COMMUNICATION SYSTEM AND NETWORKING (EC-1504)

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Elements of a General Communication System, Modulation, Need for Modulation,
Fundamental Limitations of a Communication System, Analog and Digital Signals and
Systems, Baseband and Bandpass Communication, Introduction to Radio Communication,
Analog Modulation Techniques: Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase
Modulation, Model of a Digital Communication System, Elements of a Digital
Communication System, Logarithmic Measure of Information, Entropy and Information
Rate, Source Coding, Fixed and Variable Length Code Words, Mutual Information and
Channel Capacity of a Discrete Memoryless Channel, Hartley-Shannon Law. 10(L)

Historical Notes- Communication Systems

1831 – Joseph Henry proposes and builds an electric telegraph.
1843 – Samuel Morse builds the first long distance electric telegraph line.
1876 – Alexander G Bell and Thomas A. Watson exhibit an electric telephone in Boston
1877 – Thomas Edison patents the phonograph.
1902 – Guglielmo Marconi transmits radio signals
1925 – John Logie Baird transmits the first television signal.
1934 - Police Radio uses conventional AM mobile communication system.
1935 - Edwin Armstrong demonstrate FM
1946 - First public mobile telephone service - push-to-talk
1958 – Chester Carlson presents the first photocopier for office use.
1960 - Improved Mobile Telephone Service, IMTS - full duplex
1960 - Bell Lab introduce the concept of Cellular mobile system
1963 – First geosynchronous communications satellite is launched
1965 – First email sent
1966 – Charles Kao realizes that silica-based optical waveguides
1968 - AT&T proposes the concept of Cellular mobile system to FCC.
1969 – The first hosts of ARPANET, Internet's ancestor are connected.
1981- Hayes Smart modem introduced.
1981- Nordic Mobile Telephone, automatic mobile phone is put into operation
1983 - Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), FDMA, FM
1983 – Microsoft Word software is launched.
1989- Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau build World Wide Web
1991 - Global System for Mobile (GSM), TDMA, GMSK
1991 - U.S. Digital Cellular (USDC) IS-54, TDMA, DQPSK
1993 - IS-95, CDMA, QPSK, BPSK
1994 – Internet radio broadcasting is born.
1999- Sirius satellite radio is introduced. Napster peer-to-peer file sharing is launched.
2001 – First digital cinema transmission by satellite in Europe of a feature film
2003 – Myspace is launched.
2003 – Skype video calling software is launched.
2004 – Facebook is launched.
2005 – YouTube, the video sharing site, is launched.
2006 – Twitter is launched.
2007 – iPhone is launched.
2010 – Instagram is launched. iPad is created.
2011 – Snapchat is launched.

Elements of a General Communication System

Communication anywhere, anytime, involving transmission of information from one point to
other point (places).

The basic components of a communication system are information source, input transducer,
transmitter, communication channel, receiver, output transducer, and destination.

• Input transducer converts the message to an electrical signal.

• The transmitter converts the input signal to transmitted signal suited for the transmission
channel.
• Transmission cannel is the electric medium that bridges the distance from source to
destination.
• The receiver converts the received signal in a form appropriate for the output transducer.
• Output transducer converts the output electrical signal the desired message form.
Communication Channels
1. Telephone Channels (twisted pair of wires)
2. Coaxial Channel (50Ω, 75Ω)
3. Optical Fiber (single mode, multimode)
 Enormous potential bandwidth (70 x 1012 Hz)
 Low transmission losses (0.158 db/km at 1.55μm)
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Small size and weight
 Ruggedness and flexibility
4. Wireless broadcast channels (AM,FM,TV)
 super heterodyne receivers
5. Mobile radio channels
 multipath fading, dispersive
6. Satellite channels (geosynchronous , low orbit)
 Broad-area coverage
 reliable transmission links
 wide transmission bandwidth
Classification of channels
 Linear (e.g. telephone) or nonlinear (e.g. satellite)
 Time invariant (e.g. optical fiber)) or time variant (mobile radio channel)
 Bandwidth limited (e.g. telephone channel)
 Power limited (e.g. optical fiber link abs satellite)

Basic operations in the transmitter

1. Modulation (Analog) and Coding (Digital)
Basic operations in the receiver
1. Amplification
2. Filtering
3. Demodulation (Analog) and Decoding (Digital)
Effects of the channel on the transmitted signal
1. Attenuation: decreasing the signal strength;
 2. Distortion of the signal waveform: caused by channel characteristics (linearity,
frequency response, etc.)
3. Noise: contamination of random natural signals added to the transmitted signal
4. Interference: contaminations of extraneous signal of human sources – machinery,
power lines, digital switching circuits, etc.
Simplex- This type of communication is one-way. Examples are: Radio, TV broadcasting,
Beeper (personal receiver)
Full Duplex- Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as duplex.
When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex. The telephone is an
example of this type of communication.
Half Duplex- The form of two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a
time is known as half duplex. Examples are: Police, military, etc. radio transmissions, Citizen
band (CB), Family radio, and Amateur radio

Fundamental Limitations of a Communication System

While designing a communication system, an engineer generally faces several limitations
1. Noise limitation
The noise may be defined as an unwanted form of energy which tends to interfere with the
transmission and reception of the desired signals in a communication system. Noise can be
classified into two categories depending upon the source, such as:
 External noise
 Internal noise
External noise is that types of noise whose sources are external to a communication system.
Examples of external noise are atmospheric noise, galactic noise and industrial noise.
Internal noise is that type of noise whose sources are internal to a communication system.
Examples of internal noise are thermal noise (due to random motion of the charged particles
like electrons) and shot noise. This type of noise is unavoidable and it forms a basic
limitation on transmission and reception of signals.
Typical noise variation is measured in micro-volts.
In long distance communication systems, operating with limited amount of signal power, the
signal may be as small as noise or even smaller than the noise. Thus, in such cases, the
presence of noise severally limits the capabilities of a communication system.
2. Bandwidth limitation - band of frequencies allocated for transmission of message signal.
Ex: band limited case: telephone channel, mobile communication
The information theory states that the greater is the transmission bandwidth of a
communication system, the more is the information that can be transmitted.
For example, suppose one is listening to music in an AM radio. The complete amount of
information available to the human ear is contained in a frequency range upto 15 kHz, i.e.,
musical information extends upto a frequency of 15 kHz. However, in AM radio the
maximum modulating frequency is restricted upto 5 kHz and hence the maximum bandwidth
of AM transmission is 10 kHz.
Therefore, an AM radio receiver cannot reproduce all the information contained in the music
because this will require a bandwidth of 30 kHz.
On the other hand, the bandwidth allocated to a FM transmission is about 200 kHz. Thus, on
FM receiver can easily reproduce the transmitted information without any distortion.
This means that a FM system has a better fidelity than an AM system.
Thus, we can conclude that bandwidth is a major fundamental limitation of a communication
system.
3. Transmission power: average power of transmitted signal. Ex: power limited case: space
communication, satellite channel
4. Hartley-Shannon law:
In a communication system the efficient transmission depends on bandwidth of the channel,
Signal power and instrumental requirements. Shanon’s shows that the rate of transmission
without error is given as
4. C = B log2 ( 1 + SNR ) bit/s
5. Where B = channel bandwidth, SNR = signal to noise ratio
6. Increase in bandwidth means the increase of frequencies. So the transmission speed
also increases. And decrease in signal power.
4. Equipment limitation
The noise and bandwidth limitation dictate theoretically what can or cannot be achieved in
terms of performance in a communication system. However, this theoretical limit may not be
realized in a practical system due to equipment limitations.
For example, the theory might require a band pass filter with a quality factor of 100 at a
centre frequency of 1 kHz. Such a filter cannot be realised in practice. Even if a filter with
nearly identical characteristics is built, the cost may exceed. Thus equipment limitation is
another major problem in a communication system.
Analog and Digital Signals and Systems
Electrical Engg., Fundamental quantity of representing some information is called a signal.
Signals: "A detectable physical quantity or impulse (as a voltage, current, or magnetic field
strength) by which messages or information can be transmitted." Or "A signal is a source of
information, generally a physical quantity, which varies with respect to time, space,
temperature like any independent variable"
Systems: A System is any physical set of components that takes a signal, and produces a
signal. In terms of engineering, the input is generally some electrical signal X, and the output
is another electrical signal (response) Y. However, this may not always be the case. Consider
a household thermostat, which takes input in the form of a knob or a switch, and in turn
outputs electrical control signals for the furnace.
Analog Signal
 An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal.
 Ex: Sound, Light, Temperature, Position or Pressure
Digital Signal
 Digital signals consist of patterns of bits of information. These patterns can be
generated in many ways, each producing a specific code. Modern digital computers
store and process all kinds of information as binary patterns. All the pictures, text.
sound and video stored in this computer are held and manipulated as patterns of
binary values.
 Ex: Computers, CDs, DVDs, and other digital electronic devices.
Analog System
 It’s a system that is continuous both in time and magnitude. And also its graph is also
like a waveform going in both positive and negative cycles
 A system designed to operate on continuous values such as voltage, pressure,
temperature, RPM, etc
Digital System
 Digital systems are designed to store, process, and communicate information in
digital form. They are found in a wide range of applications, including process
control, communication systems, digital instruments, and consumer products. The
digital computer, more commonly called the computer, is an example of a typical
digital system.
A signal can be anything which conveys information Signals are classified into the
following categories:
1. Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals - A signal is said to be continuous
when it is defined for all instants of time.
A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time
2. Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals - A signal is said to be deterministic if
there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant of time. Or, signals
which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known as deterministic
signals.
A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect to its value
at some instant of time. Non-deterministic signals are random in nature hence they
are called random signals. Random signals cannot be described by a mathematical
equation. They are modelled in probabilistic terms.
3. Even and Odd Signals - A signal is said to be even when it satisfies the condition
x(t) = x(-t). A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x(-t)
4. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals- A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the
condition x(t) = x(t + T) or x(n) = x(n + N). Where T = fundamental time period, 1/T
= f = fundamental frequency.
5. Energy and Power Signals- A signal is said to be energy signal when it has finite
energy. A signal is said to be power signal when it has finite power.
T 2
Total energy of a signal g(t) may be defined as E  lim  g (t ) dt
T   T

1 T 2
Average power of a signal g(t) may be defined as P  lim
T  2T T
g (t ) dt

NOTE: A signal cannot be both (either one) energy and power simultaneously.
a. Power of energy signal = 0
b. Energy of power signal = ∞
[Energy=Ability to work. 8 types of energy. 1) Potential, 2) Kinetic, 3) Gravitational,
4) Chemical, 5) Nuclear, 6) Elastic, 7) Motion and 8) Thermal and temperature
Work= Force x Distance (Joules)
Power= How Fast/Slow doing the work =Work/Time (Watts)]
6. Real and Imaginary Signals- A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the
condition x(t) = x*(t).
A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x*(t)
 Note: For a real signal, imaginary part should be zero. Similarly for an imaginary
signal, real part should be zero.
Continuous systems
The type of systems whose input and output both are continuous signals or analog signals
are called continuous systems.
Discrete systems
The type of systems whose input and output both are discrete signals or digital signals are
called digital systems.
Analog versus Digital comparison chart
Analog Digital
Signal Analog signal is a continuous signal Digital signals are discrete time
which represents physical signals generated by digital
measurements. modulation.
Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
Representation Uses continuous range of values to Uses discrete or discontinuous
represent information values to represent information
Example Human voice in air, analog electronic Computers, CDs, DVDs, and
devices. other digital electronic devices.
Technology Analog technology records waveforms Samples analog waveforms into
as they are. a limited set of numbers and
records them.
Data Subjected to deterioration by noise Can be noise-immune without
transmissions during transmission and write/read deterioration during transmission
cycle. and write/read cycle.
Response to More likely to get affected reducing Less affected since noise
Noise accuracy response are analog in nature
Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in
implementation.
Uses Can be used in analog devices only. Best suited for Computing and
Best suited for audio and video digital electronics.
transmission.
Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs
Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be done There is no guarantee that digital
in real time and consumes less signal processing can be done in
bandwidth. real time and consumes more
bandwidth to carry out the same
information.
Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit
Power Analog instrument draws large power Digital instrument drawS only
negligible power
Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily
 portable
Impedance Low High order of 100 megaohm
Errors Analog instruments usually have a Digital instruments are free from
scale which is cramped at lower end observational errors like parallax
and give considerable observational and approximation errors.
errors.

Baseband and Bandpass Communication

Baseband Transmission
The baseband transmission does not use
modulator and demodulator.
Baseband transmission is transmission of the
encoded signal using its own baseband
frequencies i.e. without any shift to higher
frequency ranges.
If the baseband signal is transmitted directly
then it is known as baseband transmission.
It is prefer at low frequencies.
It is used for short distances.
More noise as signal is original.
E.g. general telephony.
Bandpass Transmission
It is used modulator and demodulator.
Passband transmission is the transmission
after shifting the baseband frequencies to
some higher frequency range using
modulation.
If modulated signal is transmission over the
channel, it is known as bandpass
transmission.
It has fixed band of frequencies around
carrier frequency.
It is used for long distances.
Less noise as signals is modulated.
E.g. AM & FM.

Baseband transmission sends the information signal as it is without modulation (without

frequency shifting). Ethernet refers to baseband transmission.
Almost all sources of information generate baseband signals. Baseband signals are those that
have frequencies relatively close to zero such as the human voice (20 Hz – 5 kHz) and the
video signal from a TV camera (0 Hz – 5.5 MHz).
Passband (or Bandpass) transmission shifts the signal to be transmitted in frequency to a
higher frequency and then transmits it, where at the receiver the signal is shifted back to its
original frequency.
The process of shifting the baseband signal to passband range for transmission is known as
MODULATION and the process of shifting the passband signal to baseband frequency range
at the receiver is known as DEMODULATION.
Modulation
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more
properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal that
typically contains information to be transmitted.
Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a carrier wave is varied
in accordance with an information-bearing signal.
Modulator is a device that performs modulation
Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal. This new
signal, conceivably, will have certain benefits over an un-modulated signal.
f (t )  A sin(t   ) , this sinusoid has 3 parameters (Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency) that
can be altered.
'Mo' in Modem stands for Modulation and 'dem' stands for demodulation. Only the
MoDem whose name itself denotes Modulator-Demodulator

Need for Modulation

Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system because of the following
reasons:
1. Avoids mixing of signals
2. Increase the range of communication
3. Wireless communication
4. Reduces the effect of noise & distortions
5. Reduces height of antenna
For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of λ/4
,where λ is the wavelength. λ = c /f; where
c : is the velocity of light & f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted
6. Reduce band width. Narrow banding the signal
7. Multiplexing is possible. Multiplex more number of signals
8. Improves quality of reception
9. To reduce equipment complexity
Modulation Processes
Analog- Continuous-Wave (CW) modulation
 amplitude modulation ( AM )
 frequency modulation ( FM )
 phase modulation ( PM )
Analog Pulse modulation
 pulse-amplitude modulation ( PAM )
 pulse-duration modulation ( PDM )
 pulse-position modulation ( PPM )
Digital -Pulse modulation
 Pulse code modulation (PCM)
  Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM)
 Delta modulation (DM)
 Adaptive delta modulation (ADM)
Digital Multiplexing modulation
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM )
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM )
 Code-division multiplexing (CDM )

Introduction to Radio Communication

Radio is the technology of using radio waves to carry information by systematic modulating
properties of electromagnetic energy waves transmitted through space, such as
their amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. When radio waves strike an electrical
conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The
information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form.
Radio systems need a (i) transmitter to modulate, (ii) antenna to convert electric
currents into radio waves and radio waves into an electric current. An antenna can be used for
both transmitting and receiving. The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow
individual frequencies to be selected. The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned
receiving antenna. A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna and converts it into a
form that is usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data, measurement
values, navigational positions, etc. Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to
300 GHz, although commercially important uses of radio use only a small part of this
spectrum.
A radio communication system requires a transmitter and a receiver, each having an antenna
and appropriate terminal equipment such as a microphone at the transmitter and
a loudspeaker at the receiver in the case of a voice-communication system.
PROCESSES
Radio systems used for communication have the following elements. With more than 100
years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialised
for different communications purposes.
 Fig. K. Schematic view of radio communication
Fig. K shows the Radio communication. Information such as sound is converted by a
transducer such as a microphone to an electrical signal, which modulates a radio wave sent
from a transmitter. A receiver intercepts the radio wave and extracts the information-bearing
electronic signal, which is converted back using another transducer such as a speaker.
Transmitter and modulation
Each system contains a transmitter. This consists of a source of electrical energy, producing
alternating current of a desired frequency of oscillation. The transmitter contains a system
to modulate (change) some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This
modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more subtle
properties such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or combinations of these properties. The
transmitter sends the modulated electrical energy to a tuned resonant antenna; this structure
converts the rapidly changing alternating current into an electromagnetic wave that can move
through free space (sometimes with a particular polarization).
Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave works by varying the strength of the transmitted
signal in proportion to the information being sent. For example, changes in the signal strength
can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker, or to specify the light
intensity of television pixels. It was the method used for the first audio radio transmissions,
and remains in use today. "AM" is often used to refer to the medium
wave broadcast band (see AM radio), but it is used in various radiotelephone services such as
the Citizens Band, amateur radio and especially in aviation, due to its ability to be received
under very weak signal conditions and its immunity to capture effect, allowing more than one
signal to be heard simultaneously.
Frequency modulation varies the frequency of the carrier. The instantaneous frequency of the
carrier is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input signal. FM has the
"capture effect" whereby a receiver only receives the strongest signal, even when others are
present. Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a set of discrete
values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying. FM is commonly used at Very high
frequency (VHF) radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (see FM
broadcasting). Analog TV sound is also broadcast using FM.
Antenna
An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio waves
and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a
radio transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. high
frequency AC) to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the
current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of
the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals that
is applied to a receiver to be amplified. Some antennas can be used for both transmitting and
receiving, even simultaneously, depending on the connected equipment.
Propagation
Once generated, electromagnetic waves travel through space either directly, or have their path
altered by reflection, refraction or diffraction. The intensity of the waves diminishes due to
geometric dispersion (the inverse-square law); some energy may also be absorbed by the
intervening medium in some cases. Noise will generally alter the desired signal;
this electromagnetic interference comes from natural sources, as well as from artificial
sources such as other transmitters and accidental radiators. Noise is also produced at every
step due to the inherent properties of the devices used. If the magnitude of the noise is large
enough, the desired signal will no longer be discernible; the signal-to-noise ratio is the
fundamental limit to the range of radio communications.
Resonance
Electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allows individual stations to be selected. A
resonant circuit will respond strongly to a particular frequency and much less so to differing
frequencies. This allows the radio receiver to discriminate between multiple signals differing
in frequency.
Receiver and demodulation
The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna; this structure captures
some of the energy of the wave and returns it to the form of oscillating electrical currents. At
the receiver, these currents are demodulated, which is conversion to a usable signal form by
a detector sub-system. The receiver is "tuned" to respond preferentially to the desired signals,
and reject undesired signals.
Early radio systems relied entirely on the energy collected by an antenna to produce signals
for the operator. Radio became more useful after the invention of electronic devices such as
the vacuum tube and later the transistor, which made it possible to amplify weak signals.
Today radio systems are used for applications from walkie-talkie children's toys to the control
of space vehicles, as well as for broadcasting, and many other applications.
A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna, uses electronic filters to separate a
wanted radio signal from all other signals picked up by this antenna, amplifies it to a level
suitable for further processing, and finally converts through demodulation and decoding the
signal into a form usable for the consumer, such as sound, pictures, digital data, measurement
values, navigational positions, etc.
Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, although commercially
important uses of radio use only a small part of this spectrum. Other types of electromagnetic
radiation, with frequencies above the RF range, are infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays
and gamma rays. Since the energy of an individual photon of radio frequency is too low to
remove an electron from an atom, radio waves are classified as non-ionizing radiation.
Key-summary
When a high-frequency alternating current (AC) passes through a copper conductor it
generates radio waves which are propagated into the air using an antenna

• radio waves have frequencies between:

– 3 Hz – 300 KHz - low frequency
– 300 KHz – 30 MHz – high frequency
– 30 MHz – 300 MHz – very high frequency
– 300 MHz – 300 GHz – ultra high frequency
• Radio waves are generated by an antenna and they propagate in all directions as a straight
line.
• Radio waves travel at a velocity of 186.000 miles per second
• Radio waves become weaker as they travel a long distance
Analog Modulation Techniques: AM, FM, PM
Study the theory and also prepare Numerical Problem (REFER BOOKS)

Model of a Digital Communication System

Model-1

Model-2

Model-3
Elements of a Digital Communication System
In digital communication system, the message signal to be transmitted is digital in nature.
This means that digital communication involves the transmission of information in digital
form. The elements of digital communications system as follows:
1. Discrete information source
2. Source Encoder
3. Channel Encoder
4. Modulator
5. Electrical Communication Channel
6. Noise
7. Demodulator
8. Channel Decoder
9. Source Decoder
10. Destination
The overall purpose of the system is to transmit the message or sequence of symbols coming
out of source to a destination point as a high rate and accuracy as possible. The source and
destination point are physically separated in space and a communication channel connects the
source to the destination point. The communication channel accepts electrical (i.e.,
electromagnetic) signals and the output of the channel is usually a smeared of destroyed
version of the input due to the non-ideal nature of communication channel. In addition to this,
the information bearing signal is also corrupted by unpredictable electrical signals (i.e. noise)
from both man-made and natural causes. Thus, the smearing and the noise introduce errors in
the information being transmitted and limit the rate at which information can be
communicated from the source to the destination.
Discrete Information Source: Information source may be classified into two categories
based upon the nature of their output i.e. analog Information sources and discrete information
sources. In case of analog communication, the information source is analog. Analog
information sources, such as microphone actuated by speech emit one or more continuous
amplitude signals.
In case of digital communication system, the information source produces a message signal
which is not continuously varying with time. Rather the message signal is intermittent with
respect to time. The output of discrete information source such as teletype or the numerical
output of the computer consists of a sequence of discrete symbols of letters. An analog
information source may be transformed into a discrete information sources through the
process of sampling and quantizing. Discrete information sources are characterized by the
following parameters:
 Source Alphabet: These are the letters, digits or special characters available from the
information source.
 Symbol Rate: It is the rate at which the information source generates source
alphabets. It is generally represented in symbols/sec unit.
 Source Alphabet Probabilities: Each source alphabet from the source has
independent occurrence rate in the sequence. As an example, letters A, E, I etc. occur
frequently in the sequence. Hence, probability of the occurrence of each source
alphabet can become one of the important properties which is useful in digital
communication.
 Probabilistic Dependence of Symbols in a Sequence: The information carrying
capacity of each source alphabet is different in a particular sequence. This parameter
defined average information content of the symbols. The entropy of a source
describes the average information content per symbol in long message. Entropy may
be defined in terms of bits per symbol. This means that the source information rate is
the product of symbol rate and source entropy, i.e., Information rate = Symbol rate *
Source entropy (Bits/sec) (Symbols/sec) (Bits/Symbol)
Thus, the information rate represents minimum average data rate required to transmit
information from source to the destination.
Source Encoder and Decoder: In source coding, the encoder maps the digital signal
generated at the source output into another signal in digital form. The mapping is one to one
and the objective is to eliminate or reduce the redundancy so as to provide an efficient
representation of the source output. The source decoder simply performs the inverse mapping
and thereby delivers to the user destination, a reproduction of the digital source output. The
advantage of source coding is to reduce the bandwidth of transmission.
Source Encoder
 Sampling
 makes signal discrete in time
 signals can be sampled without introducing distortion
 Quantization
 makes signal discrete in amplitude
 Good quantizers are able to use few bits and introduce small distortion
• Source Coding
 compression of digital data to eliminate redundant information
 does not introduce distortion
Channel Encoder and Decoder: The purpose of channel encoder is to map the incoming
digital signal into a channel input and for the decoder to map the channel output into an
output digital signal in such a way that the effect of channel noise is minimized. That is the
combined roll of channel encoder and decoder is to provide reliable communication. This
provision is satisfied by introducing redundancy in a prescribed fashion. In the channel
encoder and exploiting it in the decoder, to reconstruct the original encoder input as
accurately as possible.
Channel Encoder
Encryption- ensures data privacy
Channel coding
 Provides protection against transmission errors by selectively inserting redundant data
 plays an extremely important role in system design
Modulation
 Information is transmitted by varying one or more parameters of the transmitted
signal such as PSK, FSK and ASK
Electromagnetic spectrum
Logarithmic Measure of Information, Entropy and Information Rate, Source Coding,
Fixed and Variable Length Code Words, Mutual Information and Channel Capacity of
a Discrete Memoryless Channel, Hartley-Shannon Law → Study the theory and also
prepare Numerical Problem-compulsory (REFER BOOKS)

UNIT 2: Pulse modulation and waveform coding techniques

Sampling and Reconstruction of Analog Signals, Types of Pulse Modulation System: PAM,
PWM and PPM, Quantization, Encoding, Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Bandwidth of
PCM, Differential PCM, Delta Modulation (DM), Threshold of Coding and Slope Overload,
Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM), ADPCM, Comparison of PCM and DM Line Coding
and its Properties, NRZ and RZ Types, Signaling Format for Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar (AMI),
and Manchester Coding, Digital Multiplexing
→ Study the theory and also prepare Numerical Problem (REFER BOOKS)