.60 0.43 0.32 0.25 0.20 0.14 0.10 0.07
160 3.79 2.21 1.32 0.88 0.63 0.47 0.36 0.29 0.20 0.14 0.11
200 4.73 2.77 1.65 1.10 0.78 0.58 0.45 0.36 0.25 0.18 0.13
250 5.92 3.46 2.07 1.37 0.98 0.73 0.57 0.45 0.31 0.22 0.17
315 7.46 4.36 2.60 1.73 1.23 0.92 0.71 0.57 0.39 0.28 0.21
355 8.40 4.91 2.93 1.95 1.39 1.04 0.80 0.64 0.44 0.32 0.24
400 9.47 5.54 3.31 2.19 1.56 1.17 0.91 0.72 0.49 0.36 0.27
450 10.65 6.23 3.72 2.47 1.76 1.31 1.02 0.81 0.55 0.40 0.30
500 11.83 6.92 4.13 2.74 1.95 1.46 1.13 0.91 0.62 0.45 0.34
560 13.25 7.75 4.63 3.07 2.19 1.64 1.27 1.01 0.69 0.50 0.38
630 14.91 8.72 5.21 3.46 2.46 1.84 1.43 1.14 0.78 0.56 0.43
710 16.80 9.83 5.87 3.90 2.77 2.07 1.61 1.29 0.87 0.63 0.48
800 18.93 11.07 6.61 4.39 3.13 2.34 1.81 1.45 0.98 0.71 0.54
900 21.30 12.46 7.44 4.94 3.52 2.63 2.04 1.63 1.11 0.80 0.61
1000 23.67 13.84 8.26 5.49 3.91 2.92 2.27 1.81 1.23 0.89 0.67

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external loads

Vertical Deflection Since E decreases with age the 50 year E value could
be used for soil load deflection calculation as a
conservative assumption. For live loads a separate
The vertical deflection of a flexible pipe is limited
calculation using the short term E value could be used
by lateral soil resistance that develops as the pipe
assuming the wall is not all stressed to the limit. The
deforms horizontally into it. The load is carried
deflections due to soil and live loads should then be
through the arching action of the soil rather than
added to give the total deflection..
circumferential bending of the pipe. Hence the
wall stresses in a flexible pipe are considerably less
than those that develop in the walls of a rigid pipe. The deformation due to live loads is calculated from
In simple terms the deflection of a flexible pipe is formula (29)
expressed in formula (27).

ΔdL kB WL/D

W =
Δd = ( ) (27) D 8EI/D3 + 0,061 FdE1 (29)
PS + SS
Where Δd - pipe deflection
Where ΔdL - vertical deflection due to live or traffic
W – Load on pipe in kN/m loading

PS – Pipe stiffness in kN/m/m


For low stiffness pipes such as PE and PVC that can
SS - Soil stiffness in kN/m/m tolerate significant strain the deflection is almost
exclusively determined by the E1 of the soil and
This deflection is usually determined using the the use of short or long term E values for the pipe
Iowa formula or one of its derivatives, such as the material will have little impact. It is essential
reclamation formula (28) therefore that the E1 value of the supporting
material surrounding the pipe has a value of at
least 5 MPa.
Δd TfkBγH
= (28)
D 8EI/D3 + 0,061 FdE1 Note: There are also other useful design principles
available.
Where Δd - vertical deflection due to soil loads
Wall Stress
D - pipe diameter
Tf - a dimensionless time lag factor, The maximum wall stress around the circumference
having a value between 1.5 and 3.0 of a pipe is due to a combination of ring bending
that takes into account the increase under vertical load and arching. At the haunch it
in soil load with time and the is :
consolidation of soil at the sides of
pipes with time W3 20 Et2/D2 + Es

f = x (30)
KB - bedding constant, having a value 2t 24 Et3/D3 + Es
between 0.11 and 0.083
γ - backfill density It is recommended that installation conform
H - fill height on pipe strictly to the requirements of the relevant
sections of the SABS 2001-4: 2008. This calls for
EI/D3 - pipe ring stiffness a material with a low compaction factor to be
Fd - a dimension design factor varying compacted to 90% or more, of modified AASHTO
from 0.5 to 1.0 depending on the density. This will result in an E s value of at least
effectiveness of side fill 5 MPa for selected material. Good bedding also
compaction. It converts average reduces deflection, and circumferential wall
to maximum values of deflection. stress in particular.
E1 - soil stiffness

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DURABILITY & System components

Durability • Effects of moisture changes and movements on


bedding
Probably the property of any pipelines that has the • Restraints caused by bends, manholes etc.
greatest impact on its long term performance are
those that relate to the pipe material property and It is preferable to avoid or eliminate the causes
their ability to handle installation and operating of these loads rather than attempt to resist them.
conditions. Where this is not possible, particular attention must
be paid to pipe joints and the interfaces between the
Plastics are in general inert to a very wide range of pipeline and other structures, such as manholes to
aggressive elements in the soil and in the effluents ensure that there is sufficient flexibility. The reader
that may be conveyed in a pipeline. Appendix B gives a is referred to the section in this handbook which
comprehensive list of the chemical resistance offered deals with joints.
by the thermoplastics used for pipe manufacture to a
wide range of potentially aggressive substances. The Manholes
effect of temperature which could be a significant
factor for industrial applications is also covered in
Apart from the upper reaches of reticulation systems
these tabulations.
the access to pipelines is via manholes. Manholes are
the interfaces between sections of pipeline where
Material specific properties are covered in more changes are made. They are placed whenever there
detail in Part III of this document that covers the are junctions, transitions and changes in alignment
various pipe types. and where access is needed on long straight sections.
As the loading on manholes is different from that on
the adjacent sections of pipeline there can be relative
Secondary Loads movement between manholes and pipes.

Secondary loads are not easy as to determine as Many of the failures in sewers occur at joints and
the primary loads, because they are variable, in particular those at the interfaces where changes
unpredictable and localised. They can however cause are made. If measures are not taken to minimize the
considerable damage to a pipeline due to differential disruption to flow through these manholes and the
movements between pipes and between pipes and associated energy losses not considered the hydraulic
other components. It is therefore essential that performance of a sewer can be seriously compromised
their potential impact be recognised and that where and if measures are not taken to accommodate any
necessary precautions are taken. Examples of factors potential relative movement between pipes and
that could cause secondary loads are: manholes, pipes can crack or deform resulting in
leakages.
• Volume changes in clay soils due to variations in
moisture content Joints and Fittings
• Pressures due to growth of tree roots
Most of the problems that occur in pipelines happen
• Foundation and bedding behaving
at joints between pipes, at bends, at junctions
unexpectedly
and at transitions. The making of joints can be
• Settlement of embankment foundation complicated by site conditions, so it is essential that
• Elongation of pipeline under deep fills the necessary precautions and correct procedures
are followed.
• Effects of thermal and moisture changes on
pipe materials and joints

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INSTallation

Joints and fittings can be both material and supplier • ISO TR 4191 PVC-U pipes for water supply -
specific and for these the reader is referred to the recommended practice for laying
product brochures of the individual manufacturers.
• DD ENV (452 - 6 : 2002 Plastics Piping Systems
(A list of the SAPPMA members with contact details is
for Water Supply (PVC-U) - Part 6, Guidance
given on the outside back cover.)
for installation.

Valves What follows emphasizes the same important aspects


about installation procedures.
Air and scour valves are needed in pressure pipe lines
to facilitate their filling, emptying and operation. Air Before pipe orders are finalized the contractor
accumulates at the high points in a pipeline where the and consultant’s supervision should go through the
operating pressure is low. This has the effect of reducing project documentation and check that the conditions
and at times stopping the flow. As air is compressible, on site correspond to those given and that if there
the pressure in the air pockets may exceed that in the are any discrepancies that these are resolved before
water and this can result in pressure surges. installation starts.

For both these reasons air valves are placed at high


Once these issues have been addressed the line,
points and other sections of pressure pipelines so that
level and trench widths should be surveyed to
any air that accumulates is released.
ensure that there are no unforeseen obstructions to
Scour valves are placed at low sections of pressure the route. If there are any, the necessary changes
pipelines so that they can be discharged for cleaning. should be made.

Preconstruction Activities Excavation

Following the correct design procedures is no Trench excavation should be kept to a minimum
guarantee that a pipeline will perform as required. width, allowing just sufficient working area for
It is essential that the design is based on the jointing and embedment compaction around the
actual conditions on site and that the installation pipe. For small diameter pipes a trench 300mm wider
is in accordance with the specifications. Justly, the than the diameter of the pipe allows enough room for
design must be preceded by a site investigation jointing. For pipes 300mm in diameter and larger the
that establishes all the relevant topographical and trench widths recommended in the relevant sections
geotechnical features and carries out the necessary of SANS 2001 should be followed.
material tests. Secondly, the design stage must be
followed by supervising the construction to ensure
that the correct installation procedures are followed
and that the necessary onsite testing is done to check
that the pipeline meets the required performance
standards.

The satisfactory long term operation of any pipeline is


thus dependant on the quality of design, manufacture
and installation. It is therefore important that
installation procedures be followed as detailed in:
• SANS 2001 Standard specification for Civil
Engineering Construction Figure 12:Trench Installation Details

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INSTallation

It is important that the trench is not opened too far in through the middle in 2 separate heaps. Sub-divide
advance of the pipe laying operation. Pipes must be one of the heaps again and again until a sample which
backfilled immediately after laying, with the joints will fill a 2,0 litre container is obtained.
left open for testing.
Cut a length of 250mm from a pipe, 160mm in
When the insitu soils have low E1 values it will diameter, and stand this upright on a level surface.
be necessary to increase the trench width to Ensure that the moisture content of this sample is
accommodate additional embedment material to the same as that of the main body from which it was
provide the pipes wih adequate lateral support. It is taken and then loosely fill the pipe with this material.
recommended that the depth of cover from the top Empty the material from the pipe, into a suitable
of the pipe to the ground surface is not less than 0.9 container. Using this same material charge the pipe
metres or the pipe diameter, whichever is the greater. in layers of 60mm in height, firmly tamping each layer
with a metal hammer weighing between 1 and 1,25
Embedment kg and having a striking face of approximately 40mm
in diameter.
The quality of the bedding material and its compaction,
together with the nature of the undisturbed material Use up all material out of the container which originally
of the trench wall are all relevant to the ultimate was loosely filled into the pipe, tamping continually
performance of all pipes once installed. The trench until no further compression of the material occurs.
bed must be free from any stones or hard projections, Measure the distance from the top of the pipe to the
which are likely to cause damage to the pipe. The surface of the tamped material. If this measurement
bottom of the trench should be backfilled to a depth does not exceed 25mm then the material is suitable
of 100mm, with suitable bedding material such for use.
as free drainage coarse sand, gravel, or soil of a
friable nature. The majority size of soil particles in
the bedding material should not exceed 20mm. The
presence of some particles of up to 40mm in size
is permissible, providing that the total quantity of
these particles represents a very small fraction of the
whole and that these particles have no sharp edges.
Reference should be made to SANS 2001-4: 2008 for
the bedding specification.

To determine the suitability of a soil for use as bedding


material take a 2 kg sample of the material and pass
it through a sieve with a nominal aperture size of
20mm. If the weight of material retained on the
sieve exceeds 25 grams or if on passing the retained
material through a sieve of nominal aperture size of
40mm particles are again retained and will not break
up under light finger pressure, the material must be Figure 13:Testing suitability of bedding material
regarded as unsuitable.
Pipe Laying and Jointing
If the material passes the sieve test as indicated
above then proceed with testing as follows: Take a The pipeline must be laid directly on the prepared
further sample of approx. 50 kg in mass, heap on a bedding in the trench and any temporary supports,
clean level surface. Using a spade, divide this heap bricks or other foreign hard bodies must be removed.

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INSTallation

There are many joint types and the reader should all joints. Selected material (as for bedding) should
refer to the particular supplier for their details. be placed gently and evenly in uncompacted layers
of 75mm in thickness between the sides of the trench
By way of example the procedure for a typical PVC and the pipe, as shown in Figure 15 .Tamp each layer
pipe joint is described herein. All spigots must be firmly with a hand tamper until the level of the crown
checked to ensure that they are free from burrs. of the pipe is reached, taking care to ensure that no
Both the spigot and socket surfaces must be carefully voids are left under the pipe. All joints must be left
cleaned with a dry cloth prior to the application of exposed at this stage.
the gel lubricant.
Movement of the pipe should be prevented by the
It is important to ensure that the rubber ring is filling and compaction of material simultaneously on
clean and free of stones and grit. It is however not either side of the pipe until level with the top of the
necessary to remove the rubber ring as this has been pipe.
fitted in the factory and held firmly in position.
Selected material should be placed in even and
uncompacted layers of 150mm in thickness over the
Modern developments include steel reinforced rubber entire width of the trench to a height of 300mm
seals which cannot be dislodged on jointing and are above the crown of the pipe. All layers must be firmly
user friendly especially unskilled installers. tamped by hand. All joints are still exposed at this
stage.
Check the chamfer on the spigot end – a uniform
chamfer to approximately 15° must occur around the
external circumference of the pipe for approximately
half the wall thickness.

The depth of entry is marked on the spigot end which


must be so positioned as to be just visible outside the
mouth of the socket. This allows for expansion and
contraction in the pipeline.

Figure 14: Joining of PVC Pipes

Backfilling
It is essential that plastic pressure pipes are backfilled
immediately after each pipe is installed, in order to
contain the expansion and contraction that may occur
in an open trench. Immediate backfilling restricts
expansion and contraction to each individual pipe
length where it is catered for by the integral socket.

Before doing the side-filling and initial backfilling


check that the depth of entry mark is just visible on Figure 15:Bedding and Backfill Details

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INSTallation

The main backfill for the remainder of the trench, and direction in a pipeline. Thrust blocks prevent the
excluding the areas where joints must still remain movement of fittings and must be placed at all changes
exposed, should be placed and compacted in 300mm of direction, valves, stop ends and reducers.
thick layers. Excavated trench material can be
used. Each layer must be firmly tamped, the first Concrete thrust blocks are the most commonly used at
layer by hand and subsequent layers by mechanical all anchor points. The dimensions of the thrust blocks
means if so required. The main backfill should be must be calculated to suit the pipe diameter, pressure
compacted to the same density as the surrounding and the load bearing capacity of the soil. Typical
insitu material. The final level to which the trench is thrust block sizes are given in Table 9. The actual size
backfilled should be slightly higher than the natural required for a particular project should be calculated
ground level to accommodate the consolidation of and specified by the design engineer.
the backfill material in the trench.
In recent years mechanical restraint joints have become
Anchoring an alternative option to concrete anchor blocks in some
cases.
When an internal hydrostatic pressure is applied to the
pipe, unbalanced forces develop at all changes of size TABLE 9: TYPICAL THRUST BLOCK SIZES

Pipe Sizes (mm) 90º Bends AxB 45º Bends AxB Tees AxB End Caps, Valves,
Reducers AxB

110 0.30x0.30 m 0.30x0.25 m 0.30x0.30 m 0.30x0.60 m

200 0.45x0.70 m 0.30x0.70 m 0.45x0.60 m 0.45x0.80 m

315 0.60x1.30 m 0.60x0.90 m 0.60x0.90 m 0.60x1.00 m

400 1.00x1.60 m 1.00x1.20 m 0.80x1.50 m 0.80x1.50 m

Cutting to Length Site Tests


When cutting pressure pipe, clearly mark the cutting
Any pipeline that is to convey water under pressure
position on the pipe, ensuring that the cut is square
must be pressure tested, as soon as possible after it
to the axis of the pipe. Use a fine-toothed saw or
is installed to check the integrity of installation. Only
power saw to cut the pipe. Remove all burrs from the
when any required remedial work has been done and
cut end and chamfer the pipe with a fine medium file,
if necessary the pipeline has passed a retest should
at 15o to half of the pipe wall thickness. Redraw the
the pipeline be backfilled. Both pressure and gravity
depth of entry mark.
pipelines should be checked with a CCTV camera
after installation to check if there are any internal
faults such as excessive deflections, open joints and
local damage. Any defects, no matter how small,
that could result in the future malfunctioning of
the pipeline must be rectified before the pipeline is
commissioned.

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INSTallation

TABLE 10: Typical Support Spacing for PVC MINE Pipe

Nominal Size (mm) Span between support (mm)

55 250

90 325

105/110 350

155/160 450

200/210 500

250 550

215 575

355 600

400 650

Table11: Typical support spacing for soil, waste & vent pipe

Pipe Size Horizontal (mm) Vertical (mm)

40 400 1200

50 500 1200

75 800 1600

110 900 1800

160 1000 2000

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PARt iii Plastic pipe properies

Polyethylene (PE)....................................................................................................... 38
Typical Physical Properties.......................................................................................... 38
Benefits of PE........................................................................................................... 38
Polymers................................................................................................................. 38
Applications............................................................................................................. 39
Benefits of PE 100..................................................................................................... 40
Design.................................................................................................................... 41
Other Relevant Values................................................................................................ 44
PE in Gas Distribution................................................................................................. 44
Cost Benefits of PE..................................................................................................... 45
Pipe Dimensions........................................................................................................ 46

POLYVINyl Chloride (PVC)............................................................................................. 50


Composition of PVC Pipe material.................................................................................. 50
Physical Properties.................................................................................................... 50
Benefits of PVC......................................................................................................... 51
Design.................................................................................................................... 52
Pipe Dimensions........................................................................................................ 54
Impact Properties...................................................................................................... 61
Strength and Toughness............................................................................................... 62
Effect of Temperature Change...................................................................................... 63

POLYPROPYLene (PP)..................................................................................................... 65
Benefits and Specifications........................................................................................... 65

APPENDICES................................................................................................................. 66
Appendix A: Identification of Plastics.............................................................................. 66
Appendix B: Chemical Resistance of Thermoplastics used for pipes........................................ 67

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Polyethylene (PE)

Typical physical properties • Very good chemical resistance


• Excellent abrasion resistance
Physical Test • Chemically inert and unaffected by acidic soil
Values Unit
Properties method conditions
Density ISO 1183 0,958 g/cm3 • Biologically inert against micro organisms
Melt Flow Index g/10 • Can be fusion welded, ensuring absolutely leak
ISO 1133 6,5
(190oC/21.6Kg) min. free joints
Melt Flow Index g/10 • Very smooth bore and low friction loss
ISO 1133 0,23
(190oC/5Kg) min. (k=0,002mm and C=150) and maintaining this
smoothness throughout its useful life
Vicat Softening oC
ISO 306 67
Point (5Kg) • Low mass (about 1/8 of steel) and ease of
handling
Crystalline Melting 130- oC
ISO 3146-85
Range 133 • High flexibility, enabling long lengths to be
coiled
Viscosity Number ISO 1628-3 390 cm3/g
• Inherent resistance to effects of ground
movement
Mechanical Test
Values Unit • Non toxic and safe for drinking water
Properties Method
• Low installation cost and maintenance free
Shore D, Hardness ISO 868 61 -
• Large range of sizes, from 16 – 2 000 mm
Tensile Yield ISO 527 25-30 MPa
• Very suitable for rehabilitation of old pipelines
Ultimate Tensile ISO 527 35 MPa
through trenchless technologies
Ultimate Elongation ISO 527 >600 %
Elastic Modulus ISO 527 >800 MPa Polymers
Flexural Stress (3.5%
ISO 178 19 MPa In the first generation of PE the curve at 60°C and
Deflection)
80°C showed a knee before 10 000h, making it possible
Notched Impact KJ/ to calculate the co-ordinates of the knee at 20°C by
ISO 179 20
(Charpy) acN 23oC m2 extrapolation. They were generally stiff polymers of
Notched Impact KJ/ high density, but unsatisfactory slow crack growth
ISO 179 6 resistance at 80°C. With the second (PE80-1980) and
(Charpy) acN - 30oC m2
third (PE100-1990) generations of PE there is no knee
Thermal Stability ISO
>60 min. anymore at 60°C and even at 80°C, with hardly ever
200oC 10837
any brittle failure before 10 000h.
Carbon Black ASTM D
2.0-2.5 %
Content 1603 Second generation polymer development resulted in
improvements to the slow crack growth mechanism by
increasing the chain branch content of the polymer.
Benefits of PE This resulted in a MDPE PE 80 pipe resin which had
the added beneficial characteristic of flexibility that
• High impact strength allowed long lengths of pipe to be coiled. This made
• Excellent corrosion resistance it suitable for low cost installation.

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Polyethylene (PE)

The third generation resins were formed by Mining (Surface and Underground)
new production technologies, in particular the
manufacture of bi-modal polyethylene resins. The Polyethylene pipes have yielded excellent results
science of molecular design recognised that the when used in mining applications. Owing to their high
placement of the co-monomer branches in a specific abrasion and corrosion resistance, ease of handling
part of the molecular weight distribution could and installation and their high mechanical strength,
significantly retard the slow crack growth properties they are ideal for -
of a PE resin, without affecting the creep resistance • Tailings (slurries and effluents)
performance. The increased strength and toughness
• Irrigating leaching piles
of these resins allowed a new classification of PE
resins to be developed – PE 100. • Acid and alkaline solutions
• C
oncentrate pipelines (Reduction works and
Polymer Classification Drainage)
• Fire fighting installations
Designation Classification Design Stress • Drinking water lines
MRS (MPa) (MPa) Water • Chilled water lines
PE100 10,0 8,0 • Compressed air lines
PE80 8,0 6,3 • Ventilation ducting
PE63 6,3 5,0 • Vacuum lines (Drum filter)

Applications Agriculture/Irrigation

Some typical applications of PE pipes are listed PE pipes have various uses in agriculture and non-
below: permanent couplings allow rapid coupling and
uncoupling. Because it is flexible it can be coiled,
which facilitates transport 50m, 100m or longer coils.
Water supply

Some applications are:


Polyethylene pipes offer distinct advantages over other
materials (e.g. steel, fibre cement, concrete, etc.) • S pray irrigation (Acids, Ammonia, Brine,
especially when used for water supply and in areas Carbon Dioxide, Sugar solutions, Syrups,
with a high water table, in which their installation is Fertilizers, etc.)
simplified by jointing outside the trench. • Water pipes

Some examples: Fishing


• Potable water reticulation
In the fishing industry, the use of PE pipes is increasing.
• Sewage works
Because of their lightweight and ease of handling,
• Water Works & Water Treatment Plants resistance to salt water and attack by marine
organisms, they are ideal for these applications,
Furthermore, because of their flexibility and amongst others:
low weight, they are ideal for use in underwater
• Salmon breeding cages
environments in various applications, such as outfall
sewers. • Maritime discharge and suction (Abalone farms)
• Salt water

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Polyethylene (PE)

Chemical/Steel/Refineries General

In the chemical industry, PE pipes have produced PE pipe systems have been used successfully in
excellent results. Owing to their high resistance to many applications, both general as well as highly
corrosion, chemicals and abrasion, they are ideal for: specialised, in industrial and civil sectors.
• Conveying acid and alkaline solutions
• C
onveying chemical products (Bleach, The most common applications are the following:
Peroxides, Dye Liquors, Sulphide Water, Hot • Compressed air and ventilation air
effluent) • Protection of electrical and telephone
• Conveying water under pressure cables
• Fire-fighting systems • High temperature liquids and gases
• Gas, petroleum and its derivatives
Gas Distribution • Corrosive waste water, hot effluents
• Potable Water
PE is the preferred material for natural gas
• Pneumatic transport
distribution pipelines in most countries in the world.
In SA natural gas is not yet available for general • Drainage and Sub-Soil Drainage
consumer applications, although there are promising • Dewatering
indications that it might change. At that stage, it
will become necessary to include the relevant design
information in this Manual.

Benefits of PE 100 vs PE 80

In the early 1990s, a new type of PE material was developed in Europe with higher hoop strength giving rise to
the PE100 classification. These materials are sometimes termed bimodal or 3rd generation because of the two
stage polymerisation process used to produce them. PE100 materials produce stronger pipes which are used for
higher pressure operation in gas and water distribution systems.

Example: 200 mm OD Pipe with water as fluid at 10 bar operating pressure

Heading Wall Mass (kg/m) ID (mm) Cross Sectional


thickness area (cm 2)

PE 80 14.7 8.63 169.6 226

PE 100 11.9 7.10 175.5 242

Comparative saving in mass 18% and increase in cross sectional area 7%

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Polyethylene (PE)

Design Round up to 18.4 mm for manufacture and/or the


appropriate SDR for the Class and Material designation.
PE100 polymer pipe therefore provides the opportunity
to choose either: Minimum Required Strength (MRS) and Design
• Higher operating working pressure Stress
• Thinner walls and therefore less material
The MRS (minimum required strength) classification
• Higher safety margin of pipe is based on a 50 year life. This does not
• Bigger cross sectional area and improved flow mean that the pipe will fail at 50 years, because
the design stress is calculated using the 97.5%
Design Stress and Safety Factor (service factor) lower confidence limit of the predicted stress,
coupled with a minimum safety factor of 1.25 (for
Safety factors take into account handling conditions, water). Consequently when in service, the pipe is
service conditions and other circumstances not operating well below the stress that would cause
directly considered in the design. a failure at 50 years and the actual failure time
due to creep is likely to be only after hundreds of
In terms of SABS ISO 4427 the minimum safety factor years.
for water is 1.25. This factor, when applied to the
Minimum Required Strength (MRS), for the particular MRS values usually assume an operating temperature of
material classification (e.g. PE80, PE100), gives the 20°C. The MRS value increases at lower temperatures
maximum allowable hydrostatic design stress for the and decreases at higher temperatures; therefore
designated material. when designing pipelines for use at temperatures
above 20°C the correct MRS value must be used for
Maximum allowable the given operating temperature.
MRS at 50
Designation of hydrostatic design
years and
material stress for water, The design stress used to calculate standard pipe
20°C MPa
σ - MPa dimensions for a given pressure duty is obtained by dividing
PE 100 10 8 the MRS by a safety factor C (or design coefficient). The
safety factor adopted by ISO from field experience is a
PE 80 8 6.3 minimum of 1,25 for water and 2,0 for gas.

PE 63 6.3 5
The main criteria to select a good pipe material are:

• Strength
e = p x de
(2σs + p) • Stiffness (or flexibility)
Where: e - minimum wall thickness (mm) • Ductility (in toughness)
p - internal pressure (MPa) • Chemical resistance
de - mean external diameter (mm)
All these properties are time-dependent and therefore
σs - design stress (MPa)
a compromise must be made on the basis of both
short-term and long-term properties for a particular
For example the minimum wall thickness for a 250
application as indicated below:
mm Class 10 PE pipe made from PE 80 material is:
The choice of polymer should be based upon the
e - 1.0 x 250 / {(2 x 6.3) + 1.0}
optimal balance of those properties.
- 18.38 mm

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Polyethylene (PE)

External or internal stresses occurring at elevated temperatures can cause environmental stress cracking in
polyethylene. This is essentially slow rate crack growth and can be accelerated by a chemical environment
other than air or water.

Environments that can accelerate crack growth are agents such as:
• Detergents
• Alcohols
• Silicone products

Relevance of Material Properties

Property Effect

Ductility Impact resistance; Resistance to rapid crack propagation (RCP)

Strength Resistance to internal pressure

Stiffness Resistance to loading

Flexibility Deformation under stress

Chemical resistance (ESCR) Resistance to slow crack growth


Notched hoop stress
bar 80° C 500 hr
For water 20° C

Thickness mm *
80° C 1000 hrs
Test stress MPa

Test stress MPa

Test stress MPa


165 hrs 80° C

20° C 100 hrs


Design Coeff.

Pressure Bar
50 yr 20° C

PN Nominal
Max design

Pipe series
stress MPa
MRS MPa
Polymer
Grading

Wall

SDR

PE 10 1,25 8.0 5.4 12,4 5,0 9.2 10,0 16 11 5


100
8,1 12,5 13,6 6,3
6,6 10 17 8
PE 80 8 1,25 6.3 4.5 10.0 4,0 8.0 10,0 12,5 11 5
8,1 10 13,6 6,3
6,6 8 17 8
PE 63 6,3 1,25 5.0 3.5 8,0 3,2 6.4 10,0 10 11 5
8,1 8 13,6 6,3
6,6 6,3 17 8

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Polyethylene (PE)

* Example of 110 mm OD Pipe thus allowing the material classification to be


determined (refer ISO 9080 & SANS/ISO 4427).
The Stress Regression Line
The hoop stress is derived from Barlow’s formula and
The traditional method of portraying the long term is as follows:
tensile strength is by means of a graph of log stress
p (D e - e)
vs log time to failure. This is known as the stress σ =
2e
regression line. It is a plot of the circumferential
hoop stress in the wall of the pipe (from internal where: p - internal pressure (MPa)
pressure) against time to failure.
e - minimum wall thickness (mm)
Numerous test results are needed to determine
both the classification of the resin and to ensure De - mean external diameter (mm)
that no ductile- brittle “knee” is observed before
50 years at 20°C. Testing is performed over a range σ - circumferential hoop stress in
of pipe pressures and temperatures (typically 20°C, wall of pipe (MPa)
60°C 80°C) with a minimum of 30 hoop stress results being
obtained at each temperature. There must be at least four The Stress Regression Line for PE is given below.
pipes that do not fail before 7000 hours and one that does
not fail untill after 9000 hours. Refer to general explanation of regression lines
on page 15
The data produced can then be used to define the linear
regression with the line extrapolated to 50 years at 20°C

regression curve of a modern pe 100 material

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Polyethylene (PE)

Other relevant values PE in Gas Distribution


The high cost of the replacement of corroded iron and
Bending limit steel mains led to the focus being shifted to Plastics in
the 50’s. Many types of plastics were considered and
The minimum bending radius permitted for a pipe
tested as a material for gas distribution and by the end
depends on its pressure class (PN, SDR), the elastic
of the 60’s it was concluded that polyethylene offered
modulus of the material and its permissible stress,
the best answers to the important aspects of:
which in turn vary as a function of the applied load
and the temperature. • Ductility
• Injection moulded fittings
The following table lists the values suggested for the • Jointing by fusion
minimum bending radii of Polyolefin pipes.
Gas pipe operating pressures are classified as
SDR Min. bending Min. bending follows:
radius - PE radius - PP
• Low pressure up to 100mbar
33 40D 45D
26 30D 25D • Medium pressure up to 4 bar
17 30D 25D • Intermediate pressure 5 to 19 bar
11 30D 20D • High pressure 50 to 70 bar
D = OD of pipe
High pressure lines make use of polyethylene coated
Abrasion Resistance steel pipes with cathodic protection. For distribution
systems operating below 4 bar, polyethylene is the most
Dry sliding abrasion of a number of PE 80, PE 100 suitable material - technically as well as economically;
and some other grades of thermoplastic materials even for 200mm pipes polyethylene still represents
(Taber Abrasion Method in accordance with DIN a 15% cost saving on the installed system (European
53754 E) basis). Over 90% of the pipe installed for natural gas
distribution in the U.S. and Canada is plastic and of
that, 99% is polyethylene. PE is the material of choice
worldwide.

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Polyethylene (PE)

Cost Benefits of PE

Installed Cost in Rural Area (ratio steel/PE)


Diameter 80 100 150 200
(mm)
Material 1,1 1,0 0,9 0,7
Laying 1,3 1,4 1,7 1,8
Trenching/ 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,2
Finishing
Overall 1,21 1,21 1,22 1,14

Installed Cost in City (ratio steel/PE)


Diameter 80 100 150 200
(mm)
Material 1,1 1,0 0,9 0,7
Laying 1,3 1,4 1,7 1,8
Trenching/ 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,3
Finishing
Overall 1,29 1,28 1,3 1,22

Pipe Dimension

In this table it can be seen that SANS ISO 4427 have grouped together the different pressure classes, produced
from different material designations, under a common heading known as the Standard Diameter (Dimension)
Ratio or SDR.

The minimum wall thicknesses specified are not exactly that which would be derived from a calculation using
Barlow’s formula or the SDR but are the rounded up values of the highest minimum wall thickness calculated for
any size and class in the SDR group.

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Polyethylene (PE)

Wall Thicknesses
Pipe series
SDR 6 SDR 7,4 SDR 9 SDR 11 SDR13,6 SDR 17
S 2,5 S 3,2 S4 S5 S 6,3 S8
Nominal pressure (PN) a

bar
PE 80 PN 25 PN 20 PN 16 PN 12,5 PN 10 PN 8
PE 100 _ PN 25 PN 20 PN 16 PN 12,5 PN 10

Wall Thicknesses b

mm
Nominal emin emax emin emax emin emax emin emax emin emax emin emax
size
16 3.0 3,4 2,3 c 2,7 2,0 c 2,3 _ _ _ _ _ _
20 3,4 3,9 3,0 3,4 2,3 c 2,7 2,0 c 2,3 _ _ _ _
25 4,2 4,8 3,5 4,0 3,0 3,4 2,3 c 2,7 2,0 c 2,3 _ _
32 5,4 6,1 4,4 5,0 3,6 4,1 3,0 3,4 2,4 2,8 2,0 2,3

40 6,7 7,5 5,5 6,2 4,5 5,1 3,7 4,2 3,0 3,5 2,4 2,8
50 8,3 9,3 6,9 7,7 5,6 6,3 4,6 5,2 3,7 4,2 3,0 3,4
63 10,5 11,7 8,6 9,6 7,1 8,0 5,8 6,5 4,7 5,3 3,8 4,3
75 12,5 13,9 10,3 11,5 8,4 9,4 6,8 7,6 5,6 6,3 4,5 5,1

90 15,0 16,7 12,3 13,7 10,1 11,3 8,2 9,2 6,7 7,5 5,4 6,1

110 18,3 20,3 15,1 16,8 12,3 13,7 10,0 11,1 8,1 9,1 6,6 7,4

125 20,8 23,9 15,1 16,8 12,3 13,7 10,0 11,1 8,1 9,1 6,6 7,4

140 23,3 25,8 19,2 21,3 15,7 17,4 12,7 14,1 10,3 11,5 8,3 9,3

160 26,6 29,4 21,9 24,2 17,9 19,8 14,6 16,2 11,8 13,1 9,5 10,6

180 29,9 33,0 24,6 27,2 20,1 22,3 16,4 18,2 13,3 14,8 10,7 11,9

200 33,2 36,7 27,4 30,3 22,4 24,8 18,2 20,2 14,7 16,3 11,9 13,2

225 37,4 41,3 30,8 34,0 25,2 27,9 20,5 22,7 16,6 18,4 13,4 14,9

250 41,5 45,8 34,2 37,8 27,9 30,8 22,7 25,1 18,4 20,4 14,8 16,4

280 46,5 51,3 38,3 42,3 31,3 34,6 25,4 28,1 20,6 22,8 16,6 18,4

315 52,3 57,7 43,1 47,6 35,2 38,9 28,6 31,6 23,2 25,7 18,7 20,7

355 59,0 65,0 48,5 53,5 39,7 43,8 32,2 35,6 26,1 28,9 21,1 23,4

400 _ _ 54,7 60,3 44,7 49,7 49,3 36,3 40,1 29,432,5 23,7 26,2

450 _ _ 61,5 67,8 50,3 55,5 40,9 45,1 33,1 36,6 26,7 29,5

500 _ _ _ _ 55,8 61,5 45,4 50,1 36,8 40,6 29,7 32,8

560 _ _ _ _ 62,5 68,9 50,8 56,0 41,2 45,5 33,2 36,7

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Polyethylene (PE)

630 _ _ _ _ 70,3 77,5 57,2 63,1 46,3 51,1 37,4 41,3

710 _ _ _ _ 79,3 87,4 64,5 71,1 52,2 57,6 42,1 46,6

800 _ _ _ _ 89,3 98,4 72,6 80,0 58,8 64,8 47,4 52,3

900 _ _ _ _ _ _ 81,7 90,0 66,2 73,0 53,3 58,8

1000 _ _ _ _ _ _ 90,2 99,4 72,5 79,9 59,3 65,4

Pipe series
SDR 21 SDR 26 SDR 33 SDR 41

S 10 S 12,5 S 16 S 20
Nominal pressure (PN) a

bar
PE 80 PN 6 d PN 5 PN 4 PN 3,2
PE 100 PN 8 PN 6 c PN 5 PN 4
Wall Thicknesses b

mm
Nominal emin emax emin emax emin emax emin emax
size
16 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
20 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
25 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
32 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

40 2,0 c 2,3 _ _ _ _ _ _
50 2,4 2,8 2,0 2,3 _ _ _ _
63 3,0 3,4 2,5 2,9 _ _ _ _
75 3,6 4,1 2,9 3,3 _ _ _ _

90 4,3 4,9 3,5 4,0 _ _ _ _


110 5,3 6,0 4,2 4,8 _ _ _ _
125 6,0 6,7 4,8 5,4 _ _ _ _
140 6,7 7,5 5,4 6,1 _ _ _ _

160 7,7 8,6 6,2 7,0 _ _ _ _


180 8,6 9,6 6,9 7,7 _ _ _ _
200 9,6 10,7 7,7 8,6 _ _ _ _
225 10,8 12,0 8,6 9,6 _ _ _ _

250 11,9 13,2 9,6 10,7 _ _ _ _


280 13,4 14,9 10,7 11,9 _ _ _ _
315 15,0 16,6 12,1 13,5 9,7 10,8 7,7 8,6
355 16,9 18,7 13,6 15,1 10,9 12,1 8,7 9,7

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Polyethylene (PE)

Pipe series
SDR 21 SDR 26 SDR 33 SDR 41
S 10 S 12,5 S 16 S 20
Nominal pressure (PN) a
bar
PE 80 PN 6 d PN 5 PN 4 PN 3,2
PE 100 PN 8 PN 6 c PN 5 PN 4
Wall Thicknesses b

w
Nominal emin emax emin emax emin emax emin emax

size
400 19,1 21,2 15,3 17,0 12,3 13,7 9,8 10,9
450 21,5 23,8 17,2 19,1 13,8 15,3 11,0 12,2
500 23,9 26,4 19,1 21,2 15,3 17,0 12,3 13,7
560 26,7 29,5 21,4 23,7 17,2 19,1 13,7 W15,2

630 30,0 33,1 24,1 26,7 19,3 21,4 15,4 17,1


710 33,9 37,4 27,2 30,1 21,8 24,1 17,4 19,3
800 38,1 42,1 30,6 33,8 24,5 27,1 19,6 21,7
900 42,9 47,3 34,4 38,3 27,6 30,5 22,0 24,3

1000 42,9 47,3 34,4 38,3 27,6 30,5 22,0 24,3

NOTE 1 bar = 0,1 MPa = 105 Pa; 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2

a PN values are based on C = 1,25


b Tolerances in accordance with ISO 11922-1:1997, grade V, calculated form (0,1emin+0,1)mm rounded up
to the next 0,1mm. For certain applications for e > 30 mm, ISO 11922-1:1997, grade T, tolerances may
be used calculated from 0,15emin rounded up to the next 0,1 mm.
c The calculated value of emin according to ISO 4065 is rounded up to the nearest value of either 2,0, 2,3
or 3,0. This is to satisfy certain national requirements. For practical reasons, a wall thickness of 3,0
mm is recommended for electrofudion jointing and lining applications.
d Actual calculated values are 6,4 bar for PE 100 and 6,3 bar for PE 80.

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Polyethylene (PE)

PE PE 100 (Orange) pipe, SABS ISO 4437 (Supply of Gaseous Fuels)

NOMINAL STANDARD DIMENSIONS RATION SDR(1)


DIAMETER SDR 17.6 SDR 11
D NOMINAL PRESSURE - PN(2)
mm
PN6 PN10 OVALITY(4)
e(3) ID Kg/M e ID Kg/M Straight Coiled
16 2.3 11.2 0.10 3 9.8 0.12 1.2 1.2
20 2.3 15.2 0.13 3 13.8 0.16 1.2 1.2
25 2.3 20.2 0.17 3 18.8 0.21 1.2 1.5
32 2.3 27.2 0.22 3 25.8 0.28 1.3 2
40 2.3 35.2 0.2B 3.2 32.3 0.43 1.4 2.4
50 2.9 44.0 0.44 4.5 40.4 0.67 1.4 3
63 3.6 55.5 0.69 3.8 50.9 1.06 1.5 3.8
75 4.3 66.1 0.9B 6.8 60.9 1.47 1.6 4.4
90 5.2 79.2 1.42 8.2 72.9 2.14 1.8 5
110 6.3 97.0 2.09 10 89.3 3.17 2.2 6
125 7.1 110.3 2.6B 11.4 101.3 4.11 2.5 -
140 B 123.5 3.3B 12.7 113.7 5.12 2.8 -
160 9.1 141.2 4.3B 14.5 129.7 6.73 3.2 -
180 10.3 158.8 5.57 16.4 146.0 8.50 3.6 -
200 11.4 176.5 6.84 18.2 162.2 10.48 4 -
225 12.8 190.7 B.62 20.5 182.5 13.27 4.5 -
250 14.2 220.0 10.64 22.7 203.0 16.32 5 -
280 15.9 247.2 13.39 25.4 227.4 20.46 9.8 -
315 17.9 278.3 16.86 28.6 255.8 25.90 11.1 -
355 20.2 313.5 21.46 32.3 288.1 32.96 12.5 -
400 22.8 353.2 27.25 35.4 324.6 41.83 14 -
450 25.6 397.5 34.42 40.9 365.4 52.85 15.6 -
500 28.4 441.2 42.44 45.5 405.8 65.33 17.5 -
560 31.9 494.6 53.33 50.9 454.7 81.83 19.6 -
630 35.8 556.6 67.31 57.3 511.4 103.66 22.1 -

(1) Thestandard dimensions ration SDR corresponds to the quotient between the outside diameter and the wall
thickness of the pipe. It is non-dimensional
(2) The nominal pressure PN corresponds to the maximum permissible operating pressure of the pipe at 20ºC, in bar
(3) e = Minimum Wall Thickness in mm
(4) Out of Roundness as per ISO 11922-1

This table is based on the standards ISO 4437 and ISO 4065/ISO 161/1.

The weights are calculated on the base of average diameter and thickness values, according to tolerance
specified in the standard ISO 11922-1.

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PolyVINYL chloride (Pvc)

Composition of PVC Pipe Material Fillers

PVC is a vinyl chloride polymer and is derived from Small amounts of fillers are added to PVC potable
coal or oil, and salt. water pipe formulations and have an effect on the
surface finish and may also modify the mechanical
The unique properties of polyvinyl chloride polymer are properties of the pipe.
further enhanced by the addition of special additives
to create tough, resilient and ductile compounds, Pigments
which are then used in the extrusion of PVC pipes. The
extrusion process itself is finely controlled and has a As most PVC pipes are coloured, an appropriate
direct bearing on the final properties of the product. pigment, which may have an effect on weathering
and long-term mechanical performance, has to be
The pipe manufacturer’s objective is to manufacture selected on the basis of cost and performance.
pipe within tight dimensional tolerances at
high output rates while maintaining mechanical
performance characteristics. Therefore polymers for Physical Properties
pipe extrusion are manufactured to a high degree of
consistency, with an emphasis on maintaining tight Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is a thermoplastic material
control of all key properties. and different formulations are used to obtain specific
properties for different applications. Pipes can
The nature and volumes of additives used vary to therefore be developed to meet the requirements
some extent, depending on the required end result. of a wide variety of applications and conditions. The
major part of each formulation is the PVC resin.
The essential additives used in PVC pipe and fittings
formulations are heat stabilisers, lubricants, impact General (PVC-U, PVC-M, PVC-0)
modifiers, processing aids and pigments.
The general properties given below are those for
Heat stabilisers PVC formulations used in pipe manufacture. It should
be noted that these properties are dependant on
Heat stabilisers are required to prevent decomposition temperature and the duration of stress application.
of the polymer during processing and outdoor use.
Biaxially oriented PVC (PVC-O) pressure pipes are
Lubricants produced by a special process where the molecules
are stretched or orientated to provide significant
The reason for adding lubricants is to provide good increase is in strength and toughness.
melt flow through the processing equipment as well
as a good physical appearance.

Impact modifiers

Impact modifiers are added to formulations to


specifically improve the impact strength and
toughness of the pipes manufactured.

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PolyVINYL chloride (Pvc)

Typical Physical Properties

Physical Units PVC-U PVC-M PVC-O


Co-efficient of linear expansion K-1 6 x 10-5 - -
Density kg/m3 1.4 x 10³ - -
Flammability (oxygen index) % 45 45 45
Shore hardness (D) 70 - 0 70 - 80 70 - 80
Softening point (Vicat - minimum) ºC 78 - 81 78 - 81 78 - 81
Specific heat J/kg/K 1.0 x 10³ 1.0 x 10³ 1.0 x 10³
Thermal conductivity (at 0º-50ºC) W/m/K 0.14 0.14 0.14
Mechanical
Elastic Modulus (long term - 50 years) MPa 1 500 1 400 1 800
Elastic Modulus (short term - 100 seconds) MPa 3 300 3 000 4 000
Elongation at break % 50 75 75
Poisons Ratio 0.4 0.4 0.4
Tensile strength (50 year - extrapolated) MPa 26 26 50
Tensile strength (short-term) MPa 52 48 75
Friction Factors
Manning 0.008 - 0.009 0.008 - 0.009 0.008 - 0.009
Hazen Williams 150 150 150
Nikuradse roughness (k) mm 0.03 0.03 0.03

Benefits • Lower mass - ease of handling and installation,


particularly suited to labour intensive projects.
• Resistance to abrasion and scouring. • Ease of repair.
• Resistance to attack by acid or alkaline soils. • Elastomeric, locked-in sealing ring system - no
• Impervious to chemicals found in sewerage. specialist installation skills required.
• Good flow characteristics. • Service performance in excess of 100 years.
• Not damaged by modern cleaning methods. • Unique combination of properties
• Good impact properties, an important factor in - Toughness.
installation, transportation and operation. - Stiffness.
• Durability and toughness - resistance to - High Tensile and hoop strength.
handling and installation damage. - Excellent resistance of creep.
• Corrosion resistance - greater service life. • Predictable long-term behaviour.
• Inflamable - self extinguishing. • Excellent strength/cost ratio.

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Applications for PVC Pipe Systems strength is required. In the case of PVC-O pipes
the process is one of biaxial orientation when
PVC pressure pipes are specified with confidence in the molecules are stretched (oriented) in both
the following applications: the circumferential (hoop) and axial (length)
• Water mains and reticulation systems. directions and thus aligned to provide strength in
both directions. A small diameter, thick-walled pipe
• Irrigation. is extruded and then stretched under controlled
• Mining conditions of temperature and pressure to achieve
optimum molecular orientation and improvement in
• Industrial applications. strength in the two directions.
• Sewer effluent control and water purification.
The increased resistance to internal pressure makes
• Enhanced hydraulic characteristics.
the product extremely well suited to pressure
applications. Biaxial orientation also leads to marked
Design increase in toughness properties.

General It is this combination of strength and toughness which


leads to the unique properties of PVC-O pipes. These
Once installed, PVC pressure pipes will operate properties provide:
efficiently under pressure, without failure or leakage,
• A very cost effective pressure pipe.
over long periods of time while simultaneously
preserving water quality. • Material efficiency, giving lower pipe mass for
easier handling and installation.
Modified PVC (PVC-M) Pressure Pipes • Higher flow capacity and lower pumping costs.
• Resistance to damage during transport, handling
PVC raw material formulations used for the
and installation.
manufacture of PVC pressure pipes result in specific
and controllable mechanical properties. Pipes can • Energy efficiency due to material efficiency
therefore be engineered to cater for a wide variety and improved flow capacity.
of applications and conditions. In particular, the
toughness of PVC-M pressure pipe is enhanced by the Hoop Stiffness and Creep Rupture Strength
incorporation of impact modifying additives.
The hoop stress (from Barlow’s formula) is plotted
The enhanced toughness enables the use of a higher against the time (in hours) to rupture, using log scales
design stress, which results in significantly reduced on both axes. The resultant creep rupture regression
mass. lines for PVC-U and PVC-O pressure pipes are given
below at 20°C.
Biaxially Oriented (PVC-O) Pressure Pipes

The molecular orientation process is used in the


manufacture of plastic products where increased

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Figure 1: Stress-Time Lines for PVC-4, PVC-M and PVC-0 at 20°C

PVC-O regression line as per SANS 1808-85

PVC-U and PVC-M regression lines per SANS 966-Parts 1 & 2

PVC-O design stress, SANS 1808-85 (28 MPa)

PVC-M design stress, SANS 966-2 (18 MPa)

PVC-U design stress, SANS 966-1 (12.5 MPa)

Notes PVC-M is 40Mpa, compared to 42Mpa for PVC-U pipe.


The failure stress of both PVC-U and PVC-M at 50
1. 20°C Regression Line years is similar, i.e. 25 MPa.
The line for PVC-U and PVC-M meets the
Testing at elevated temperatures is essential for the
requirements of SANS 966 while the line for PVC-O
identification of ductile-brittle transitions. Should
meets SANS 1808-85. Parts 1 and 2 respectively.
operating temperatures rise above 25°C the working
pressures should be de-rated.
2. 60° Regression Line
1000 hour failure stress (12,5MPa) as per SANS 966. Impact Resistance

The measurement of the impact performance under


Hydrostatic Strength external blows is a major requirement of SANS
966:2006. The ductility of PVC-M pipe is shown by
The addition of modifying agents reduces the short the standard quality control test for impact; when
term strength but leads to a considerable increase impacted by masses of up to 30kg dropped from a
in toughness in PVC-M pressure pipe, especially the height of 20m, there is no evidence of brittle failure
resistance of the material to the propagation of as experienced with PVC-U.
cracks. The 1 hour hydrostatic strength at 20°C of

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Pipe Dimensions
TABLE 1: SABS 966 -1

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

Size Class emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID

16 20 16 16.2 15.5 16.5 1.50 1.80 12.8

20 16 20 20.2 19.5 20.5 1.50 1.80 16.8


20 20 20.2 1.90 2.20 16
25 12 25 25.2 24.5 25.5 1.50 1.80 21.8
16 25 25.2 1.90 2.20 21
20 25 25.2 2.30 2.70 20.1
32 9 32 32.2 31.5 32.5 1.50 1.80 28.8
12 32 32.2 1.80 2.10 28.2
16 32 32.2 2.40 2.80 26.9
20 32 32.2 2.90 3.30 25.9
40 6 40 40.2 39.5 40.5 1.50 1.80 36.8
9 40 40.2 1.80 2.10 36.2
12 40 40.2 2.30 2.70 35.1
16 40 40.2 3.00 3.50 33.6
20 40 40.2 3.70 4.20 32.2
50 6 50 50.2 49.4 50.6 1.80 2.10 46.2
9 50 50.2 2.20 2.60 45.3
12 50 50.2 2.80 3.20 44.1
16 50 50.2 3.70 4.20 42.2
20 50 50.2 4.60 5.20 40.3
63 6 63 63.2 62.2 63.8 1.90 2.20 59
9 63 63.2 2.70 3.10 57.3
12 63 63.2 3.60 4.10 55.4
16 63 63.2 4.70 5.30 53.1
20 63 63.2 5.80 6.50 50.8
75 4 75 75.2 74.1 75.9 1.50 1.80 71.8
6 75 75.2 2.20 2.60 70.3
9 75 75.2 3.20 3.70 68.2
12 75 75.2 4.30 4.90 65.9
16 75 75.2 5.60 6.30 63.2
20 75 75.2 6.90 7.70 60.5
90 4 90 90.3 88.9 91.1 1.80 2.20 86.15
6 90 90.3 2.70 3.10 84.35
9 90 90.3 3.90 4.40 81.85
12 90 90.3 5.10 5.80 79.25
16 90 90.3 6.70 7.50 75.95
20 90 90.3 8.20 9.20 72.75
110 4 110 110.3 108.6 111.4 2.20 2.60 105.35
6 110 110.3 2.60 3.00 104.55
9 110 110.3 3.90 4.40 101.85
12 110 110.3 5.10 5.80 99.25
16 110 110.3 6.70 7.50 95.95
20 110 110.3 8.20 9.20 92.75
25 110 110.3 10.00 11.20 88.95

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Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

Size Class emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID

125 4 125 125.3 123.5 126.5 2.50 2.90 119.75


6 125 125.3 3.00 3.50 118.65
9 125 125.3 4.40 5.00 115.75
12 125 125.3 5.80 6.50 112.85
16 125 125.3 7.60 8.50 109.05
20 125 125.3 9.30 10.40 105.45
25 125 125.3 11.40 12.80 100.95
140 4 140 140.4 138.3 141.7 2.8 3.30 134.1
6 140 140.4 3.30 3.80 133.1
9 140 140.4 4.90 5.50 129.8
12 140 140.4 6.50 7.30 126.4
16 140 140.4 8.50 9.50 122.2
20 140 140.4 10.40 11.60 118.2
25 140 140.4 12.80 14.20 113.2
160 4 160 160.4 158 162 3.20 3.70 153.3
6 160 160.4 3.80 4.30 152.1
9 160 160.4 5.60 6.30 148.3
12 160 160.4 7.40 8.30 144.5
16 160 160.4 9.70 10.80 139.7
20 160 160.4 11.90 13.20 135.1
25 160 160.4 14.60 16.20 129.4
200 4 200 200.5 197.6 202.6 3.90 4.60 191.75
6 200 200.5 4.70 5.30 190.25
9 200 200.5 7.00 7.90 185.35
12 200 200.5 9.20 10.30 180.75
16 200 200.5 12.10 13.50 174.65
20 200 200.5 14.90 16.50 168.85
25 200 200.5 18.20 20.20 161.85
250 4 250 250.6 247 253 4.90 5.60 239.8
6 250 250.6 5.90 6.60 237.8
9 250 250.6 8.70 9.70 231.9
12 250 250.6 11.50 12.80 226
16 250 250.6 15.10 16.80 218.4
20 250 250.6 18.60 20.60 211.1
25 250 250.6 22.80 25.20 202.3
315 4 315 315.6 311.2 318.8 6.20 7.00 302.1
6 315 315.6 7.40 8.30 299.6
9 315 315.6 11.00 12.20 292.1
12 315 315.6 14.50 16.10 284.7
16 315 315.6 19.00 21.10 275.2
355 4 355 355.7 350.7 359.3 7.00 7.90 340.45
6 355 355.7 8.40 9.40 337.55
9 355 355.7 12.40 13.80 329.15
12 355 355.7 16.30 18.10 320.95
16 355 355.7 21.40 23.70 310.25
400 4 400 400.7 395.2 404.8 7.80 8.90 383.65
6 400 400.7 9.40 10.50 380.45
9 400 400.7 14.00 15.60 370.75
12 400 400.7 18.40 20.50 361.45
16 400 400.7 24.10 26.70 349.55
450 4 450 450.8 445.1 454.9 8.90 9.90 431.6
6 450 450.8 10.60 11.80 428
9 450 450.8 15.70 17.40 417.3
12 450 450.8 20.70 22.90 406.8
500 4 500 500.9 494 506 9.80 10.90 479.75
6 500 500.9 11.80 13.10 475.55
9 500 500.9 17.40 19.30 463.75
12 500 500.9 22.90 25.50 452.05

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

TABLE 2: SABS 966 - 2

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID


Size Class

50 6 50 50.2 49.4 50.6 1.50 1.80 46.8


9 50 50.2 1.50 1.80 46.8
12 50 50.2 1.70 2.00 46.4
16 50 50.2 2.20 2.60 45.3
20 50 50.2 2.70 3.10 44.3
25 50 50.2 3.30 3.80 43
63 6 63 63.2 62.2 63.8 1.50 1.80 59.8
9 63 63.2 1.60 1.90 59.6
12 63 63.2 2.10 2.50 58.5
16 63 63.2 2.70 3.10 57.3
20 63 63.2 3.40 3.90 55.8
25 63 63.2 4.10 4.70 54.3
75 6 75 75.2 74.1 75.9 1.50 1.80 71.8
9 75 75.2 1.90 2.20 71
12 75 75.2 2.50 2.90 69.7
16 75 75.2 3.20 3.70 68.2
20 75 75.2 4.00 4.60 66.5
25 75 75.2 4.90 5.50 64.7
90 6 90 90.3 88.9 91.1 1.80 2.10 86.25
9 90 90.3 2.20 2.60 85.35
12 90 90.3 3.00 3.50 83.65
16 90 90.3 3.90 4.40 81.85
20 90 90.3 4.80 5.40 79.95
25 90 90.3 5.90 6.60 77.65
110 6 110 110.3 108.6 111.4 2.20 2.60 105.35
9 110 110.3 2.70 3.10 104.35
12 110 110.3 3.60 4.10 102.45
16 110 110.3 4.70 5.30 100.15
20 110 110.3 5.80 6.50 97.85
25 110 110.3 7.20 8.10 94.85
122 6 122 122.3 120.6 123.4 2.40 2.80 116.95
9 122 122.3 3.00 3.50 115.65
12 122 122.3 4.00 4.60 113.55
16 122 122.3 5.20 5.90 111.05
20 122 122.3 6.50 7.30 108.35
25 122 122.3 8.00 9.00 105.15
125 6 125 125.3 123.5 126.5 2.50 2.90 119.75
9 125 125.3 3.10 3.60 118.45
12 125 125.3 4.10 4.70 116.35
16 125 125.3 5.40 6.10 113.65
20 125 125.3 6.60 7.40 111.15
25 125 125.3 8.20 9.20 107.75
140 6 140 140.4 138.3 141.7 2.80 3.20 134.2
9 140 140.4 3.50 4.00 132.7
12 140 140.4 4.60 5.20 130.4
16 140 140.4 6.00 6.80 127.4
20 140 140.4 7.40 8.30 124.5
25 140 140.4 9.10 10.20 120.9

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID


Size Class

160 6 160 160.4 158 162 3.20 3.70 153.3


9 160 160.4 4.00 4.60 151.6
12 160 160.4 5.20 5.90 149.1
16 160 160.4 6.90 7.70 145.6
20 160 160.4 8.50 9.50 142.2
25 160 160.4 10.40 11.60 138.2
177 6 177 177.5 175 179 3.50 4.00 169.75
9 177 177.5 4.40 5.00 167.85
12 177 177.5 5.80 6.50 164.95
16 177 177.5 7.70 8.60 160.95
20 177 177.5 9.40 10.50 157.35
25 177 177.5 11.50 12.80 152.95
200 6 200 200.5 197.6 202.6 3.90 4.40 191.95
9 200 200.5 4.90 5.50 189.85
12 200 200.5 6.50 7.30 186.45
16 200 200.5 8.60 9.60 182.05
20 200 200.5 10.60 11.80 177.85
25 200 200.5 13.00 14.50 172.75
250 6 250 250.6 247 253 4.90 5.50 239.9
9 250 250.6 6.10 6.90 237.3
12 250 250.6 8.10 9.10 233.1
16 250 250.6 10.70 11.90 227.7
20 250 250.6 13.20 14.70 222.4
25 250 250.6 16.30 18.10 215.9
315 6 315 315.6 311.2 318.8 6.20 7.00 302.1
9 315 315.6 7.70 8.60 299
12 315 315.6 10.20 11.40 293.7
16 315 315.6 13.50 15.00 286.8
20 315 315.6 16.60 18.40 280.3
355 6 355 355.7 350.7 359.3 7.00 7.90 340.45
9 355 355.7 8.70 9.70 336.95
12 355 355.7 11.50 12.80 331.05
16 355 355.7 15.20 16.90 323.25
20 355 355.7 18.70 20.70 315.95
400 6 400 400.7 395.2 404.8 7.80 8.70 383.85
9 400 400.7 9.80 10.90 379.65
12 400 400.7 13.00 14.50 372.85
16 400 400.7 17.10 19.00 364.25
20 400 400.7 21.10 23.40 355.85
450 6 450 450.8 445.1 454.9 8.90 9.90 431.6
9 450 450.8 11.00 12.20 427.2
12 450 450.8 14.60 16.20 419.6
16 450 450.8 19.20 21.30 409.9
20 450 450.8 23.70 26.20 400.5
500 6 500 500.9 494 506 9.80 10.90 479.75
9 500 500.9 12.20 13.60 474.65
12 500 500.9 16.20 18.00 466.25
16 500 500.9 21.30 23.60 455.55
20 500 500.9 26.40 29.20 444.85

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

TABLE 3: SABS 967 & 791

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID


Size Class

40 N/A 40 40.2 39.5 40.5 2.00 2.40 36


50 N/A 50 50.2 49.4 50.6 2.20 2.60 45
75 N/A 75 75.3 74.1 75.9 3.20 3.80 68
110 N/A 110 110.3 108.6 111.4 3.20 3.80 103
160 N/A 160 160.4 158 162 3.30 3.90 153

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID


Size Class

110 ND 110 110.3 108.6 111.4 2.20 2.80 105


HD 110 110.3 3.00 3.50 104
160 ND 160 160.4 158 162 3.20 3.80 153
HD 160 160.4 4.70 5.40 150
200 ND 200 200.5 197.6 202.6 3.90 4.50 192
HD 200 200.5 5.90 6.70 188
250 ND 250 250.5 247 253 5.00 5.70 240
HD 250 250.5 7.30 8.30 235
315 ND 315 315.6 311.2 318.8 6.20 7.10 302
HD 315 315.6 9.20 10.40 296
400 ND 400 400.7 395.2 404.8 7.90 8.90 384
HD 400 400.7 11.70 13.10 376
500 ND 500 500.9 494 506 9.80 11.00 480
HD 500 500.9 14.60 16.30 470

TABLE 4: SABS 1283 12,5 mpa

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID


Size Class

105 6 105 105.3 103.9 106.1 2.50 2.90 99.75


9 105 105.3 3.70 4.20 97.25
12 105 105.3 4.80 5.50 94.85
16 105 105.3 6.40 7.20 91.55
20 105 105.3 7.80 8.70 88.65
25 105 105.3 9.50 10.60 85.05
110 6 110 110.3 108.6 111.4 2.60 3.00 104.55
9 110 110.3 3.90 4.40 101.85
12 110 110.3 5.10 5.80 99.25
16 110 110.3 6.70 7.50 95.95
20 110 110.3 8.20 9.20 92.75
25 110 110.3 10.00 11.20 88.95

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

SABS 1283 12,5 mpa (continued)

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID


Size Class

125 6 125 125.3 123.5 126.5 3.00 3.50 118.65


9 125 125.3 4.40 5.00 115.75
12 125 125.3 5.80 6.50 112.85
16 125 125.3 7.60 8.50 109.05
20 125 125.3 9.30 10.40 105.45
25 125 125.3 11.40 12.80 100.95
140 6 140 140.4 138.3 141.7 3.30 3.80 133.1
9 140 140.4 4.90 5.50 129.8
12 140 140.4 6.50 7.30 126.4
16 140 140.4 8.50 9.50 122.2
20 140 140.4 10.40 11.60 118.2
25 140 140.4 12.80 14.20 113.2
155 6 155 155.4 153.1 156.9 3.60 4.10 147.5
9 155 155.4 5.40 6.10 143.7
12 155 155.4 7.10 8.00 140.1
16 155 155.4 9.40 10.50 135.3
20 155 155.4 11.50 12.80 130.9
25 155 155.4 14.10 15.70 125.4
160 6 160 160.4 158 162 3.80 4.30 152.1
9 160 160.4 5.60 6.30 148.3
12 160 160.4 7.40 8.30 144.5
16 160 160.4 9.70 10.80 139.7
20 160 160.4 11.90 13.20 135.1
25 160 160.4 14.60 16.20 129.4
200 6 200 200.4 197.6 202.6 4.70 5.30 190.2
9 200 200.4 7.00 7.90 185.3
12 200 200.4 9.20 10.30 180.7
16 200 200.4 12.10 13.50 174.6
20 200 200.4 14.90 16.50 168.8
25 200 200.4 18.20 20.20 161.8
210 6 210 210.4 207.5 212.7 5.00 5.70 199.5
9 210 210.4 7.30 8.20 194.7
12 210 210.4 9.70 10.80 189.7
16 210 210.4 12.70 14.40 183.1
20 210 210.4 15.60 17.30 177.3
25 210 210.4 19.10 21.20 169.9
225 6 225 225.5 222.8 227.2 5.30 6.00 213.95
9 225 225.5 7.90 8.80 208.55
12 225 225.5 10.30 11.50 203.45
16 225 225.5 13.60 15.10 196.55
20 225 225.5 16.70 18.50 190.05
25 225 225.5 20.50 22.70 182.05
250 6 250 250.5 247 253 5.90 6.60 237.75
9 250 250.5 8.70 9.70 231.85
12 250 250.5 11.50 12.80 225.95
16 250 250.5 15.10 16.80 218.35
20 250 250.5 18.60 20.60 211.05
25 250 250.5 22.80 25.20 202.25

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

SABS 1283 12,5 mpa (continued)

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID


Size Class

315 6 315 315.6 311.2 318.8 7.40 8.30 299.6


9 315 315.6 11.00 12.20 292.1
12 315 315.6 14.50 16.10 284.7
16 315 315.6 19.00 21.10 275.2
355 6 355 355.7 352 358 8.40 9.40 337.55
9 355 355.7 12.40 13.80 329.15
12 355 355.7 16.30 18.10 320.95
16 355 355.7 21.40 23.70 310.25
400 6 400 400.7 396.8 403.2 9.40 10.50 380.45
9 400 400.7 14.00 15.60 370.75
12 400 400.7 18.40 20.50 361.45
16 400 400.7 24.10 26.70 349.55
450 6 450 450.8 446.6 453.4 10.60 11.80 428
9 450 450.8 15.70 17.40 417.3
12 450 450.8 20.70 22.90 406.8
500 6 500 500.9 496.4 503.6 11.80 13.10 475.55
9 500 500.9 17.40 19.30 463.75
12 500 500.9 22.90 25.50 452.05

TABLE 5: SABS 1283 10 mpa

Outside Diameter O.D at any point Wall Thickness

emin emax emin emax emin emax Avg ID


Size Class

55 4 55 55.2 54.4 55.6 1.50 1.80 51.8


6 55 55.2 1.60 1.90 51.6
9 55 55.2 2.40 2.80 49.9
12 55 55.2 3.20 3.70 48.2
16 55 55.2 4.10 4.70 46.3
90 4 90 90.3 88.9 91.1 1.80 2.10 86.25
6 90 90.3 2.70 3.10 84.35
9 90 90.3 3.90 4.40 81.85
12 90 90.3 5.10 5.80 79.25
16 90 90.3 6.70 7.50 75.95

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

A comparison of the impact properties of PVC-U,


PVC-M and PVC-O pressure pipes tested as per SANS
specifications is given in the following table. Example:
200mm Class 16 pipe:

Mass of
Drop Temperature
Material Specification Striker Remark
Test (m) ºC
(kg)
PVC-U
2,0 23 5 Pipe must not shatter.
SANS 966-1

PVC - M
20,0 23 20 Pipe must fail in ductile manner (smooth hole).
SANS 966-2

PVC-O
2,0 0 10 Pipe must not shatter.
SANS 1808-85

Pipe Design Principles: PVC-U, PVC-M and The design stress is derived from the stress-time line
PVC-O (refer Figure I) which gives the minimum required
strength (MRS), as follows:
Design Stress (σs) and the Long-Term Safety Factor
σs = MRS
C
The design stress is defined as the constant stress
Where σs - Design stress
that the pipe wall can withstand for 50 years, with a
defined safety factor. MRS - Minimum required strength at
50 years
A safety factor or overall service (design) co-efficient C - Design coefficient (safety factor).
(C) is applied to take into account minor variations
in pipe quality, the possibility of the occurrence PVC-U pipes designed as per SANS 966 Part 1 have a
of brittle failure, slight surges or fluctuations in safety factor of 2.5 for pipe diameters of 90mm and
pressure or superimposed bending stresses or point below, and 2.0 for pipe diameters 110mm and above.
loads on the pipe, or slight surface damage resulting These safety factors relate to design stresses of 10.0
during installation (refer SANS 966, SANS 1808-85 and and 12.5 MPa respectively.
SANS ISO 4427). Thus the safety factor is applied to
account for any ‘unknown’ loading or environmental
Short-term Safety Factors
conditions.

It should be noted that the short-term safety factor


is much higher. In fact, the more rapid the rate of
pressure increase the higher the strength exhibited
by the pipe. Short-term safety factors for PVC-U,
PVC-M and PVC-O are over three times the design
working pressure. Thus at high pressurisation rates
pipes are better able to resist the higher stress levels
generated by surge.

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Strength and Toughness with the toughness of polyethylene. The excellent


long-term strength properties of PVC-U have been
PVC-M Pressure Pipes retained while the toughness of the material has been
enhanced by the incorporation of impact modifiers
The stress-time lines for PVC-U, PVC-M and PVC-O are which, even in relatively small amounts, significantly
related to the strength properties of these materials. change the characteristics of the pipe such that a
However, strong materials are not necessarily completely ductile failure mode may be achieved in
tough and in many cases can be quite brittle. The the fracture toughness, high speed impact and other
best example is glass which, in its purest form, is tests as per SANS 966 Part 2.
extremely strong but by the introduction of a small
defect or notch becomes very brittle indeed. This is PVC-M pressure pipe is produced so as to have the
due to the high stresses that are developed at the tip optimum balance between strength and toughness,
of the notch which leads to unstable crack growth. which allows the material to survive point loads, for
In the case of engineering materials, especially example, without embrittlement or loss in pressure
those used for pipes, in addition to strength and carrying capacity.
stiffness, a major requirement is toughness since it
is this property that increases the resistance of the The higher safety factors used in the design of PVC-U
material to the propagation of cracks. pipes are not necessary with tough materials such as
PVC-M since this material’s failure mode is dominated
The E modulus of PVC-U is almost three times that of by ductile yielding. The safety factor for PVC-M is 1.4
PE but, because of its higher susceptibility to brittle and a design stress of 18 MPa is used to calculate the
failure, this cannot be fully exploited. Thus, based wall thickness according to Barlow’s formula:
on the widely used safety factors of 2,0 and 1,25
respectively for PVC-U and HPDE, the wall thickness p.de
e =
of PVC-U is only about 50% that of the equivalent PE 2σs+ p
(PE 80) pipe and not 33% as it would be purely on a
where e - minimum wall thickness (mm)
strength basis.
p - maximum operating pressure (MPa)
The reason for the relatively large safety factor with de - mean external diameter (mm)
PVC-U against that of PE is the result of the greater
ductility of polyethylene. Larger safety factors are σs - design stress (MPa)
normally a requirement of materials having greater
strength, but perceived to be more brittle.
The improved material efficiency and hydraulic
In the development of PVC-M advantage was taken of capacity give significant life cycle energy savings.
many years of work on the science and technology of
alloys and blends, the objective being to develop a Thus, in addition to strength, toughness is the other
material with the long-term strength of PVC-U along important property of plastic pipe materials. PVC-O

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

is unique in that it has both very high strength and Lower surge pressures develop in PVC pipes as a result
high toughness. Long-term pipeline performance is of lower surge wave velocities and this has enabled
dependent on both these properties. Toughness can PVC pipes to be used in areas where water hammer
be defined as resistance to impact and resistance has caused pipes manufactured from other materials
to crack growth, ie. toughness prevents cracks from to fracture. Above all, it enables one to operate with
starting (initiation) and also prevents the transfer lower pressure classes for PVC.
(propagation) of cracks through the pipe wall. Cracks
or notches may be initiated during handling or Considerable research has been done on the fatigue
installation and result in stress concentration effects properties of plastic pipelines. Recently work has been
in the pipe which can eventually result in failure. It published on fatigue properties of PVC-M related to
is the toughness properties of PVC-O which prevents actual site conditions in water distribution systems.
this common cause of pipeline failure. It is concluded that PVC-M pipes will not fail under
conditions of dynamic and static stress within 50 years
The superior toughness properties arise from the provided the total stress does not exceed 17,5MPa and
biaxial orientation of the molecules which gives a the stress amplitude over one million pressure cycles
layered or laminar structure. (equal to 55 cycles per day for 50 years) is below 3,0MPa

Given the outstanding strength and toughness


Effect of Temperature Change
properties, a 50 year safety factor of 1,6 can be
applied for MRS 45 PVC-O materials, as specified in
Working Pressure
SANS 1808-85. Design stress of 28 MPa is used for
these PVC-O pipes resulting in material savings of
20°C is the standard design temperature for PVC
over 50% and 30% against the equivalent PVC-U and
pipes and rated working pressures are usually quoted
PVC-M products, respectively.
for this temperature. PVC pressure pipe functions
Advantages of PVC-O pipes which relate to the higher perfectly well below 20°C right down to freezing
design stress are increased hydraulic capacity and point and can in fact, withstand higher pressures than
improved handling and installation characteristics. those quoted at 20°C.
The greater flow capacity of PVC-O pipes provide
greater energy savings and thus have less effect on Above 20°C, working pressures must be down-rated
the environment than other pipe materials, including if the same factors of safety are to be held. The
traditional materials such as ductile iron. following reduction factors should be applied:

Pressure Variation and Surge Pressures


Working Temperature Multiplication
(°C) Factors
The stress regression lines are derived using constant
stresses; in pipelines the stress on the material is 20 1.0
rarely constant, varying as the pressure varies and as 30 0.9
superimposed loads vary.
40 0.7
The latter usually stabilise fairly quickly, at least within 50 0.5
the first year of the network life, but pressure variations 60 0.3
are there forever. As with any other pipe material, due
allowance for this must be made in designing a water
It should be noted that PVC-O pipes cannot be used at
reticulation network with PVC pipes. Anti-surge devices
operating temperatures above 45°C .
such as air vessels, non-return valves, programmed use
of pumps etc, should be incorporated where necessary.

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Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Sub Zero temperatures


Co-efficient of
Material
expansion mm/mºC
Water has been known to freeze in PVC pipes without
PVC 0,08
causing fractures, but permanent strain can result,
leading to severe reduction in the working life of the PE 0,2
pipe. Hence PVC pipes – like other pipes – should be Steel 0,012
protected against sub zero temperatures.
Copper 0,02
Expansion and Contraction
Ultra Violet Resistance
All plastics have high co-efficients of expansion and
contraction, several times those of metals. This Most plastics are affected by U.V. light. PVC pressure
must be allowed for in any installation by the use of pipes have pigments and light stabilisers incorporated
expansion joints, expansion loops etc. in their formulations and if pressure pipes have to
be exposed for an indefinite period, they should be
painted, preferably with one coat of white alkyd
enamel or PVA, or suitable covering should be
provided. Paint containing solvent thinners should be
avoided.

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Polypropylene (PP)

Physical Properties of Polypropylene (PP)

Typical Value Unit Test Method

Density 905 kg/m3 ISO 1183

Melt Flow Rate (230oC/2.16kg) 0.30 g/10 min ISO 1133

Melt Flow Rate (190oC/5.0kg) 0.50 g/10 min ISO 1133

Tensile Stress at (50 mm/min) 30 MPa ISO 527-2


Yield

Tensile Strain at Yield (50 mm/min) 10 % ISO 527-2

Tensile Modulus (1 mm/min) 1300 MPa ISO 527

Charpy Impact (+23oC) 50 kJ/m2 ISO 179/1eA


Strength, notched

Charpy Impact (-20oC) 5 kJ/m2 ISO 179/1eA


Strength, notched

Vicat Softening B (50 N) 91 oC ISO 306


Temperature

Heat deflection (HDT) 96 oC ISO 75 B


Temperature

Benefits & Specifications grained crystalline structure, giving it excellent impact


strength even at low temperatures, as well as increased
The major benefit of Polypropylene pipe is related to hydrostatic strength and improved chemical resistance.
its ability to withstand higher operating temperatures The colour is usually ivory grey.
(up to 95oC for water) than PE or PVC. In addition
PP is also resistant to a very wide range of corrosive PR-R (Polypropylene Random) is increasingly used in
chemicals and is therefore a very suitable material for hot and cold water systems and has excellent impact
most industrial applications. properties at low and high temperatures. The color is
typical blue, green or brown.
Suitable polymer for large diameter pressure pipe is
not produced locally and has to be imported. Major applications include hot industrial effluents,
plumbing, under floor heating and other industrial-
chemical installations.
Typically this would be a propylene homo-polymer
with high molecular weight, low melt flow and finely

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IDENTIFICATION OF PLASTICS

Appendix a: Identification of plastics

International identification number for benefit of recyclers

INT. ID
NO FOR
TYPE OF PLASTIC PROPERTIES COMMON USES RECYCLED IN :
BENEFIT OF
RECYCLERS

PET Clear, tough, solvent Soft drink and water bottles, Pillow and sleeping bag filling,
resistant, barrier to gas and salad domes, biscuit trays, clothing, soft drink bottles,
1 Polyethylene
moisture, softens at 80o salad dressing and containers carpeting, building insulation
Terephthalate

PE-HD Hard to semi-flexible, Shopping bags, freezer bags, Recycling bins, compost bins,
resistant to chemicals and milk bottles, ice cream buckets detergent containers,
High Density
moisture, waxy surface, containers, juice bottles, posts, fencing, pipes, plastic
2
Polyethylene opaque, softens at 75oC, shampoo, chemical and timber
easily coloured, processed detergent bottles, buckets,
and formed. pressure pipe, crates

PVC Strong, tough, can be clear, Cosmetic containers, Flooring, film and sheets,
can be solvent welded, electrical conduit, plumbing cables, speed bumps,
Unplasticised
softens at 80oC pipes and fittings, blister packaging, binders, mud flaps
Polyvinyl Chloride packs, wall cladding, roof and amts, new gumboots and
PVC-U PVC-M sheeting, bottles, pressure shoes
pipe
3 PVC-O
Plasticised Polyvinyl Flexible, clear, elastic, can Flexible hose, shoe soles,
be solvent welded cable sheathing, blood bags
Chloride and tubing
PVC-P

PE-LD Soft, flexible, waxy surface, Cling wrap, garbage bags, Bin liners, pallet sheets
translucent, softens at squeeze bottles, irrigation
4 Low Density
70oC, scratches easily tubing, mulch film, refuse
Polyethylene bags

PP Hard but still flexible, waxy Bottles and ice cream tubs, Pegs, ins, pipes, pallet sheets,
surface, softens at 140oC, potato chip bags, straws, oil funnels, car battery cases,
Polypropylene
translucent, withstands microwave dishes, kettles, trays
5
solvents, versatile garden furniture, lunch
boxes, packaging tape,
pressure pipe

PS Clear, glassy, rigid, opaque, CD cases, plastic cutlery, Coat hangers, coasters, white
semi-tough, softens at imitation glassware, low cost ware components, stationary
Polystyrene
95oC. affected by fat, acids brittle toys, video cases trays and accessories, picture
and solvents, but resistant frames, seed trays, building
to alkalis, salt solutions. products
Low water absorption,
when not pigmented is
6 clear, is odour and taste
free
Foamed polystyrene cups,
PS-E Special types of PS are takeaway clamshells, foamed
Expanded Polystyrene available for special meat trays, protective
applications packaging and building and
food insulation

OTHER Includes all resins and Automotive, and appliance Automotive components,
multi-materials (e.g. components, computers, plastic timber
Letter below indicates
7 laminates). Properties electronics, cooler bottles,
ISO code for plastic
dependent on plastic or packaging
type e.g SAN, ABS, PC,
combination of plastics
Nylon

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Chemical resistance of
therMOplastics used for pipes
Appendix B: Chemical resistance of Class 3: NO RESISTANCE all material belonging to this
thermoplastics used for pipes class are subject to corrosion by the conveyed
fluid and they should therefore not be used.
Introduction
Where no class is indicated this means that no data is
Pipes and fittings made of thermoplastic materials
available concerning the chemical resistance of the
are widely used in industries where conveyance
material in respect of the fluid to be conveyed.
of highly corrosive liquids and gases requires high
quality products featuring excellent corrosion Abbreviations and maximum
resistance. operating temperatures
Thermoplastic materials can often economically,
safely, reliably and efficiently replace coated steel,
stainless steel, glass and ceramic materials under
similar operating conditions.

The listed data are taken from the ISO TC 138/WG3 PVC-U
schedules which are based upon immersion tests. PVC-M 45-60
PVC-O
Variations in the analyses of the chemical compounds
or the operating conditions can significantly modify
the actual chemical resistance of the materials in
comparison with this guide indicated value.

Jointing PVC-C

Where threaded joints are made only PTFE tape


must be used for sealing.

Where fusion welding is used the resulting assembly


has the same chemical resistance as the materials
joined.

Degree of Chemical Resistance

This guide specifies three “Classes” of chemical


resistance:

Class 1: HIGH RESISTANCE all materials belonging


to this class are completely or almost Note: PTFE can withstand all compounds
completely corrosion proof against the reported in the chemical resistance table.
conveyed liquid at the specified operating
conditions. Abbreviations
Class 2: LIMITED RESISTANCE the materials belong- sat : saturated solution at 20°C
ing to this class are partially attacked by nd : undefined concentration
the conveyed chemical compound. The
deb : weak concentration
average life of the material is therefore
shorter, and it is advisable to use a higher comm. : commercial solution
safety factor than the one adopted for dil : diluted solution
Class 1 materials.

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PVC

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personal notes

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personal notes

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SAPPMA MEMBERSHIP

Corporate Members: SAPPMA Membership

Amitech South Africa (Pty) Ltd • Membership is open to Corporate bodies or individuals who
are employed by academic- or research institutes
Chemserve Systems (Pty) Ltd
• Application for Membership is evaluated by the Management

DPI Plastics (Pty) Ltd Committee based on the following criteria:

 Commitment to Business Ethics


Flo-Tek Pipes & Irrigation (Pty) Ltd
 Commitment to the promotion and implementation of
Gazelle Plastics (Pty) Ltd the published product standards

Hultec Africa (Pty) Ltd  Full agreement to the principles, activities and
constitution of the Association
Johnson Screenex
 Acceptance of a Code of Conduct
Marley Pipe Systems (Pty) Ltd
• The Association is bound by a Constitution and managed by a
MBT South Africa Committee elected on an annual basis by the members, with
an Executive Officer as Chairperson
Palmer Rubber (Pty) Ltd
• Funding is by way of annual membership fees

Petzetakis Africa (Pty) Ltd • All members have to sign a Code of Conduct, thereby agreeing
to the following:
Protea Polymers a Div of Omnia Group (Pty) Ltd
 Maintain high quality standards of manufactured and
Reef Plastics T/A Flexicon traded products

Safripol (Pty) Ltd  Comply and adhere to all relevant product standards
as stipulated by the SABS/ISO/CEN/ASTM/DIN/AS
Sasol Polymers specifications that are mutually agreed and accepted
by the Association
Spiral HDPE Pipe
 Market product in a responsible and
Sun Ace South Africa (Pty) Ltd professional manner that upholds the ideas and
standards of the Association
Individual Members:
 Agree that manufactured, marketed and installed
Bernard Reeksting products may be tested and results made available to
Centre for Polymer Technology (Pty) Ltd all the members of the Association

Dr Andre du Plessis  Agree that member qualification include

Raprex Polymers (Pty) Ltd ISO9001:2000 accreditation for the Company

 Accept that the Association reserves the right to


make public any repeated non-conformance to the
Code

Correct at time of Publication


 Abide by all guidelines and regulations as stipulated
in the Constitution

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SOUTHERN AFRICAN PLASTIC PIPE MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

Registration No 2008/019270/08

An Association incorporated under Section 21

CONTACT DETAILS

Website: www.sappma.co.za
E-mail: admin@sappma.co.za

18 Gazelle Ave, Corporate Park, Midrand


P/Bag X68, Halfway House, 1685
Tel 011 314 4021
Fax 086 550 7495

Consultants and users of plastic pipe benefit greatly by


using SAPPMA branded products as safeguard against
sub-standard quality and questionable ethics

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