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Activated carbon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal or activated coal,


is a form of carbon that has been processed to make it extremely
porous and thus to have a very large surface area available for
adsorption or chemical reactions. [1] The word activated in the name
is sometimes substituted by active. Due to its high degree of
microporosity, just one gram of activated carbon has a surface area
in excess of 500 m² (or about 2 tennis courts), as determined
typically by nitrogen gas adsorption. Sufficient activation for useful
applications may come solely from the high surface area, though
further chemical treatment often enhances the adsorbing properties Activated carbon
of the material. Activated carbon is usually derived from charcoal.
Treatment for

Toxicology and Poison


Contents General
Toxicology (Forensic)
1 Production
Toxinology
2 Properties
History of poison
3 Classifications
3.1 Powdered activated carbon (PAC) Concepts
3.2 Granular activated carbon (GAC) Poison
3.3 Extruded activated carbon (EAC)
Venom
3.4 Impregnated carbon
Toxicant (Toxin)
3.5 Polymers coated carbon
Acceptable daily intake
3.6 Other
Acute toxicity
4 Properties of activated carbon Bioaccumulation
4.1 Iodine Number Biomagnification
4.2 Molasses Fixed Dose Procedure
4.3 Tannin LD50
4.4 Methylene blue
Lethal dose
4.5 Dechlorination
Toxic capacity
4.6 Apparent density
Toxicity Class
4.7 Hardness/abrasion number
4.8 Ash content Treatments
4.9 Carbon tetrachloride activity Antidote
4.10 Particle size distribution
Gastric lavage
5 Examples of adsorption Whole bowel irrigation
5.1 Heterogeneous catalysis Activated carbon
5.2 Adsorption refrigeration Cathartic
6 Applications Hemodialysis
6.1 Environmental applications Chelation therapy
6.2 Medical applications

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Hemoperfusion
6.3 Fuel Storage
6.4 Gas purification Incidents
6.5 Chemical Purification Bradford
6.6 Distilled alcoholic beverage purification Minamata
7 Mercury scrubbing Niigata
7.1 Disposal in the USA Alexander Litvinenko
Bhopal
8 See also
2007 pet food recalls
9 External links
Seveso disaster
10 References
List of poisonings

Related topics
Production Hazard symbol
Carcinogen
Activated carbon is produced from carbonaceous source Mutagen
materials like nutshells, wood and coal. It can be produced by List of Extremely Hazardous Substances
one of the following processes: Biological warfare
Food safety
1. Physical reactivation: The precursor is developed into
activated carbons using gases. This is generally done by
Biology portal
using one or a combination of the following processes:
Carbonization: Material with carbon content is
pyrolyzed at temperatures in the range 600-900
°C, in absence of air (usually in inert atmosphere with gases like argon or nitrogen)
Activation/Oxidation: Raw material or carbonised material is exposed to oxidizing atmospheres
(carbon dioxide, oxygen, or steam) at temperatures above 250 °C, usually in the temperature range
of 600-1200 °C.
2. Chemical activation: Prior to carbonization, the raw material is impregnated with certain chemicals. The
chemical is typically an acid, strong base, or a salt (phosphoric acid, potassium hydroxide, sodium
hydroxide, zinc chloride, respectively). Then, the raw material is carbonized at lower temperatures
(450-900 °C). It is believed that the carbonization / activation step proceeds simultaneously with the
chemical activation. This technique can be problematic in some cases, because, for example, zinc trace
residues may remain in the end product. However, chemical activation is preferred over physical
activation owing to the lower temperatures and shorter time needed for activating material.

Properties
A gram of activated carbon can have a surface area in excess of 500 m², with 1500 m² being readily
achievable[2]. Carbon aerogels, while more expensive, have even higher surface areas, and are used in special
applications.

Under an electron microscope, the high surface-area structures of activated carbon are revealed. Individual
particles are intensely convoluted and display various kinds of porosity; there may be many areas where flat
surfaces of graphite-like material run parallel to each other, separated by only a few nanometers or so. These
micropores provide superb conditions for adsorption to occur, since adsorbing material can interact with many
surfaces simultaneously. Tests of adsorption behaviour are usually done with nitrogen gas at 77 K under high
vacuum, but in everyday terms activated carbon is perfectly capable of producing the equivalent, by adsorption
from its environment, liquid water from steam at 100 °C and a pressure of 1/10,000 of an atmosphere.

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Physically, activated carbon binds materials by Van der Waals force or London dispersion force.

Activated carbon does not bind well to certain chemicals, including alcohols, glycols, ammonia, strong acids and
bases, metals and most inorganics, such as lithium, sodium, iron, lead, arsenic, fluorine, and boric acid. Activated
carbon does adsorb iodine very well and in fact the iodine number, mg/g, (ASTM D28 Standard Method test) is
used as an indication of total surface area.

Activated carbon can be used as a substrate for the application of various chemicals to improve the adsorptive
capacity for some inorganic (and problematic organic) compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia
(NH3), formaldehyde (HCOH), radioisotopes iodine-131 (131I) and mercury (Hg). This property is known as
chemisorption.

Classifications
Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface
characteristics and preparation methods. However, some broad classification is made for general purpose based
on their physical characteristics.

Powdered activated carbon (PAC)

Traditionally, active carbons are made in particular form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size
with an average diameter between .15 and .25 mm.[3] Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a
small diffusion distance. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass
through a designated mesh sieve or sieve. Granular activated carbon is defined as the activated carbon being
retained on a 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) and PAC material as finer material, while ASTM classifies particle sizes
corresponding to an 80-mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. PAC is not commonly used in a dedicated
vessel, owing to the high headloss that would occur. PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such
as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.

Granular activated carbon (GAC)

Granular activated carbon has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and
consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These
carbons are therefore preferred for all adsorption of gases and vapours as their rate of diffusion are faster.
Granulated carbons are used for water treatment, deodourisation and separation of components of flow system.
GAC can be either in the granular form or extruded. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8x20, 20x40, or 8x30
for liquid phase applications and 4x6, 4x8 or 4x10 for vapour phase applications. A 20x40 carbon is made of
particles that will pass through a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85%
passing) but be retained on a U.S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95%
retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50-mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most
popular aqueous phase carbons are the 12x40 and 8x30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface
area, and headloss characteristics.

Extruded activated carbon (EAC)

Consists of extruded and cylindrical shaped activated carbon with diameters from 0.8 to 45 mm. These are
mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust
content.

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Impregnated carbon

Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnant such as iodine, silver, cation such as Al, Mn,
Zn, Fe, Li, Ca have also been prepared for specific application in air pollution control especially in museums and
galleries. Due to antimicrobial/antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for
purifications of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water
with a mixture of activated carbon and flocculating agent Al(OH)3. Impregnated carbons are also used for the
adsorption of H2S and mercaptans. Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported.

Polymers coated carbon

This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible polymer to give a smooth and
permeable coat without blocking the pores. The resulting carbon is useful for hemoperfusion. Hemoperfusion is a
treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in
order to remove toxic substances from the blood.

Other

Activated carbon is also available in special forms such as cloths and fibres. The "Carbon cloth" for instance is
used in personnel protection for the military.

Properties of activated carbon


Iodine Number

Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. Iodine number is the most fundamental parameter used to
characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher
degree of activation), often reported in mg/g (typical range 500-1200 mg/g). It is a measure of the micropore
content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 Å, or up to 2 nm) by adsorption of iodine from solution. It is equivalent
to surface area of carbon between 900 m²/g and 1100 m²/g. It is the standard measure for liquid phase
applications.

Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine adsorbed by one gram of carbon when the iodine
concentration in the residual filtrate is 0.02 normal. Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed
in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest.
Typically, water treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is
used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with
caution as chemical interactions with the adsorbate may affect the iodine uptake giving false results. Thus, the
use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it
has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between
iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application.

Molasses

Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. Molasses number or molasses efficiency is a measure
of the mesopore content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 Å, or larger than 2 nm) by adsorption of
molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95-600).
Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a
percentage (range 40%-185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European

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molasses number (range 525-110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number.

Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been
dilited and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses
number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume
may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may
enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific
application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of
adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher
molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the
adsorption space.

Tannin

Tannins are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of macropores and
mesopores adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration
(range 200 ppm-362 ppm).

Methylene blue

Some carbons have a mesopore (20 Å to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules,
such as the dye methylene blue. Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g/100g (range 11-28 g/100g).

Dechlorination

Some carbons are evaluated based on the dechlorination half-value length, which measures the chlorine-removal
efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half-value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the
chlorine level of a flowing stream from 5 ppm to 3.5 ppm. A lower half-value length indicates superior
performance.

Apparent density

Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better quality activated carbon.

Hardness/abrasion number

It is a measure of the activated carbon’s resistance to attrition. It is important indicator of activated carbon to
maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces imposed by backwashing, etc. There are large
differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity level.

Ash content

It reduces the overall activity of activated carbon. It reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The metals (Fe2O3)
can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water soluble ash content is more significant
than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal
growths, a carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to
avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant/algal growth.

Carbon tetrachloride activity

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Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated carbon tetrachloride vapour.

Particle size distribution

The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate
of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will
affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits.

Examples of adsorption
Heterogeneous catalysis

The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid catalyst interacts with a
gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond,
altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not
normally be available to it.

Adsorption refrigeration

Adsorption refrigeration and heat pump cycles rely on the adsorption of a refrigerant gas into an adsorbent at
low pressure and subsequent desorption by heating. The adsorbent acts as a "chemical compressor" driven by
heat and is, from this point of view, the "pump" of the system. It consists of a solar collector, a condenser or
heat-exchanger and an evaporator that is placed in a refrigerator box. The inside of the collector is lined with an
adsorption bed packed with activated carbon adsorbed with methanol. The refrigerator box is insulated filled
with water. The activated carbon can adsorb a large amount of methanol vapours in ambient temperature and
desorb it at a higher temperature (around 100 degrees Celsius). During the daytime, the sunshine irradiates the
collector, so the collector is heated up and the methanol is desorbed from the activated carbon. In desorption, the
liquid methanol adsorbed in the charcoal heats up and vaporizes. The methanol vapour condenses and is stored
in the evaporator.

At night, the collector temperature decreases to the ambient temperature, and the charcoal adsorbs the methanol
from the evaporator. The liquid methanol in the evaporator vaporizes and absorbs the heat from the water
contained in the trays. Since adsorption is a process of releasing heat, the collector must be cooled efficiently at
night. As mentioned above, the adsorption refrigeration system operates in an intermittent way to produce the
refrigerating effect.

Helium gas can also be 'pumped' by thermally cycling activated carbon 'sorption pumps' between 4 kelvins and
higher temperatures. An example of this is to provide the cooling power for the Oxford Instruments AST series
dilution refrigerators. 3He vapour is pumped from the surface of the dilute phase of a mixture of liquid 4He and
its isotope 3He. The 3He is adsorbed onto the surfaces of the carbon at low temperature (typically <4K), the
regeneration of the pump between 20 and 40 K returns the 3He to the concentrated phase of the liquid mixture.
Cooling occurs at the interface between the two liquid phases as 3He 'evaporates' across the phase boundary. If
more than one pump is present in the system a continuous flow of gas and hence constant cooling power can be
obtained, by having one sorption pump regenerating while the other is pumping. Systems such as this allow
temperatures as low as 10 mK (0.01 kelvin) to be obtained with very few moving parts.

Applications

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Activated carbon is used in gas purification, gold purification, metal extraction, water purification, medicine,
sewage treatment, air filters in gas masks and filter masks, filters in compressed air and many other applications.

One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing field. It is very widely
employed for purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is a main purification technique for
removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of organic chemicals are added to
plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness,
ductility, etc. Due to passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic
reduction, organic additives generate unwanted break down products in solution. Their excessive build up can
adversely affect the plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal. Activated carbon treatment
removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level.

Environmental applications

Carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from air or water streams both in the field
and in industrial processes such as:

Spill cleanup
Groundwater remediation
Drinking water filtration
Air purification
Volatile organic compounds capture from painting, dry cleaning, gasoline dispensing operations, and other
processes.

In 2007, West-Flanders University (in Belgium) began research in water treatment after festivals [4]. A full scale
activated carbon installation, was built at the Dranouter music festival in 2008, with plans to utilize the
technology to treat water at this festival for the next 20 years.

Activated charcoal is also used for the measurement of radon concentration in air.

Medical applications

Activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion.

It is thought to bind to poison and prevent its absorption by the gastrointestinal tract. In cases of suspected
poisoning, medical personnel administer activated charcoal on the scene or at a hospital's emergency department.
Dosing is usually empirical at 1 gram/kg of body weight ( for adolescents or adults, give 50–100 g ), usually
given only once, but depending on the drug taken, it may be given more than once. In rare situations activated
charcoal is used in Intensive Care to filter out harmful drugs from the blood stream of poisoned patients.
Activated carbon has become the treatment of choice for many poisonings, and other decontamination methods
such as ipecac-induced emesis or stomach pumping are now used rarely.

While activated carbon is useful in an acute poisoning situation, it has been shown to not be effective in long
term accumulation of toxins, such as with the use of toxic herbicides.[5]

Mechanisms of action:

Binding of the toxin to prevent stomach and intestinal absorption. Binding is reversible so a cathartic such
as sorbitol may be added as well.
It interrupts the enterohepatic circulation of some drugs/toxins and their metabolites

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Incorrect application (e.g. into the lungs) results in pulmonary aspiration which can sometimes be fatal if
immediate medical treatment is not initiated.[6] The use of activated charcoal is contraindicated when the
ingested substance is an acid, an alkali, or a petroleum product.

For pre-hospital use, it comes in plastic tubes or bottles, commonly 12.5 or 25 grams, pre-mixed with water. The
trade names include InstaChar, SuperChar, Actidose, and Liqui-Char, but it is commonly called Activated
Charcoal.

Ingestion of activated carbon prior to consumption of ethanol has been shown to reduce absorption of alcohol
into the blood. 5 to 15 milligrams of charcoal per kilogram of body weight taken at the same time as 170 ml of
pure ethanol (which equals about 10 servings of an alcoholic beverage alcohol, or 17 shots), over the course of
one hour, has very apparent effects at reducing potential blood alcohol content[7]

In the past charcoal biscuit was sold in England in the early 19th century, originally as an antidote to flatulence
and stomach trouble.[8]

Tablets of activated charcoal are still used as a folk remedy and over-the-counter drug to treat diarrhea,
indigestion, and flatulence.[9] They were also used in the past by doctors for this purpose. There is some
evidence of its effectiveness as a treatment for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS),[10] and to prevent diarrhea in
cancer patients who have received irinotecan.[11] It can interfere with the absorbency of some medications, and
lead to unreliable readings in medical tests such as the guaiac card test.[12] A type of charcoal biscuit has been
marketed as a pet care product.

Activated charcoal is also used for bowel preparation by reducing intestinal gas content before abdominal
radiography to visualize bile, pancreatic and renal stones.

Fuel Storage

Research is being done testing various activated carbons ability to store natural gas and hydrogen gas. The
porous material acts like a sponge for different types of gasses. The gas is attracted to the carbon material via
Van der Waals forces. Some carbons have been able to achieve bonding energies of 5-10 KJ per mol. The gas
may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of
hydrogen gas extracted for use in a hydrogen fuel cell. Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas
storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that could
would be much more feasible than bulky on board compression tanks in vehicles. The United States Department
of Energy has specified certain goals to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano-porous
carbon materials. As of yet all of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the
ALL-CRAFT program, are continuing to conduct work in this promising field.

Gas purification

Filters with activated carbon are usually used in compressed air and gas purification to remove oil vapours,
odours, and other hydrocarbons from the air. The most common designs use a 1 stage or 2 stage filtration
principle in which activated carbon is embedded inside the filter media. Activated charcoal is also used in
spacesuit Primary Life Support Systems. Activated charcoal filters are used to retain radioactive gases from a
nuclear boiling water reactor turbine condenser. The air vacuumed from the condenser contains traces of
radioactive gases. The large charcoal beds adsorb these gases and retains them while they rapidly decay to
non-radioactive solid species. The solids are trapped in the charcoal particles, while the filtered air passes
through.

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Chemical Purification

Commonly used to purify homemade non-dangerous chemicals such as sodium acetate. It is then filtered out.

Distilled alcoholic beverage purification

See also: Lincoln County Process

Activated carbon filters can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can affect color,
taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate
will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor
and taste.

Mercury scrubbing
Activated carbon, often impregnated with iodine or sulfur, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from coal
fired power stations, medical incinerators, and from natural gas at the wellhead. This carbon is a specialty
product costing more than $4.00 per kg. However, it is often not recycled.

Disposal in the USA

The mercury laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma. If the activated carbon contains less than 260
ppm mercury, Federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling.
However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high mercury subcategory and is
banned from landfilling (Land-Ban Rule). It is this material which is now accumulating in warehouses and in
deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 1000 tons per year.

The problem of disposal of mercury laden activated carbon is not unique to the U.S. In the Netherlands this
mercury is largely recovered[13] and the activated carbon is disposed by complete burning.

See also
Carbon black Onboard refueling vapor Zeocarbon
Carbon filtering recovery
Kværner-process Sumi

External links
"Activated Carbon for water filtration" (http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/h2oqual/watsys/ae1029w.htm) -
Treatment Systems for Household Water Supplies] AE-1029, February 1992
"Imaging the atomic structure of activated carbon" (http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~scsharip
/Activated_carbon_JPCM.pdf) - JOURNAL OF PHYSICS: CONDENSED MATTER
Engber, Daniel (Nov. 28, 2005). "How Does Activated Carbon Work?" (http://www.slate.com
/id/2131130/) . Slate.

References
1. ^ "Properties of Activated Carbon", CPL Caron Link, accessed 2008-05-02 (http://www.activated-carbon.com

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Activated carbon - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon

/1-3.html)
2. ^ Value Added Products from Gasification (http://cgpl.iisc.ernet.in/site/Portals/0/Publications/Presentations
/Bio-Energy/Value%20Added%20Products%20From%20Gasification%20%20-%20Activated%20Carbon.pdf) -
Acitivated Carbon, By Shoba jhadhav, The Combustion,Gasification and Propulsion Laboratory (CGPL) at the
Indian Institute of Science (IISc)
3. ^ http://en.mimi.hu/astronomy/granule.html
4. ^ "http://www.labmeeting.com/paper/28552316/van-hulle-2008-sustainable-wastewater-treatment-of-temporary-
events-the-dranouter-music-festival-case-study">Sustainable wastewater treatment of temporary events: the
Dranouter Music Festival case study</a>. Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association
on Water Pollution Research. 2008;58(8):1653-7.
5. ^ Eddleston M, Juszczak E, Buckley NA, et al. (2008). "Multiple-dose activated charcoal in acute self-poisoning: a
randomised controlled trial". Lancet 371 (9612): 579. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60270-6 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2808%2960270-6) .
6. ^ Elliott C, Colby T, Kelly T, Hicks H (1989). "Charcoal lung. Bronchiolitis obliterans after aspiration of activated
charcoal". Chest 96 (3): 672–4. doi:10.1378/chest.96.3.672 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1378%2Fchest.96.3.672) . PMID
2766830.
7. ^ Procter, Richard & Stanton Anondson, "Method of altering intoxicating effects of alcohol", US 4594249
(http://v3.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US4594249) , issued 1986
8. ^ Rolland, Jacques L. (2006). The Food Encyclopedia: Over 8,000 Ingredients, Tools, Techniques and People.
Robert Rose. pp. 148. ISBN 0778801500.
9. ^ Stearn, Margaret (2007). Warts and all: straight talking advice on life's embarrassing problems
(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSRmxC47VNMC&printsec=frontcover#PPA333) . London: Murdoch Books.
p. 333. ISBN 978-1-92125984-5. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aSRmxC47VNMC&
printsec=frontcover#PPA333. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
10. ^ Hübner WD, Moser EH (2002). "Charcoal tablets in the treatment of patients with irritable bowel syndrome
(https://www.advancesintherapy.com/detail.aspx?ID=276) ". Adv Ther 19 (5): 245–52. doi:10.1007/BF02850364
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02850364) . PMID 12539884. https://www.advancesintherapy.com
/detail.aspx?ID=276.
11. ^ Michael M, Brittain M, Nagai J, et al. (Nov 2004). "Phase II study of activated charcoal to prevent irinotecan-
induced diarrhea". J Clin Oncol. 22 (21): 4410–7. doi:10.1200/JCO.2004.11.125 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1200%2FJCO.2004.11.125) . PMID 15514383.
12. ^ Gogel HK, Tandberg D, Strickland RG (Sep 1989). "Substances that interfere with guaiac card tests: implications
for gastric aspirate testing". Am J Emerg Med 7 (5): 474–80. doi:10.1016/0735-6757(89)90248-9 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1016%2F0735-6757%2889%2990248-9) . PMID 2787993.
13. ^ BMT-Begemann, Mercury waste treatment facilities (http://www.bmt-begemann.nl/index.html)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon"
Categories: Carbon forms | Filters | Toxicology | Excipients

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