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Comparative Study on Liquefaction Resistance of Sand and Silty Soil

IGC 2009, Guntur, INDIA

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON LIQUEFACTION RESISTANCE OF SAND


AND SILTY SOIL

K. Rangaswamy
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT, Calicut–673 601, India.
E-mail: ranga@nitc.ac.in
A. Boominathan
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai–600 036, India.
E-mail: boomi@iitm.ac.in
K. Rajagopal
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai–600 036, India.
E-mail:gopalkr@iitm.ac.in

ABSTRACT: The liquefaction resistance of fine sand and silty soil consisting of 50% non-plastic fines was investigated in
the present study. Soil specimens were prepared at 40% relative density and consolidated under the pressure of 100 kPa. A
series of cyclic triaxial tests was performed on the consolidated soil specimens under CSRs varying from 0.075 to 0.2. The
pore pressure generation and development of axial strain responses during load cycles has been monitored. The pore pressure
build-up in sand and silty soil is rapid in the first and last few load cycles while gradually increases during the intermediate
load cycles. The pore pressure build-up is rapid in case of silty soil and slows in case of clean sand. The addition of silt in
sand causes an increase of axial deformation. The test results indicated that the liquefaction resistance of silty soil is much
lower than that of the fine sand.

1. INTRODUCTION 2.1 Soils Tested


In recent years the liquefaction resistance of silty soils has For the present investigation, natural, non-plastic silty sand
become an increasingly serious problem due to large was collected at a depth of 2m from the power plant site at
earthquakes. Earlier, it was considered that poorly graded Dhuvaran in Gujarat, India. The sand consists of 14–18%
sands were most susceptible to liquefaction and the fines non-plastic silt which is almost similar to the soils present in
present in the silty soils would prevent liquefaction. the Bhuj regions. Clean sand (>75 microns) and fine
However, the occurrence of tremendous damages to soil fractions (<75 microns) were separated from the natural silty
structures due to liquefaction was observed in silty soils sand by wet and dry sieving methods. A silty soil was created
during past earthquakes (1988 Saguenay earthquake in by adding 50% fines to the clean sand. The grain size
Quebec; 1999 Kocaeli and Chi-Chi earthquakes; 2001 Bhuj distribution curves for the tested soils are shown in Figure 1.
earthquake). The soils in seismic regions of India contain
significant amounts of silt fraction. These soil deposits have 100
greater chance to undergo liquefaction during earthquakes. Sand
90
But very limited studies were carried out on the liquefaction 50% fines
resistance of silty sands of these regions (Sitharam & 80

Govindaraju 2004, Singh et al. 2005). Therefore, it is


Percentage finer, %

70

essential to investigate the liquefaction phenomenon in silty 60


soils for preventing the disasters such as sand bois, large 50
deformations, sliding of slopes and tilting of buildings etc. 40

30
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM 20

A series of laboratory cyclic triaxial tests was performed on 10


prepared specimens of sand and silty soil using an advanced 0
two-way cyclic triaxial device. A brief description on soils 1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10

tested, sample preparation, test equipment and testing Grain size, mm


procedures is given in the following sections. Fig. 1: Grain Size Distribution of Soils

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Comparative Study on Liquefaction Resistance of Sand and Silty Soil

According to Indian standard classification system, the soils 2.3 Test Equipment
are classified as poorly graded uniform soils. Maximum and
Laboratory tests were performed using a servo-pneumatic
minimum void ratios for sand and sand-silt mixture were
cyclic triaxial testing device (manufactured by Wykheham
determined as per ASTM-4254-91 and ASTM-4253-93
Farrance International Ltd, United Kingdom), which is fully
respectively. Each of the above tests was run three times and
automated and software controlled for both operation and
average values of void ratios were used in this study. The
data acquisition. The loading system consists of a 100 kN
index properties of the sand and silty soil are shown in
load frame and ± 5 kN double acting actuator capable of
Table 1.
generating loading frequencies up to 70 Hz. A special type of
submersible load cell of capacity ±5 kN is fitted inside the
Table 1: Index Properties of Soils triaxial cell to measure the applied axial load. An external
Index Soils tested displacement transducer of ±25 mm capacity was used for
properties Sand 50% fines measurement of axial displacements. The cell water pressure,
pore water pressure and back water pressures were measured
Gs 2.69 2.71
through 1000 kPa capacity diaphgram type electronic
D50 (mm) 0.112 0.075 pressure transducers. A 100cc volume change transducer was
Cu 1.543 2.428 used to monitor the volume changes in the sample. An
Cc 0.891 1.420 internal LVDT fixed on the actuator (± 15 mm) was used to
emax 0.975 1.014 detect the peak to peak deformations during cyclic loading.
The data was collected and stored through data acquisition
emin 0.675 0.569 software.

2.2 Sample Preparation 2.4 Testing Procedure


Triaxial soil specimens were prepared by the moist tamping Undrained stress controlled two-way cyclic triaxial tests
method using the procedure reported by Ladd (1978). This were performed on reconstituted specimens as per ASTM-
procedure avoids the particle segregation in case of silty D5311. In the triaxial test, lubricated ends were used to
sands and enables the preparation of loose soil specimens at eliminate the effects of end restraints. This lubrication
high void ratios. All the soil specimens were prepared to 50.4 reduces the friction at the end plates and supports the
mm diameter and 100 mm height. As per the procedure, air generation of a homogeneous stress field in the specimen.
dried soil sample was divided in to five parts, with each part After the specimen was formed as per the procedure
determined by the weight corresponding to desired relative described in earlier section, the specimen top cap was placed
density of soil. The volume of soil placed in each layer and sealed with O-rings. Before removing the former from
corresponds to 20 mm height. In order to attain a uniform the sample, vacuum pressure of 8 kPa was applied to hold the
density throughout the height of the specimen, the soil was specimen. After removal of the mould, sample dimensions
placed at different relative densities in the membrane-lined were measured carefully and then the triaxial cell was filled
split former. The weight of the soil used to form the different with water. An isotropic external pressure of 20 kPa was
layers corresponds to relative densities of Dro–2, Dro–1, Dro, applied to the specimen and vacuum pressure was removed
from the specimen before saturation. Initial saturation was
Dro+1 and Dro+2% from bottom to top of the soil specimen.
performed by purging the specimen with CO2 before
The soil to be placed in each layer was mixed at 6% water
circulating deaired water. After initial saturation, the back
content and kept in a sealed container for 10 hours to ensure
pressure and the cell pressure were increased in increments
uniform water content distribution throughout the soil. The up to 350 kPa by maintaining the constant effective stress
capillary force due to this moisture enables the silt particles acting on the sample. The soil was saturated until the
to hold together to obtain the loosest possible condition. Each Skempton’s pore pressure parameter ‘B’ reached a value of
of the five parts of the sample was placed one by one in 0.98. Then the specimens was consolidated isotropically at
layers into the membrane-lined split former and compacted effective confining pressure (σc') of 100 kPa. The volume of
to the specified density with tamping rod. Tamping rod the sample was constantly monitored during the
consist rubber tamping disc of 25 mm diameter. Tamping of consolidation process. After the constant volume state was
soil in each layer was continued until the soil was compacted reached, the drainage valves were closed electronically.
to 20 mm thickness. The tamping rod was marked at every
Then the specimens were subjected to two way cyclic
20 mm vertical distance to monitor the thickness of
compacted layers. Top of each compacted layer was slightly deviator stress, (± σdc ) with a frequency of 1.0 Hz. To
simulate the earthquake loading, constant amplitude of
scratched before placing the next layer to promote proper
sinusoidally varying cyclic deviator stress is applied to the
bonding. All the specimens were prepared at 40% relative
top of the specimen. The cyclic deviator stress simulates the
density. change in shear stress induced by the earthquake. For the

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Comparative Study on Liquefaction Resistance of Sand and Silty Soil

same initial relative density and effective confining pressure, 1.0 2.0
Δu=σc'
soil specimens were subjected to different values of cyclic 0.9 Pore pressure buildup 1.5
1.0
stress ratios, (CSR = ± σdc/2σ′c) in the range of 0.075 and 0.2 0.8 Axial strain variation
0.5

Pore pressure ratio


to obtain the liquefaction resistance curve. The cyclic loading 0.7
0.0

Axial strain,%
with a particular CSR was continued for at least 5–10 cycles 0.6
50% fines
-0.5
0.5 -1.0
after triggering the initial liquefaction to arrive both the Dro=40%
-1.5
0.4
initial liquefaction and limited strain failure of 2.5% and 5% 0.3
-2.0
DA. Initial liquefaction was identified when the excess pore 0.2
-2.5
σc'=100 kPa
pressure, Δu is equal to the applied effective confining
-3.0
0.1 -3.5
CSR=0.125
pressure during cycling loading. Double amplitude (DA) 0.0 -4.0
axial strain is defined as the total strain that occurs between 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

any two adjacent peak compressive and tensile strains. Number of cycles, N

During the cyclic loading, continuous records of the excess Fig. 2: Typical Cyclic Response of Silty Soil (FC=50%)
pore water pressure, (Δu), cyclic axial strain, (εc), and the
cyclic deviator stress (± σdc) were recorded automatically 3.2 Effect of Silt Content on Cyclic Response
using the integrated software. The effect of silt content (FC=50%) on the seismic
liquefaction behavior of sand in terms of cyclic response is
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION shown in Figure 3. The comparison in pore pressure buildup
of sand and silty soil with 50% fines is shown in Figure 3a. It
Stress controlled cyclic triaxial tests were performed on sand
indicates that the pore pressure with load cycles is rapidly
and silty soil specimens to study the liquefaction during
developed in case of silty soil when compared to clean sand.
earthquakes. The influence of silt content on pore pressure
In 50% fines soil, initial liquefaction (Δu/σc′ = 100%) is
generation and development of axial strain responses during
triggered at 18 cycles of loading, but in clean sand the
load cycles has been investigated.
development of pore pressure ratio is only about 28% (Δu/σc′
= 28%) at the same load cycles. In case of clean sand, 100%
3.1 Typical Undrained Cyclic Response pore pressure ratio is developed for long duration to about
Typical response of pore pressure buildup and axial strain 175 cycles. The response of axial strain development with
development obtained from cyclic triaxial test carried out on load cycles in 50% fines soil shown in Figure 3b is compared
silt specimen (Dro=40%, σc′=100 kPa) subjected to a cyclic with clean sands. It can be seen that axial strain with load
stress ratio of 0.125 is shown in Fig. 2. The pore pressure cycles is rapidly developed when the addition of silt content
ratio in Figure 2 is defined as the ratio of pore-pressure (FC = 50%) to the clean sand. This result occurs due to rapid
amplitude to effective consolidation pressure. It can be pore pressure buildup in silty soil. Large deformation (DA =
noticed from Figure 2 that the pore pressure buildup is rapid 2.2%) is occurred at initial liquefaction in silty soil, however
about only 0.98% DA is reaches at initial liquefaction state in
in the first and the last 4 cycles (Δu = 0.075 to 0.1σc′ per one
sand. It is interesting to note that the deformation at and
load cycle) and gradually increases during the intermediate
above initial liquefaction is progressively increased in
load cycles (Δu = 0.03σc′ per one load cycle). The specimen extension side due to addition of fines to the clean sand. It
has undergone initial liquefaction at about 18 cycles. The may be due to role of fines in altering the fabric of granular
initial liquefaction is identified when the excess pore structure under cyclic loading.
pressure, Δu, reaches the consolidation pressure level, σc′,
i.e. Δu = σc′. Similar pattern of pore pressure buildup with Stress-strain hysteresis of sand and 50% fines soil are shown
load cycles is also shown in earlier studies (Vercueil et al. in Figure 3c. It is very clear from Figure 3c that the loops of
1997; Amini & Sama 1999). cycles are close to each other and formed in thicker band
with insignificant deformation before the liquefaction. At and
Figure 2 also indicates insignificant development of axial above the state of initial liquefaction, large extensional
strain (DA = 0.1 to 0.5% only) occurs in the soil specimen up strains were developed due to loss in applied deviator stress.
to three cycles before the occurrence of initial liquefaction. The loops of cycles are widened with increase in rate of
At the state of initial liquefaction, the increase in axial strain deformation. In 50% fines soil, just followed the thicker
is propagated to 2.2% DA. However, the soil specimen band, after two loops of cycles, the extensional deformation
experiences large axial strain (DA = about 4.5%) within a is around 3.5%, but it is only 2% in case of clean sand. The
two cycles after the initial liquefaction. Sudden increase of sand sample is experienced of 8% strain at the end of 7th loop
such deformation is due to loss of strength of the soil at cycle. Effective stress paths of sand and silty soil are
initial liquefaction. Similar pattern of development in axial overlapped as shown in Figure 3d indicates that the mean
strain with load cycles is also shown in earlier studies (Ueng normal effective stress, p′= (σ1′+2σc′)/3 decreases as the pore
et al. 2004; Zhou & Chen 2005). pressure builds up. Similar types of undrained responses were

538
Comparative Study on Liquefaction Resistance of Sand and Silty Soil

1.0 also reported by previous researchers (Polito and Martin


0.9
Sand
(a) 2001, Ueng et al. 2004). From the comparison of stress
paths, the effective stress decreases rapidly in silty soil due to
Pore pressure ratio, Δu/σc'

0.8
50% fines
0.7 rapid pore pressure buildup when compared to clean sand.
0.6 The stress loops are very close to each other in clean sand
0.5 indicates the gradual decrease in mean normal effective
0.4 stress.
0.3 Dro=40%
0.2 σc'=100 kPa 3.3 Effect of Silt Content on Liquefaction Resistance
0.1 CSR = 0.125
0.0
The triaxial sand and silty soil specimens (Dro= 40% and
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 σc′=100 kPa), were subjected to four different values of
Number of cycles,N cyclic stress ratios to obtain liquefaction resistance curves.
2
The comparision on liquefaction resistance of sand and silt
1 (b) soil (FC=50%) is shown in Figure 4. Herein, liquefaction
0 resistance is defined as cyclic stress ratio required to causing
-1 the initial liquefaction at any given number of cycles. In
-2 general, cyclic stress ratio at 15 cycles of loading is
Axial strain, %

-3 Sand considered to evaluate the liquefaction resistance


-4 50% fines
-5
corresponding to the earthquake magnitude of 7.5 on
-6 Dro=40% moment magnitude scale (Seed et al. 1985).
-7 σc'=100 kPa
-8 CSR = 0.125
-9 0.45 Sand
-10 0.40 50% fines
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Cyclic Stress Ratio

0.35
Number of cycles, N
0.30
35
30 0.25
Sand (c)
25 50% fines 0.20
20
Deviator stress, kPa

15 0.15
10 Dro=40%
0.10
5 σc'=100 kPa
0 0.05
-5 1 10 100 1000
-10
-15 Dro=40% Number of cycles causing initial liquefaction
-20 σc'=100 kPa
-25 Fig. 4: Comparison on Liquefaction Resistance of Sand and
-30
CSR=0.125 Silt Soil
-35
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Axial strain, %
Figure 4 shows that the cyclic stress level decreases with
increase in number of load cycles. Examining the
30
Sand (d) liquefaction resistance curves of sand and silty soil, it can be
50% fines
20 seen that the liquefaction resistance of sand reduces due to
addition of fines to the clean sand. Cyclic strength curves
Deviator stress, kPa

10 converge towards the high number of cycles indicates the


0
reduction in liquefaction strength is minimal at high number
of cycles. For example, at 15 cycles of loading, the
t
es

liquefaction resistance of sand decreases to about 52% when


ft

-10
to

50% fines added to the clean sand. However, at high number


ar
st

-20
of cycles, i.e. Above 300 cycles, the reduction in liquefaction
-30 resistance is only about less than 5% due to addition of fines
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 content to the clean sand. It indicates that the significant
Mean normal effective stress, kPa reduction in cyclic strength is occurring at low number of
Fig. 3: Comparison on Cyclic Response of Sand and Silty cycles.
Soil: (a) Pore pressure buildup (b) Axial strain variation The decreasing trend of liquefaction resistance of sand with
(c) Stress-strain hysteresis and (d) Effective stress path the addition of fines is also reported from past research

539
Comparative Study on Liquefaction Resistance of Sand and Silty Soil

findings based on tests carried out on similar type of familiar Carraro J.A.H., Bandini P. and Salgado R. (2003).
soils including nevada & ottawa sands (carraro et al. 2003), “Liquefaction Resistance of Clean and Nonplastic Silty
tailing sand (troncoso & verdugo 1985), hostun sand Sands Based on Cone Penetration Resistance”, Jl. of
(bouferra & shahrour 2004) and toyoura sand (koseki et al. Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
1986). 129(11): 965–976.
Koseki J., Ishihara K. and Fujii M. (1986). “Triaxial
4. CONCLUSIONS Liquefaction Tests on Sand with Fines”, 21st Japanese
Annual Meeting on Geotechnical Engineering: 595–596.
An attempt has been made to evaluate the undrained cyclic Ladd R.S. (1978). “Preparing Test Specimens using
response and liquefaction resistance of clean sand and silty Undercompaction”, Geotechnical Testing Journal, 1(1):
soil with 50% fines. Based on cyclic triaxial test studies, the 16–23.
following major conclusions are arrived at. Polito C.P. and Martin II J.R. (2001). “Effects of Non-Plastic
Fines on the Liquefaction Resistance of Sands”, Jl.
• The pore pressure build-up in sand and silty soil is rapid
Geotech. and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 127(5):
in the first and last few load cycles and gradually
408–415.
increases during the intermediate load cycles. Samples
Seed H.B., Tokimatsu K., Harder L.F. and Chung R.M.
have experienced very small axial strains before the
(1985). “Influence of SPT Procedures in Soil Liquefaction
occurrence of initial liquefaction. Within a few cycles
Resistance Evaluations”, Jl. of Geotech. Eng., ASCE,
after the initial liquefaction, large strains have developed
111(5): 1425–1445.
in the soil samples.
Singh R., Roy D. and Jain S.K. (2005). “Analysis of Earth
• The pore pressure build-up is rapid in case of silt soil Dams affected by the Bhuj Earthquake”, Engrg. Geology:
whereas its build up is slow in case of clean sand. The 282–291.
addition of silt in sand causes an increase of axial Sitharam T.G. and Govindaraju L. (2004). “Geotechnical
deformation. With the increase in silt content, the Aspects and Ground Response Studies in Bhuj
deformation before and after initial liquefaction Earthquake, India”, Geotechnical and Geological
progressively increased in extension side. Engineering 22: 439–455.
• The cyclic stress level decreases with increase in number Troncoso J.H. and Verdugo R. (1985). “Silt content and
of load cycles. Liquefaction resistance of sand decreases Dynamic Behaviour of Tailing Sands”, 11th Proc. of Int.
due to addition of fines to the clean sand. At 15 cycles of Conference on Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering:
loading, the liquefaction resistance of silty soil is only 1311–1314.
about 48% of the liquefaction strength of the clean sand. Ueng T.S., Sun C.W. and Chen C.W. (2004). “Definition of
Fines and Liquefaction Resistance of Maoluo River Soil”,
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 24: 745–750.
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Conditions”, Soil Dynamics & Earthquake Eng, 18, 445– 417–425.
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