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carbohydrates and shellac are some examples. Proteinaceous fibre (wool, silk) and
carbohydrate fibres (cotton, flax) have been in use for ages. Early efforts to widen the
and vulcanization of natural rubber are some examples of the development of more
Depending on the application, the ideal lifetime of a polymeric product could vary
from weeks to years. The stability and durability of polymeric materials during
are considerable economic and environmental benefits if we can design polymers for
short or long lifetimes as well as prevent the release of harmful substances from the
Polymers with their tunable functionalities offer the ability to rationally design
micro- and nano-engineered materials. Their synthesis as thin films have significant
1,2
advantages due to the reduced amounts of materials used, faster processing times
and the ability to modify the surface while preserving the structural properties of the
bulk. Furthermore, their low cost, ease of fabrication and the ability to be easily
integrated into processing lines, make them attractive alternatives to their inorganic
3-5
thin film counterparts. Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) as a polymer thin-film
1
polymer thin films preserving all the functionalities. Solventless, vapour-phase
deposition enables the integration of polymer thin films or nanostructures into micro-
Even people who have never heard of polymer thin-films benefit nearly every day
from products made from these high-tech coatings. They are key ingredients in the
slow-release fertilizer they apply to their lawns and the timed-release pills in their
Every day we are exposed to myriad of applications of polymeric thin films. This is
whether it occurs in food wrapping, the packaging of virtually any item that is sold, or
Thin-film technologies have advanced significantly over the last several decades,
over bulk materials due to their large surface-to volume ratios, desirable for
applications requiring enhanced surface interactions. Thin films can also be employed
deposition techniques, polymer films continue to garner more recognition in the thin-
monomers. The organic nature of the polymer thin films makes them invaluable for
biomedical applications and the ability to tune the response of the films by
functionalization significantly expands the application areas of the polymer thin films.
Furthermore, the mechanical robustness, ease of processing and the low cost of
2
polymer thin films are desirable characteristics for industrial applications. Coating
surfaces with polymeric thin films serves mainly two purposes: changing the surface
properties of the substrate for specific applications or creating a platform for further
functionalization.
The major constituents of higher plant cell walls area group of polymers with
structural component responsible for much of the mechanical strength of the cell wall.
Its structural properties derive from its ability to retain a semicrystalline state of
OH OH OH
H O H O H O
H H H
OH H O OH H O O
OH H
H H H
H OH H OH H OH
addition to its exploitation in the native form for traditional industries like paper and
application, and provides film-like materials, which can be processed into a various
way such as spinning or casting. Cellulose has the potential to become a key resource
3
in the development of sustainable biofuels and biomaterials. Although traditionally
employed for paper production and some key commodity polymers, the chemistry of
cellulose and its applications are undergoing a renaissance. Recent studies have
demonstrated its applicability as a value added material for improving the physical
extension of these effects, cellulosic whiskers have been incorporated into several
materials in many industrial applications. This trend has at the same time contributed
fibres initially used are partially replaced by super absorbing synthetic polymers.
Other areas are wiping and towel products, for which requirements for materials with
made polymers.
with a large amount of relatively easily accessible hydroxyl units that can be used for
materials are commonly carried out to make cellulosic polymers such as cellulose
reactions are carried out under such conditions that the fibres inherent properties, such
4
as strength and stiffness, are destroyed and the product obtained is a soluble and
processable polymer. During the latter part of the century, scientists have intensified
efforts to modify fibres in such a way that the inherent fibre properties are preserved.
One of the key properties required for materials intended to be used in hygienic
products is their ability to absorb liquids. It has been pointed out that the absorption
behaviour of single cellulosic fibres. The Wilhelmy plate technique has been found to
fibres.
for such modifications. In the last few decades, science and technology have started to
move in the direction of renewable raw materials that are environmentally friendly
and sustainable. Biopolymers, such as cellulose, starch, chitin and chitosan have been
assessed, not only as sustainable resources, but also as attractive materials with
composite materials with enhanced properties and applications in several fields. The
an example of this strategy. More recently, micro and nanofibrillated cellulose (MFC
materials due to their high mechanical performance and to the fact that cellulose is
one of the most abundant natural resources. Several studies have been published
5
dealing with the preparation and characterization of micro and nanofibrillated
Polyurethane.
nature, wide variety of feed stocks available throughout the world, low cost, low
density, high specific strength and modulus, nonfood agricultural-based economy, low
comparatively easy processability due to their nonabrasive nature, which allows high
filling levels and significant cost savings, and finally relatively high reactive surface,
which can be used for grafting specific groups. Thus, the use of lignocellulosic fibres
disposability, and raw materials use. A major disadvantage of cellulose fibres is their
hydrophilic character that makes them, in principle, sparingly miscible with less polar
reagents having functional groups that are capable of bonding to the hydroxyl groups
high moisture absorption and the resulting swelling and decrease in mechanical
6
2000C because lignocellulosic materials exhibit significant degradation processes
above this temperature. In spite of that, higher thermal stability, less colour, more
cellulose fibres. In the latter material, lignin and hemicellulose residues have been
virtually eliminated from the natural fibre and, therefore, more robust filler is thus
instance fibre/matrix adhesion, volume fraction of fibre, fibre aspect ratio, fibre
orientation, and stress/transfer efficiency through the interface. Fibre size and
composites, because they define the degree of fibre dispersion and their impact on
associated with the degree of dispersion or agglomeration of the fibres, because high
fibre contents in the matrix produce fibre agglomeration, caused by the tendency of
the filler to form hydrogen bonding with each other. As mentioned above, fibre
dispersion has a stronger effect in the mechanical properties of the composites, which
can ultimately be reflected on other potential properties such as barrier properties. The
the materials leading to slower diffusion processes and, hence, to lower permeability.
To enhance barrier properties to gases and vapours the filler should be less permeable
or impermeable and have optimum dispersion and a high aspect ratio (filler
length/thickness ratio). Fibre size is also relevant because by reducing fibre size, high
surface to volume ratio of the filler in the matrix is achieved, and this makes possible
to strongly impact properties with low additions of the reinforcing elements without
properties and material toughness. The literature results show that composites with a
7
smaller particle size and good dispersion have higher properties compared to others of
volume ratio of the filler in the matrix is achieved, and this makes possible to strongly
impact properties with low additions of the reinforcing elements without detrimental
material toughness. The literature results show that composites with a smaller particle
size and to the nanometer level as in the case of the so-called Micro Fibrillated
ketone (PEEK), etc. have been reported as the matrices 11. Traditional fibre-reinforced
composites use various types of glass, carbon, aluminium oxide, and many others as
reinforcing component. Natural fibres, especially bast (bark) fibres, such as flax,
hemp, jute, henequen and many others were applied by some researchers as fibre
12
reinforcement for composites in recent years . Advantages of natural fibres over
man-made fibres include low density, low cost, recyclability and biodegradability.
These advantages make natural fibres potential replacement for glass fibres in
jute and sisal, are very good and may compete with glass fibre in specific strength and
modulus 13. A better understanding of the chemical composition and surface adhesive
pectin, waxes and water soluble substances. The composition may differ with the
8
growing condition and test methods even for the same kind of fibre. Cellulose is a
β-(1-4)-glucosidic bonds. And the large amount of the hydroxyl group in cellulose
matrices; the result is a very poor interface and poor resistance to moisture
hydrogen bonds. Hemi cellulosic polymers are branched, fully amorphous and have a
significantly lower molecular weight than cellulose. Because of its open structure
containing many hydroxyl and acetyl groups, hemicellulose is partly soluble in water
and hygroscopic. Lignins are amorphous, highly complex, mainly aromatic, polymers
of phenyl propane units but have the least water sorption of the natural fibre
components. Because the low interfacial properties between fibre and polymer matrix
often reduce their potential as reinforcing agents due to the hydrophilic nature of
fibres. Chemicals may activate hydroxyl groups or introduce new moieties that can
effectively interlock with the matrix. The development of a definitive theory for the
chemical coupling agents are molecules possessing two functions. The first function is
to react with hydroxyl groups of cellulose and the second is to react with functional
groups of the matrix. Bledzki and Gassan outlined several mechanisms of coupling in
materials, namely: (a) elimination of weak boundary layers; (b) production of a tough
and flexible layer; (c) development of a highly crosslinked interphase region with a
modulus intermediate between that of substrate and of the polymer; (d) improvement
of the wetting between polymer and substrate; (e) formation of covalent bonds with
9
modifications of natural fibres aimed at improving the adhesion with a polymer
15-17
matrix were investigated by a number of researchers . However, different
chemicals were used and very limited papers took a partial review on the mechanism
resulting in improvements in the original surface properties of the materials for use in
materials for useful applications, amorphous silica gel, chitosan, fruit peel, crystalline
lamellar talc-like, clay-like or inorganic phosphate, and others have been explored.
However, the richest natural raw material, cellulose, has been less exploited. This is
despite the fact that this polysaccharide is encountered everywhere in nature, displays
displays changes in the surface after convenient immobilization, and can embody a
main skeleton and also in the branched chain, which is the most reactive position in
The applicability of such materials depends upon the availability of the active
the original structure is changed into a surface, the hydrophilic character of the new
behaviour. Thus, these kinds of modified surface agents comprise a variety of organic
molecules displaying amines, ketones, carboxylic acids, or thiol functions, and also
inorganic groups such as phosphates or oxides. Moreover, in general more than one
10
functional basic center attached to the pendant molecule covalently bonded to the
Alkaline Treatment
amount of lignin, wax and oils covering the external surface of the fibre cell wall,
depolymerises cellulose and exposes the short length crystallites. Addition of aqueous
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to natural fibre promotes the ionization of the hydroxyl
Thus, alkaline processing directly influences the cellulosic fibril, the degree of
alkaline treatment, fibres are immersed in NaOH solution for a given period of time.
Ray et al., 15 and Mishra et al., 16 treated jute and sisal fibres with 5% aqueous NaOH
for 90 s at 2000C and 1.5 MPa pressure was suitable for degumming and defibrillation
alkaline treatment has two effects on the fibre: (a) it increases surface roughness
11
resulting in better mechanical interlocking; and (b) it increases the amount of
cellulose exposed on the fibre surface, thus increasing the number of possible reaction
behaviour of flax fibres, especially on fibre strength and stiffness .Van de Weyenberg
et al.,21 reported that alkaline treatment gave up to a 30% increase in tensile properties
(both strength and modulus) for flax fibre–epoxy composites and coincided with the
reinforced composites and concluded that maximum tensile strength resulted from the
NaOH treatment at room temperature. Mishra et al., 23 reported that 5% NaOH treated
sisal fibre-reinforced polyester composite had better tensile strength than 10% NaOH
tensile strength of the composite decreased drastically after certain optimum NaOH
concentration.
Silane Treatment
Silane coupling agents may reduce the number of cellulose hydroxyl groups in the
Silanes are used as coupling agents to let glass fibres adhere to a polymer matrix,
group leads to the formation of silanols. The silanol then reacts with the hydroxyl
group of the fibre, forming stable covalent bonds to the cell wall. Therefore, the
hydrocarbon chains provided by the application of silane restrain the swelling of the
12
fibre by creating a crosslinked network due to covalent bonding between the matrix
and the fibre. Most of the researchers applied silane treatment in surface modification
24,25
of glass fibre composites . Silane coupling agents were also found to be effective
in modifying the natural fibre–polymer matrix interface and increasing the interfacial
alcohol for 5 minutes at a pH value of 4.5–5.5 followed by 30 minutes air drying for
hydrolyzing the coupling agent. Silane solutions in a water and ethanol mixture with
concentration of 0.033% and 1% were also carried by Valadez et al.,27 and Agrawal et
al.,18 to treat heneque´n fibres and oil palm fibres. It was verified that the interaction
between the silane coupling agent modified fibre and the matrix was much stronger
than that of alkaline treatment, which led to composites with higher tensile strength
from silane treated than alkaline-treated fibre. Thermal stability of the composites was
acetyl functional group (CH3COO–) into an organic compound. The reaction involves
from the lignocellulosic material before the fibre is used. Chemical modification with
acetic anhydride substitutes the polymer hydroxyl groups of the cell wall with acetyl
hydrophobic28. Acetylation was used in surface treatments of fibre for use in fibre-
reinforced composites 29. Acetylation treatment of sisal fibre was reported to improve
13
followed by acetylation. Mishra et al.,23 investigated the acetylation of sisal fibres.
Nair et al., 30 treated raw sisal fibre in 18% NaOH solution, then in glacial acetic acid
and finally in acetic anhydride containing two drops of concentrated H2SO4 for a
period of 1 h. The treated surface of sisal fibre reportedly became very rough and had
a number of voids that provided better mechanical interlocking with the polystyrene
(PS) matrix. A hypothetical model of the interface between the sisal fibre and PS
composites has been postulated. It was also reported that acetylated natural fibre-
strength loss compared to composites with silane treated fibre in biological tests 31.
Benzoylation Treatment
increasing the strength of composite, decreasing its water absorption and improving
synthesis32. Benzoyl chloride is most often used in fibre treatment. Benzoyl chloride
of the treated fibre and improved interaction with the hydrophobic PS matrix. Nair et
al., 30 used NaOH and benzoyl chloride (C6H5COCl) solution for surface treatment of
composite has been postulated by Nair et al.,30 . It was observed that the thermal
stability of treated composites were higher than that of untreated fibre composites. A
similar method was also applied by Wang to improve the interfacial adhesion of flax
fibre and polyethylene (PE) matrix. The fibre was initially alkaline pre-treated in
order to activate the hydroxyl groups of the cellulose and lignin in the fibre; then the
fibre was suspended in 10% NaOH and benzoyl chloride solution for 15 minutes. The
14
isolated fibres were then soaked in ethanol for 1 h to remove the benzoyl chloride and
finally was washed with water and dried in the oven at 800C for 24 h.
can be treated with high energy radiation to generate radicals together with chain
scission. Oil palm fibres were mixed with 10% NaOH for about 30 minutes and then
treated with a solution of acrylic acid at 500C for 1 h at various concentrations. The
fibres were washed with aqueous alcohol solution and dried. The tensile strength of
oil palm fibre–PE composites did not increase. However, it was reported by Li et al.,
that the tensile strength of acrylic acid treated flax fibre–HDPE composites was
also used to modify fibres. Graft copolymerization of AN on sisal fibres was studied
16
by Mishra et al., using a combination of NaIO4 and CuSO4 as the initiator in an
time, initiator, AN concentration and even fibre loading influenced the graft effect. It
was found that untreated fibres absorbed the most water and 25% AN-grafted sisal
fibres absorbed the least water, suggesting that changes in chemistry of the fibre
surface reduced the affinity of fibres to moisture. It was also found that grafting of
also concluded that optimum graft yield was obtained for treatment duration of 3 h.
15
Sreekala et al. 36 treated oil palm fibre with AN in 1% H2SO4 solution after alkali and
Permanganate Treatment
(KMnO4) solution (in acetone) in different concentrations with soaking duration from
formation of cellulose radical through MnO3- ion formation. Then, highly reactive
Mn3+ ions are responsible for initiating graft copolymerization. Paul et al., 37
dipped
the hydrophilic tendency of the fibres was reduced, and thus, the water absorption of
Peroxide Treatment
the functional group ROOR containing the divalent ion O–O. Organic peroxides tend
to decompose easily to free radicals of the form RO. ; RO. then reacts with the
Benzoyl peroxide (BP) and dicumyl peroxide (DCP) are chemicals in the organic
peroxide family that are used in natural fibre surface modifications. In peroxide
treatment, fibres are coated with BP or DCP in acetone solution for about 30 minutes
16
35
after alkali pre-treatment. Sreekala et al. observed that high temperature was
favoured for the decomposition of the peroxide; peroxide-treated oil palm fibre-
reinforced PF composites could withstand tensile stress to a higher strain level. Joseph
17
and Thomas investigated BP and DCP treatment on short sisal fibre reinforced PE
composites. The tensile strength values of composites increased with the increase in
concentration of peroxide up to a certain level (4% for DCP and 6% for BP) and then
BEHAVIOUR
The foremost requirement for a designer of a polymeric thin film product is the
38,39
data on the mechanical properties . The mechanical properties can be broadly
are measured at a constant rate of stress or strain in different modes like tension,
compression, flexural, shear etc. The long term properties are measurements of
deformation or stress decay with respect to time in static conditions e.g. creep and
stress relaxation. The mechanical properties of the surface include hardness, scratch,
friction and abrasion. Tensile testing comes under short-term mechanical properties.
The study of stress in relation to strain in tension depicts the tensile properties of the
material. Tensile test data are widely used for defining the quality of different lots of
polymeric materials. They are also useful for the purpose of engineering design and
other. Films which absorb less water will show better mechanical properties. The
17
sensitivity of plastic materials to water absorption depends on their chemical nature.
The process involved in the water absorption by plastic materials depends on two
parameters: the diffusion coefficient and the equilibrium uptake. The former governs
(UTM).
The standard methods for water absorption are mostly short-term tests; hence the
results obtained are limited only to surface diffusion phenomena and not equilibrium
Figure 1.2 Universal Testing Machine (UTM) used to measure tensile strength.
18
1.4 GAS BARRIER PROPERTIES
Other than safe storage and transportation, an important requirement for most of
packaging applications of plastics is that the packaging material used should prevent
loss of volatile constituents from the packed contents and prevent the ingress of gases,
water and vapours, particularly oxygen and water vapour. Measurement of the this
P= DS
A steady state is established after a gas has been diffusing through a homogeneous
partial pressure. The quantity of gas (Q) that will then pass through the film is directly
proportional to the difference in the pressure exerted by the gas on each face of the
film (∆ ), area ( ) of the sample exposed and time ( ) for which permeation occurs. It
∝ (∆ /
Thus = (∆ /
Where is a constant value for a specific combination of gas and polymer under
19
Permeability is a property of a material whereas permeance is a performance
gas that passes through a substance over a given period. It is mostly carried out on
non-porous materials, where the mode of transport is diffusion, but there is a growing
number of applications where the transmission rate also depends on flow through
apertures of some description. Figure 1.3 represents OX-TRAN instrument used for
Figure 1.3 OX-TRAN instrument used for measure the gas barrier properties of the
films
20
Principle
Mount the pre-conditioned specimen between the upper and lower testing chambers.
Oxygen or air flows on one side of specimen, high pure nitrogen flows into another
side of the specimen. Oxygen molecules permeate through the specimen and enter
into the high pure nitrogen side, which is then carried to the sensor by the flowing
nitrogen. Obtain the oxygen transmission rate by analyzing the oxygen condensation
detected by the sensor. For package test, high pure nitrogen flows in the package; air
The use of polymer membranes in modern sportswear and protective clothing has
become more and more common. Optimal selection of membrane structure and
vapour, without its condensation, at a rate adapted to that of moisture release from the
human organism. For that reason, it is important to be familiar with the membrane’s
structure, porosity, pore size and shape distribution, as well as sorption and diffusion
more or less close to subsequent conditions of their use with variable temperature,
relative humidity and outer air flow rate. A method for membrane testing, based on
the water vapour transport forced by the relative humidity of air under isothermal
The driving force of water vapour diffusion through a membrane is the difference
between the partial pressures of water vapour in air on both its sides. In a stationary
concentration on the membrane surface and the water vapour concentration in air that
21
is dependent on the temperature of the membrane surface and its surroundings. If the
partial water vapour pressures on both membrane sides are different, a gradient of
transport consists of three processes: water diffusion in the polymer, water diffusion
in air that fills the pores of the membrane, and the sorption/desorption of water on the
external membrane surface and internal pore surface. It is the polymer type and
structure, i.e. the size, tortuosity and type of pores (closed/open), that is of decisive
importance in water transport through membranes. Based on the analysed effect of the
43,44
membrane structure on water vapour permeability , the water permeability
determined.
of petroleum based polymers and plastics have spurred a thrust into the development
various natural botanical resources such as protein and starch have been regarded as
In order to reduce the environmental load generated from the disposal of used
Plastic materials are indispensable in our lives as they are used extensively in many
diverse fields including, but not limited to, stationery goods, electronic products and
sports goods. However, a great majority of these products are disposed into landfills
after usage. Clearly, this contributes to a high environmental load. Plastics can be
22
completely resolved into water and carbon dioxide by the action of the
toxic gases during incineration. Recently, biodegradable plastics have been used in
Natural fibres such as kenaf, flax, jute, hemp, sisal, and henequen fibre reinforced
composites are an attractive research area because natural fibres are eco-friendly,
sustainable, low cost, low density, with acceptable mechanical properties, ease of
practical processes and products from polymers such as starch, cellulose, and lactic
acid. The need to create alternative biodegradable water-soluble polymers for down-
importance. Consumers have, however, thus far attached little or no added value to
biomedical polymers. They are widely used in numerous medical and pharmaceutical
23
new type of materials – a change from non-renewable, but difficult to degrade or non-
selection of a material to meet the desired structural and design requirements calls for
The development of such materials has not only been a great motivating factor for
standard of living of people around the world. This is true, since many of the
economic development for farming and rural areas in developing countries. This can
provide a potential for economic improvement based on these materials even though
major thrust for their use has been driven by the needs in industrialized countries. For
example, lignocellulosic fibres such as jute, sisal, pineapple, curaua, etc., whose
extraction is an important process that determines the properties of the fibres, can
generate rural jobs since these fibres have established their potential as reinforcing
fillers in many polymers, and products based on these have found increasing use on a
commercial scale in recent years. Another example for the generation of jobs by agro-
based materials is provided by the use of rice husk, which constitutes more than 10%
of a world rice production 45. A variety of inorganic materials such as silica, zeolites,
solar grade silicon, building and thermal insulating materials, polymer composites,
etc., can be produced using this most promising agro-waste. Similarly, straws of rice
and sugarcane (bagasse), often used as fuels in households or sometimes burned in the
to develop new materials (composites) for the construction industry. Yet another
24
example is the use of sugar cane in Brazil for the production of
also reported that estimated production of heat, electricity and fuels could be
hectares of land by 2010 from 40 million metric ton in 1995 by the agro based
renewable materials.
Biodegradable type composites are not new to mankind. Their use dates to
antiquity, such as the Great Wall of China whose construction started initially in 121
B.C. as earth works were connected and made strong by clay bricks made of local
materials initially using red willow reeds and twigs with gravel during the Han
dynasty (209 B.C.), and later with clay, stone, willow branches, reeds and sand during
the Qin dynasty (221–206 B.C.) Other examples include, bows made with adhesively
bonded laminates of animal horns and tendons, wood or silk used by the Mongolians
terms of use of different raw materials, processes and even applications. Similarly,
use of natural polymers is not new, since paper, silk, etc., have been used from
historical times.
The use of natural polymers was superseded in the 20th century as a wide-range of
synthetic polymers were developed based on raw materials from low cost petroleum.
However, since the 1990s, increased attention has been paid to the use of natural
polymers and lignocellulosic fibres. The reasons for this include: (a) growing interest
25
the dependence on petroleum products with increasing interest in maximizing the use
of renewable materials; and (c) the availability of improved data on the properties and
property correlations. These factors have greatly increased the understanding and
Lignocellulosic fibres have some unique attributes, such as being less abrasive to
tooling and not causing as many respiratory problems for workers. Furthermore,
because they are inexpensive and have load bearing potential, the use of natural fibre
based composites has spread to various sectors, including aircraft, construction, grain
exists, have already established the use of Lignocellulosic Fibre Incorporated Polymer
Composites (LCFIPC) in automotive applications 46, 47. In view of this, a good amount
of LCFIPC products have been exported to the U.S. and other countries despite these
materials being only partially biodegradable. Although these composites exhibit the
matrices, such as polyester, epoxy and phenol formaldehyde (PF), which may not be
fully biodegradable, while the fibres are fully biodegradable. Fortunately, traditional
components, noise shields and door panels, or as “wood ceramic” for electromagnetic
shielding, have been effectively taken over by the new commodity polymers and their
lignocellulosic materials, such as rice and wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse and rice
and coffee husks, which were either used as household fuels or sometimes burnt in
26
situ in the fields as a means of disposal, have also been tried as fillers/reinforcements
in polymer or cement to develop new materials for the construction industry. These
successful attempts have opened up a large range of raw materials for the
friendliness, such as the European Union’s directive that all new vehicles must use
95% recyclable materials to achieve the “end of life” required by 2015 has led to the
composites. Under this directive, about 85% of these materials recoverable through
reuse or mechanical recycling and about 10% through energy recovery or thermal
recycling. It is therefore not surprising to note that many leading plastics companies in
U.S. and other western countries are in the forefront in developing biodegradable
basic chemical building blocks will come from renewable plant resources, expected to
Textile engineering and modeling aspects have been used in composite fabrication
48
with a view to increase the use of these materials . In this context, textile
from studies on the effect of fibre content, fibre orientation and roving texture of
provided different but commonly used weave styles, such as plain (each warp fibre
passing alternately over and under the weft fibre), twill (repeated weaving of one or
more warp fibres under or over the weft fibres), satin (twill weave but have fewer
intersections of the weft and warp), leno (weave pattern to improve stability of fabrics
having lower fibre content), etc., to prepare the required form of reinforcements. In a
27
reinforced woven fabric, the fibres are interlocked up to a certain degree depending on
the weave pattern, such that they deform into or drape in a stable, predictable and
lignocellulosic fibres with synthetic fibres on various properties has been extensively
studied, very limited studies with hybrids of lignocellulosic fibres mainly with non
degradable matrices have been reported. Hence, more studies in lignocellulosic fibre
based hybrids are required, which not only could increase the amount of fibres used,
composites, two recent exciting examples are of interest. The first is the weaving of
compared to 33 J g-1 for Kevlar fibre and 12 J g−1 for graphite fibre), with a special
spinning method being adopted to obtain about 100 m of solid nanotube composite of
reported to have been potential for making electronic devices such as sensors,
connectors, antennas, etc. The second example is electro spinning of polymeric fibres,
one of the most efficient methods to produce nano-polymer fibres, which exhibit large
One well accepted definitions reads that “materials obtained from nature or by
synthetic route, whose chemical bonds are cleaved at least in one step by enzymes
from the biosphere”, to which one can add, ‘with appropriate pH and temperature
conditions and total processing time for completion’. The suitability for a specific
28
application of such materials will be dictated by their mechanical properties as well as
their degradation.
It is well known that renewable resources such as plants (e.g., cellulose or chitin,
49,50
vegetable oils, etc.), bacteria as well as non-renewable petroleum (e.g.,
themselves can be classified depending upon their origin such as agro polymers
agro based resource monomers poly(lactic acid) and chemically synthesized from
29
Products made using such polymers are shown in Figure 1.5 (a–e). These include
appearance and characteristics, but starch based using environmentally friendly water
steam foaming and pressing process; lawn cutting and leaf bags (Figure1.5b) made of
corn starch by blow moulding with the red symbol printed near the top of the bag
indicating the Danish mark for ecological products; “green pens” (Figure1.5c) based
and insert moulding (razor head) by the Kay Razor Company and foamed trays
shown in Figure1.5b is reported to create rich organic humus, which can be used as
soil nutrients, the foamed trays shown in Fig. 4e are reported to possess a very good
permeability for water vapor along with excellent gas (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
barrier properties. There are other examples, such as dinnerware based on potato
starch and limestone, packing products for general purposes made with potato/corn
starch designed by Proterra BV, International Centre for Agro-based Materials and
shampoo bottles formerly made of PHBV by the Monsanto Company using injection
moulding (cap) and blow moulding (bottle). All these can be composted after use.
30
Figure 1.5 Biopolymer products: (a) disposable cup; (b) compostable bag; (c) writing
“green” pens; (d) shaving razor heads; (e) foamed trays
Another example is the use of acrylated epoxidized soybean oil blended with
polystyrene whose storage modulus is improved more than five times by adding
recycled paper, a cheap source of cellulose 52. Many of these have been well reported
biodegradable polymers are commercially available in Japan and Brazil. The market
has been growing fast for these biopolymers, with sales increasing by 20–30% a year
53
in 2000 . In North America alone, it was projected to increase from about 9090
metric tons (20 million lbs.) in 2000 to about 17,500 metric tons (35 million lbs.) by
31
2005 54. This was expected to lead to increased sales from around US$ 150 million in
2000 to US$ 1.4 billion by 2005. The perspective for worldwide manufacturing
materials till 2010 is illustrated in Figure. 1.6, which underlines the growing
plastics from almost zero tons per annum in nineties to 600,000 tons per annum to
date, has been reported, the majority of which are based on renewable materials. This
32
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY
minimisation and resulting from this range and capability of natural and prepared
particular considerable work has been carried out on the use of natural material with
its modification. This thesis reviews the current state of research on the use of the
naturally occurring material cellulose, its modified forms and their efficacy to produce
compositions were prepared and their Soil burial degradation experiments, Moisture
33
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