Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Key words: hidradentitis suppurativa, acne inversa, autoimmune diseases, Crohn disease, spondylarthropathy, follicular occlusion,
autoinflammatory disorders, Th17 cell cytokines
Abbreviations: ABD, Adamantiades-Behçet’s disease; CARD, caspase activation and recruitment domain-containing protein 15;
CD, Crohn’s disease; CK, cytokeratin; HS, hidradenitis suppurativa; IL, interleukin; KID, keratitis-ichthyosis-deafness; NOD,
nucleotide oligomerization domain; SAPHO, synoritis-acne-pushelosis-hypertosis- asteitis; SCC, squamous cell carcinoma; TNF,
tumor necrosis factor
Comorbidities of hidradenitis suppurativa (acne inversa) were reviewed by extracting original and review publications
included in MEDLINE, EMBASE and COCHRANE libraries using the terms “hidradenitis,” “Verneuil” and “acne inversa.”
Follicular occlusion disorders, inflammatory bowel diseases, especially Crohn disease, spondylarthropathy, other
hyperergic diseases, genetic keratin disorders associated with follicular occlusion and squamous cell carcinoma were
the most common hidradenitis suppurativa comorbid diseases. A first classification of these major comorbidities and
their possible genetic background reveals a list of chromosome loci and genes, which could be hidradenitis suppurativa
candidates. Most of these diseases belong to the group of autoinflammatory disorders, where Th17 cell cytokines seem
to play a central role.
Update on Hidradenitis Suppurativa infection. A reduction in the percentage of NK cells over time
and a lower monocyte response to triggering by bacterial compo-
Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) or acne inversa is a chronic, nents was observed in patients with HS.17 Compared with normal
inflammatory, recurrent, debilitating skin disease that usually skin, increased numbers of Toll-like receptor 2-expressing infil-
presents after puberty with painful, deep-seated, inflamed lesions trating macrophages (CD68 +) and dermal dendocytes (CD209 +)
in the apocrine gland-bearing areas of the body, most commonly was detected in HS lesions.18 A perifollicular and subepidermal
the axillaries, inguinal and anogenital regions (Dessau definition, inflammation of CD3 +, CD4 +, CD68 +, CD79 + and CD8 + cells,
1st International Conference on Hidradenitis suppurativa, March the latter with a striking selective epitheliotropism, could be
30-April 1, 2006, Dessau, Germany).1 It was first described in detected in HS lesions.12 Clinical improvement with the applica-
1839 by Velpeau;2 Verneuil3 gave it its name in 1854 and associ- tion of anti-inflammatory therapies, especially the combination
ated it with the sweat glands. Later, HS was classified as a mem- of clindamycin with rifampicin and those targeted against the
ber of the follicular occlusion triad, along with Acne conglobata tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α and its receptor may be compat-
and dissecting cellulitis of the scalp.4,5 In 1975, pilonidal cyst was ible with the above pathogenetic theory.19-24
added as a member to this triad, forming the follicular occlu- One of the most obvious hallmarks of the disease is the
sion tetrad.6 In 1989, Plewig and Steger introduced the term acne restriction to the skin areas affected. The disease is essentially
inversa to substitute the term HS.7 However, both terms, HS and limited to areas of the skin that are rich in terminal hair fol-
acne inversa, are not proper denominations of the disease and do licles and apocrine glands, such as the axilla, the anogenital area
not represent its pathogenetic background. and mammary gland sites as well as the buttocks, nape of the
HS is a disease of the terminal hair follicle associated with neck and scalp (mostly at the inverse areas), although aberrant
lympho-histiocytic inflammation, granulomatous reactions, sinus lesions may occur.25,26 Clinically, it is characterized by recurring
tracts and scarring.1,9-12 The deep part of the follicle appears to be pustules, inflammatory nodules, abscesses, draining sinus forma-
involved.12-16 A consistent finding in histological studies of HS is tion, fibrosis, secondary lymphedema and double-ended pseudo-
a follicular occlusion due to hyperkeratosis, regardless of disease comedones. HS is not acne: Closed comedones are not seen,
duration, leading to occlusion of the apocrine gland with sub- since the deep part of the follicle appears to be involved and not
sequent follicular rupture, inflammation and possible secondary its superficial compartment, as seen with acne affecting convex
www.landesbioscience.com Dermato-Endocrinology 9
Table 1. Diagnostic criteria of hidradenitis suppurativa (adopted by Approach to Detect Comorbidities of HS
the 2nd International Conference on Hidradenitis suppurativa, March 5,
2009, San Francisco, CA US)27
HS has been associated with several disorders.25,26 In an effort
(1) Typical lesions, i.e., deep-seated painful nodules: ‘blind boils’ in
early lesions; abscesses, draining sinus, bridged scars and ‘tomb-
to obtain systematic information on the comorbidities of HS,
stone’ double-ended pseudo-comedones in secondary lesions original and review publications on HS published between
1945 and 2009 were extracted from the MEDLINE, EMBASE
(2) Typical topography, i.e., axillae, groins, perineal and perianal
region, buttocks, infra and inter mammary folds and COCHRANE data bases using the search terms “hidrad-
enitis,” “Verneuil” and “acne inversa.” First, publications, which
(3) Chronicity and recurrences
referred to a coincidence of HS with other diseases, were selected.
All three criteria must be met for establishing the diagnosis.
Subsequently, publications, whose patients met the diagnostic
criteria shown in Table 1,27 were only included in this report.
skin surfaces. HS inflammatory lesions are initially transient, but Patients who were possibly diseased from illness presenting differ-
gradually become intransigent and associated with significant ential diagnosis to HS, such as bacterial folliculitis, furunculosis,
scarring.1 The diagnosis of HS is primarily made on the basis of carbuncle, tuberculosis cutis, inflamed epidermoid cyst, granulo-
its characteristic clinical presentation and has to meet the crite- matous disease, actinomycosis and HS-independed carcinomas
ria adopted by the 2nd International Conference on Hidradenitis (axillary HS) were excluded. Differentiation in inguinal and
suppurativa, March 5, 2009, San Francisco, CA US (Table 1).27 perianal HS was more difficult and distinction should be made
The severity of the disease can be classified in three grades for from perirectal abscess, lymphogranuloma venereum, tubercu-
each area involved according to the Hurley classification,28 a losis cutis, actinomycosis, inguinal granuloma (which, unlike
simple system that is, however, static and not suitable for a global hidradenitis, may involve the vagina and cervix), cryptoglandu-
assessment of severity. On the other hand, the Sartorius score29 lar anal fistula and pilonidal sinus.7,40 Furthermore, publications
and its modified versions30,31 can also be used to assess severity. were excluded, which reported complications due to HS, such
It is a dynamic, global severity score, taking into account the as genital or breast lymphedema,41 fistulae to the lower anogeni-
extent of the disease and the number and severity of individual tal tract and rectum, nephrotic syndrome and amyloidosis,42,43
lesions. The Sartorius score yields a wide range of scores begin- anemia, hypoproteinemia, uveitis and metastatic squamous cell
ning at zero (inactive disease), with no upper limit. carcinoma.44 A first classification of the major comorbidities and
After initial conflicting reports on HS epidemiology, report- their possible genetic background also formed a list of chromo-
ing a varying prevalence of 0.3–4.1%, a global HS prevalence of some loci and genes, which could be HS candidates.
1% has been currently recorded in both a representative sample
of the French population (n = 10,000)32 and in a review of several Associated Diseases and Possible Comorbidities
studies.33,34 A female predominance has been widely reported,
the male: female ratio is 1:2.7 to 1:3.3.25,32 Multivariate analysis Hidradenitis has been associated with several endocrine disor-
showed a strong association with current smoking (odds ratio = ders, such as diabetes, acromegaly and Cushing disease; however,
12.6, 95% CI 8.6–18.4) and body mass index [odds ratio = 1.1 no common pathogenetic background can be suggested.45,46
(1.1–1.2)] for each increase of 1 U of Body Mass Index.32,35 On the other hand, several, possibly associated diseases or
The inheritance mode of HS remains unclear. The group of groups of diseases have been reported in association with HS
experts, who participated at the 1st International Symposium (Table 2). With the exception of the follicular occlusion triad,
has accepted that HS has to be a polygenic disease with spo- which seems to be closely associated with HS, however, with-
radic cases having defects in a number of critical genes involved out any current knowledge on common genetic etiology, the sig-
in its pathogenesis and familial cases with probably highly nificance of the other comorbid conditions remains unknown.
penetrant defect(s) in one of these genes.1 In some families, HS Interestingly, such associations include chronic, suppurative,
may show a single gene dominant inheritance. Fitzsimmons hyperergic (positive pathergy skin reaction) disorders, such
et al.36,37 studied three families with a total of 21 affected as inflammatory bowel diseases, especially Crohn disease,47-74
members and reported that the pattern of transmission and the synovitis-acne-pustulosis-hyperostosis-osteitis (SAPHO) syn-
number of affected individuals were consistent with an auto- drome,75-77 pyoderma gangraenosum,78,79 Adamantiades-Behçet
somal dominant inheritance. Later, they studied the families disease80-84 spondylarthritis without or with follicular occlusion
of 266 subjects with HS, comprising a total of 62 affected triad signs,85-95 genetic keratin disorders associated with follicular
individuals. They reported that 34% were first-degree relatives occlusion, such as Pachyonychia congenita, steatocystoma multi-
in 11 families. Moreover, a history of disease in three genera- plex, Dowling-Degos disease without and with arthritis,96-107 as
tions in a patients’ family suggested an autosomal dominant well as other genetic disorders, such as keratitis-ichtyosis-deaf-
inheritance. Genetic reports indicated several gene loci on ness (KID) syndrome45,108-110 and Down syndrome.111 At last the
chromosomes 6q25.1-25.2 and 9p12-p13.11,38 but no causative common development of epithelial tumors on HS lesions may be
gene(s) have yet been identified. A genome-wide scan in a four- considered as the consequence of chronic severe inflammatory
generation Chinese family identified a first locus for HS at skin disease.74,106,107,112-118
chromosome 1p21.1–1q25.3 into a 76 Mb region flanked by the Follicular occlusion tetrad. The disorders of follicular occlu-
markers D1S248 and D1S2711.39 sion (Acne conglobata, dissecting cellulitis of the scalp and
pilonidal cyst) are well known associations with HS.119,120 A given than in controls.25,123 Moreover, in contrast to the initial lesions
patient may have two or more disorders within the tetrad. A past of acne, no closed comedones are detectable in HS; the appar-
history of significant acne (long lasting, leaving scars) is recorded ently open comedones are never closed; they are double-ended
in 44% of males and 23% of females with HS.120 While dissect- “pseudo-comedones,” i.e., literally scars. Elevated sebum excre-
ing folliculitis of the scalp is rare (1%), pilonidal cyst is frequently tion, which is a major pathophysiological feature of acne, is
associated with HS, if both true sinus and midline intergluteal absent in HS.124
dimple are taken into account (30%).120 Inflammatory bowel diseases: Crohn disease (CD) and
Acne vulgaris is not associated with HS. Although in several ulcerative colitis. Several case reports and studies have suggested
studies 45, 50 and 70% of HS subjects, respectively4,120,121 were an association between CD and HS.47-74 In the largest of these
reported to have associated Acne vulgaris, current studies have reports, 24 of 61 (38%) HS patients also had a CD diagnosis.59
shown that concomitant acne is not frequent in HS (20% in In most of these cases, CD only affected the large bowel, and its
males, 10% in females)122 and that the prevalence of acne, hirsut- diagnosis preceded that of HS by 3.5 years; diagnosis of HS pre-
ism and irregular mensis are not more common in HS patients ceding that of CD has also been reported. It is postulated that the
www.landesbioscience.com Dermato-Endocrinology 11
local swelling and inflammation associated with CD may precipi- of IL-12B promoter polymorphism in ABD patients than in
tate the development of perianal HS in patients already prone to controls has also been described.139 HS is one of the less com-
this pathology. Cutaneous CD mimicking HS has to be taken monly appreciated complications.80-84 In vitro and in vivo stud-
into consideration in case of sole perianal lesions. Metastatic ies have shown that overactive neutrophils play a key role in the
CD125 cannot be easily differentiated from HS, however, the pathophysiology of ABD. The enhanced expression of adhesion
concept of autointoxication—HS may result from absorption of molecules may be responsible for the tissue neutrophilia and may
toxins from the bowel—may indicate that metastatic CD is actu- induce the dense infiltrate surrounding the sweat glands and/or
ally HS.58,64 Minor defects of intestinal mucosal barrier function hair follicles in patients with ABD.140,141
may result in failure of intestinal IgA to inactivate bacterial and Spondyloarthropathy. Spondyloarthropathy, one of the
dietary antigens. The IgA immune complexes formed are depos- commonest chronic rheumatic diseases, includes a spectrum
ited in the skin. Evidence for this theory includes the presence of of related disorders comprising the prototype ankylosing spon-
IgA immune complexes in dermatitis herpetiformis.126 Therefore, dylitis, a subset of psoriatic arthritis, reactive arthritis, arthritis
HS may also be the result of abnormal host-microbial interactions associated with inflammatory bowel disease and undifferentiated
involving pattern recognition receptors such as toll-like receptors spondyloarthropathy. HLA-B27 predisposes to all phenotypic
and nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD).127 subsets, which are considered as various phenotypic expressions
The caspase activation and recruitment domain-contain- of the same disease. An additional susceptibility locus has been
ing protein (CARD) 15, which corresponds to the IBD1 locus identified on 9q31-q34 (SPDA2).
mapped on chromosome 16q12, is the first identified non-HLA The association of HS with inflammatory, peripheral oligoar-
gene related with CD. CD-associated mutations are localized thritis and seronegative spondyloarthropathy has been reported.91
in the leucin rich repeats domain and cause loss of function of It is hypothesized that the arthropathy may represent a reaction to
NOD2, reducing sensing of muramyl dipeptide, the NOD2 chronic skin infection. There is a close association between flares
agonist and inducing NFκB signalling.128 Therefore, CARD15 of HS and exacerbation as well as severity of arthritis. Conversely,
mutation-associated CD may be caused by immunodeficiency improvement of arthritis follows surgical therapy for HS.
for enterobacteria, such as Mycobacterium avium paratuberculo- There are fewer reports of seronegative arthritis associated
sis.129 Nevertheless, because gene targeting experiments showed with the follicular occlusion triad86,91-95 than arthritis associated
conflicting results, the role of CARD15 mutations in CD is still with HS.85-90 Clinical findings include a chronic course with
unclear.130,131 NOD2 deficiency rather upregulates Toll-Like episodic inflammatory oligoarthropathy and/or axial arthritis.
Receptor 2 responses and increases susceptibility to bacterial Characteristic laboratory findings include anaemia of chronic
antigen-specific T-helper 1-type colitis, thus providing an appro- disease, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate and negative
priate model of human CD.132 However, a pilot study carried on rheumatoid factor. There is no increased incidence of HLA-B27
10 HS patients detected no CARD15/NOD2 polymorphisms.133 or other HLA-B alleles in contrast with other seronegative spon-
Synovitis, acne, SAPHO syndrome, pyoderma gangraeno- dyloarthropathies. A follow-up study of 44 patients with HS
sum, ABD. SAPHO syndrome is characterized by arthritis and/ and/or Acne conglobata confirmed this distinctive arthropathy,
or osteitis with preferential anterior chest wall involvement, and demonstrating a peripheral inflammatory arthropathy in 29%,
although most commonly associated with palmoplantar pustulo- an axial arthropathy in 14% or a combination of both in 57%.85
sis, it has also been associated with other chronic suppurative skin Rosner et al.85 and Bhalla and Sequeira86 reported that the axial
disorders including HS, Acne conglobata or Acne fulminans, and skeleton is not invariably involved and even when affected may
dissecting cellulitis of the scalp.75-77 be asymptomatic. Expression of multiple HLA-B and -DRW4 in
The association of pyoderma gangraenosum with several patients with HS and spondylarthropathy and elevation of circu-
systemic disorders is well established. In a review of 86 patients lating immune complexes suggest that immunogenetic mecha-
with pyoderma gangraenosum, arthritis was present in 37% of nisms may play a role in the concomitant manifestation of these
patients and inflammatory bowel disease in 36%, while 10% diseases,141 although Lapins et al.142 reported no HLA association
had a monoclonal gammopathy and 5% (four patients) had in Swedish patients with HS.
associated HS.134 The pathogenesis of pyoderma gangraenosum Genetic keratin disorders associated with follicular occlu-
is unknown, although numerous defects of the immune system sion. Pachyonychia congenita is a group of autosomal dominant
have been implicated including defective neutrophil chemotaxis ectodermal dysplasias in which the main phenotypic character-
and phagocytosis, reduced lymphokine production and migra- istic is hypertrophic nail dystrophy. In the Jackson-Lawler form
tion.136 A suggested common link for HS and pyoderma gan- (PC-2), pachyonychia is accompanied by multiple pilosebaceous
graenosum is a defective neutrophil function, which has been cysts, natal teeth and hair abnormalities. Heterozygous missense
dicussed in the literature.136,137 mutations in keratin 17 and/or keratin 6b genes cause either PC-2
ABD is a chronic, systemic, inflammatory, vascular disorder or a phenotype resembling steatocystoma multiplex. Several cases
of unknown aetiology, characterized by recurrent oral aphtho- have been described in which the patients with PC-2 also have
sis, genital ulcers, uveitis and skin lesions. Genetic factors have varying degrees of HS.96-99
been investigated, and a link with with HLA-B51 has been sug- Dowling-Degos disease is a rare autosomal-dominant geno-
gested, however, HLA-B51 represents a prognostic marker rather dermatosis with variable penetrance that is characterized by retic-
than an etiologic factor.138 A HLA-independent higher frequency ulated hyperpigmentation of the flexures, follicular plugging and
www.landesbioscience.com Dermato-Endocrinology 13
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