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Build-up of various impurities, erosion, and corrosion The pressure surface leg of horseshoe vortex merges and
introduces the roughness over the surface of the blades, strengthens the passage vortex. Later, different experiments
which in turn greatly affect magnitude of profile loss through were performed by Marchal et al. [1977], Sieverding et al.,
the turbine blades. [1983], Wang et al. [1997] and Sharma et al. [1987] which
complied with the conclusions of Langston et al. [1977].
End wall or secondary losses: The term secondary flows
Wang et al. [1997] concluded that pressure side vortex
refers to the three- dimensional vortical flow structures that
moves towards the suction side and merge with passage
develop in blade passages due to high turning of the flow and
vortex at approximately one fourth of the distance from the
non-uniform inlet total pressure profiles. The work output is
leading edge.
significantly affected due to the Secondary Flow. Secondary
There are two main designs for leading edge geometry: the
flows are superimposed upon the mean flow in transverse
fillet and the bulb for reducing secondary flow loss. Young
plane of the primary flow. Secondary flows cause to generate
J. Moon et al. [2000] analyzed the effect of end wall fencing
a non-uniform flow at exit of the blade row thereby
for reducing the secondary flow using k-ξ turbulence model.
efficiency of the blade row downstream gets reduced.
They also justified the optimized positioning of the endwall
Roughness over the surface of the blades also significantly
fencing for reducing the secondary flow losses, because the
affects the secondary losses. Other than profile losses,
end wall fencing prevents the merging of pressure side horse
secondary losses also contribute significantly to the total loss
shoe vortex with the passage vortex and hence total pressure
[Yahya, S. M.,1983], if the blade is short.
loss decreases.
Formation of vortex and Secondary flow phenomenon: Arun K. Saha et al. [2008] analyzed the turbulent flow
The formation of vortex in a turbine system largely affects through a three dimensional non-axisymmetric blade passage
the secondary loss. The incoming boundary layer separates and observed that endwall contouring reduces the pitch wise
upstream of the leading edge, forming a horseshoe vortex. pressure gradient near the endwall which reduces the chances
This vortex is consisted of two legs. The leg formed at the of flow separation. SonodaToyotaka et al. [2009] use axis-
pressure side and suction side of the blade are called pressure symmetrical end wall contouring method for reducing the
vortex and suction vortex respectively. The legs so formed secondary losses in high pressure turbine having low aspect
differ from each other. The suction side leg is affected mainly ratio. They investigated the effect of three types of end wall
by curvature of the suction surface. Whereas the pressure contouring: 1) only hub contour, 2) only tip contour and 3)
side leg is affected by curvature and pressure difference hub and tip contour and observed that hub contouring, the tip
between pressure side and suction side of adjacent blade of contouring and the hub and tip contouring all reduce the mass
the corresponding flow channel. The formation of a suction averaged overall loss by 4%, 5%, and 10%, respectively, as
and pressure side leg and passage vortex in a wind tunnel compared to the base line.
experiment is shown in figure 1. The pressure side vortex leg Brear et al. in [2010] strived to reduce the pressure surface
is usually increases towards the exit of the cascade. separation by modifying the leading edge geometry. They
Langston et al. [1977] was among the first to study the observed that increasing the blade thickness at the pressure
evolution of secondary flows using hot wire and flow surface decrease the strength of secondary flow by increasing
visualization techniques to qualitatively assess flow patterns the momentum near the wall. Shih et al. [2003] observed
at boundary layer, near the end wall region of a cascade. effects of leading-edge airfoil fillet on the flow in a turbine.
According to Langston, the incoming inlet boundary layer The increased size of the stagnation zones on the endwalls
splits into two streams, one moves towards the pressure about the airfoil‘s leading edge lowers the flow speed and
surface and other towards suction surface. Adverse pressure velocity gradients there, which in turn reduces turbulence
gradient is resulted in 3-D flow separation and horseshoe production. G. I. Mahmood et al. [2007] studied the
vortex formation. Passage vortex is formed due to boundary secondary flow structure in a blade passage with and without
layer and pressure gradient across the blade passage and leading edge fillet and observed that the size and strength of
rotates in anticlockwise direction. Cross flow is observed at the passage vortex become smaller with the fillets.
end wall, because of the blade to blade pressure gradient.
Suction surface leg rotates in opposite direction of pressure T. Korakianitis et al. [2010] has proposed a direct
surface leg and consequently termed as counter vortex. design method based on specifying blade surface-
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The most widely used models for turbomachinery Gambit2.4.6® and the dimensions of the model were kept
same as the experimental setup of Samsher [2006]. Shape
application is the - model [Shih et al., 2003]. In this
and specifications of turbine blade 6030 cascade model is
model, the turbulent kinetic energy ( ) and the energy shown in Figure 3. Various boundary zones so created from
various faces & boundary types assigned to each of them is
dissipation rate ( ) are considered as the properties, which
also shown in figure 3. Flow is assumed to be symmetric
govern the turbulent flow phenomena. The Realizable about the mid span plane. In order to make 3-D model to
turbulence model of Shih et al. [2003] has been selected for represent the actual flow, first of all a 2D model was created
solution of present problem. and then this 2-D model was converted into 3-D by sweeping
the faces of the 2-D model by blade height. After creating the
volume which is subjected to fluid flow meshing of the same
is done.
This model is expected to provide more accurate results
since it contains additional terms in the transport equations
for and that are more suitable for stagnation flows and 2.3 Boundary and Operating Conditions
flows with high streamline curvature.
The atmospheric temperature is assumed to be constant at
2.2. Description of Computational Domain 27 °C, as it varied from 20°C to 35 °C in experiment
A computational study of flow through Three performed by Samsher [2002]. The velocity at the inlet is
Dimensional Rectilinear Turbine Cascade for smooth profile given as 102 m/s. The pressure outlet value at exit is assigned
and profile having roughness of 500 µm was carried out as zero gauge pressure, as the exit is directly exposed to
[Vinod Kumar Singoria et al., 2012] results of which were atmosphere. The exit measurement plane is at 15 % distance
compared with values of percentage loss coefficients of chord distance. Initially blade surfaces were kept smooth
measured along the pitch by Samsher [2002]. Results of and results were obtained. In addition to these input
computational study and experiment were found to be in conditions for study of secondary flow loss, roughness of
agreement as shown in Figure 2. The same inlet and outlet 250, 500, 750 and 1000 µm were applied on pressure and
boundary conditions are taken as compared in experimental suction surfaces individually and then on both the surfaces
setup. together to see the effect of roughness on secondary flow.
After validation, the model was taken for investigation of Figure 4 shows a 2D view of passage between two blades of
effect of roughness on the secondary flow loss as percentage a rectilinear Cascade.
of total loss. The set of following conditions are taken for the 2.4 Energy Loss Calculation
present study of secondary flow loss:
The phenomenon of secondary flow is observed only near
i. both surfaces of the blade of the cascade are smooth ii. the end wall. In the mid span of the blade, profile loss is
roughness of 250, 500, 750 & 1000 µm is applied dominant. Secondary loss at the end walls includes loss from
separately over: the boundary wall on the endwall wetted surface, loss due to
a. Entire pressure surfaces of all blades (PSR ) flow separation and diffusion of passage secondary vortex.
b. Entire suction surfaces of all blades (SSR ) Energy loss coefficients represent total energy loss while
c. Both surfaces (suction & pressure sides) of all blades fluid flow is taking place along the cascade from inlet to
(BSR) . outlet. Energy loss coefficient at mid span where flow is 2-
Keeping in view the limitation of computational facility dimensional represents profile loss, whereas near the walls,
the cascade of a reaction profile (6030) consists of three flow it represents total loss i.e. profile loss plus secondary flow
channels using four test blades are placed in rectilinear loss. To segregate secondary loss at the end wall, profile loss
cascade test section with appropriate stagger angle, chord, at the mid space was subtracted from the total loss. The value
pitch, and inlet fluid flow angle. A three dimensional model of energy loss coefficient is calculated using equation-4.
of the profile 6030 was created, with the help of 1
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P2s 1
computed along the complete blade span starting from
y
endwall surface at zero mm to other endwall surface at 95
1 mm height. In order to visualize the flow near the end wall,
1 PP0101 the measurements near the endwalls were taken at small
PP02 1 distances & secondary losses were computed. For first 10
P2s mm height from bottom end wall, measuring points are 2 mm
apart from each other. Thereafter, it was computed at every
= 2s P01 5 mm interval till 85 mm blade height. Finally for the last 10
mm height it was again computed at every 2 mm interval.
Table 1 shows the various intervals at which total loss
coefficients were found.
P01 1 PP2s The total (combined) losses in a blade cascade are
estimated by the energy loss coefficient , which is
1 1 PP0101 PP022s 1
essentially the sum of profile loss coefficient & end loss
PP201s 1 coefficient as given by Kostyuk and Frolov (1988) in
equation 6.
01
(total) = (pr) + (sec) (6)
(4)
To calculate a single value of energy loss coefficient, the 3.1 Effect of Roughness on Total Energy Loss Coefficients:-
mass average value of loss coefficient was calculated using First, mass averaged total energy loss coefficients have been
determined using values of total and static pressures at exit
s It is expected that total energy loss increases till both end
0
y Vady of the blade compared to its value at mid span, but humps are seen just before both the ends. The presence of
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when roughness is applied over pressure, suction surface coefficient where roughness over pressure surf ace is least
separately and together in the same order. The trend of detrimental. On the contrary, the magnitude of secondary
energy loss coefficient for other roughnesses i.e. 250, 500, loss decreases in case of BSR & SSR cascades with increase
750 and 1000 µm is same. Hence, they are not shown in in roughness from 250 to 500 µm. The secondary losses
graphical form here to avoid repetitiveness but the results are reduces to 2.94, 2.75 and 2.46% respectively when
summarized in table 2. When the roughness of 250 m was roughness of 250 µm, 500 µm and 750 µm applied over
applied over pressure and suction surface separately and suction surface. This may be due to strengthening of suction
together, the profile loss coefficient increases to 11.71, 15.97 side counter vortex, which mixes with the passage vortex and
and 17.10% respectively compared to 10.53% in case of reducing the effect of passage vortex. Therefore, the
smooth. It can be concluded that the same roughness is secondary losses are lower in this case. Increase in roughness
significantly detrimental when applied over suction surface, further enhance counter vortex and hence secondary losses
whereas it increases marginally compared to smooth blade are further reduced. Profile loss due to roughness over
value when roughness is applied over pressure surface. The suction surface also favors these results. Magnitude of
combine effect of roughness over pressure and suction secondary loss at roughness value of 1000 µm was found to
surface is seen when the case of roughness over both the be approximately equal to that of 750 µm for all types of
surfaces is applied together. cascades i.e. PSR, SSR & BSR.
Table 2 shows that profile loss for BSR cascade is
3.2 Effect of roughness on Secondary loss :
maximum followed by SSR and PSR. In smooth type of
It is evident from results shown in Figure 6 and Table 2 cascade profile loss is happened to be minimum. It was
that difference in percentage values of total energy loss & observed that the mass averaged secondary loss as
Profile loss gives percentage of secondary loss in total percentage of total loss in smooth blade cascade was 4.94%.
energy. In case of smooth blade secondary loss is 4.94%. When 250 µm roughness was present on both surfaces
Since the total energy loss is also increased with application together this loss was 4.65%. The secondary loss further
of roughness, in spite of absolute change in secondary loss, reduces to 4.37% when roughness over both the surfaces is
it is not truly reflected in the percentage change in secondary increased to 500 µm. However, the roughness of 250 µm
loss when the absolute change in secondary loss is non- applied separately over pressure and suction surfaces results
dimensionalised with total loss with the same roughness. in secondary loss of 5.41% and 2.94%, respectively. Thus, it
Therefore, the percentage of secondary loss in total energy is clear that roughness over pressure surface strengthen the
loss is shown in last column of table 2, has been non- passage vortex, whereas suction side roughness weakens the
dimensionalised with the total loss in case of smooth blades. passage vortex by stronger suction side counter vortex.
Presence of roughness over the different part of blade When the roughness over pressure and suction surface
affects the secondary loss differently. Secondary loss applied together, the effect of counter vortex is more
increases in case of PSR blade cascades compared to smooth pronounced, thus causing secondary loss to decrease in this
blade. case.
The secondary loss further increases slightly if the The effect of different levels of roughnesses (250, 500,
roughness over pressure surface is increased from 250 to 500 750 &1000 µm) over various surfaces of blades on the profile
µm. Roughness on pressure surfaces of PSR cascade makes and secondary loss are summarized in Table 2.
boundary layer thicker and thus strengthen the pressure side
vortex and hence passage vortex due to which the secondary 3.3 Contour plots of total pressure distribution:
loss is increased. The Pressure side leg of horse shoe vortex Total pressure distribution for BSR cascade over entire
is affected by curvature and pressure difference between computational domain very close to end wall and at mid span
pressure side and suction side of adjacent blade of the are shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8. After entering cascade
corresponding flow passage thereby contribute more to the section total pressure drops due to viscous effect and other
Secondary losses. It can be concluded that presence of losses over the cascade section. At exit of cascade wakes are
roughness over pressure surface increases secondary losses. formed where total pressure drops significantly. However in
This may be due to favorable effect of pressure side leg on core flow region, pressure drop is insignificant. At
the passage vortex. This is in line with the energy loss significant distance from trailing edge intermixing of core
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flow and wake takes place. At very close to end wall region gi Gravitational Body Force
wake bands are much broader & are much more diffused at
very exit from blade trailing edge because of end wall
boundary layer interaction as seen in Figure 7. Whereas, Fi External Body Force
wakes are very distinct at mid span, Figure 8.
ij Stress Tensor
IV. CONCLUSIONS
• The pattern of variation of energy loss coefficient in Keff Effective Thermal Conductivity
spanwise direction (y/S) is same for smooth as well as
rough blades. Moreover the Figure 6 shows that energy Jj‘ Diffusion Flux
loss coefficient is least for smooth blades and it reaches
the maximum value in case the roughness is introduced Sh Source term includes heat of chemical reaction
on pressure as well as suction surface together.
• It is observed that applying roughness on blade surface T Temperature
definitely increases the profile loss as well as total
energy loss coefficient. But the mass averaged E Energy term
secondary loss is lower than the secondary loss in a
smooth cascade in case of SSR & BSR and higher in h Enthalpy
case of PSR compared to smooth blade case.
• SSR has least secondary losses may be because of more P2s Static pressure at outlet
flow separation of boundary layer and thus mixing of
passage vortex with suction side counter vortex takes Po1 Total pressure at inlet
place resulting into least secondary losses.
• Secondary Loss in BSR is more than SSR because the Po2 Total pressure at outlet
roughness over pressure surface promotes passage
vortex, whereas roughness over suction surface Ratio of specific heats for air
strengthen counter vortex present as suction surface
leg. Therefore, we can say that secondary losses in the
y Local energy loss coefficient
case of pressure surface are more that of suction surface
for the same roughness level.
• Due to the end wall boundary layers the loss coefficient REFRENCES
is high at hub and casing. [1 ] Brear Michael J., Hodson Howard P., Gonzalez Palom and Harvey
• Humps are observed near the hub and casing due to Neil W., 2002, ―Pressure Surface Separations in Low-Pressure
Turbines—Part 2: Interactions With the Secondary Flow,‖ Transactions
secondary vortex which increases the local energy loss of the ASME, 124, 402-409.
coefficient. [2 ] Korakianitis T. and Hamakhan I. A., 2010, ―Aerodynamic
Performance Effects of Leading-Edge Geometry in Gas-Turbine
NOMENCLATURE Blades,‖ Applied Energy, 87,1591–1601.
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Leading Edge Fillets,‖ ASME Journal of Fluids Engineering, 129, 253- [13 ] Sieverding C.H and, Bosch P. Van den, 1983, ―The Use of Coloured
262. Smoke to Visualise Secondary Flows in a Turbine-Blade Cascade, "
[6 ] Marchal P., and Sieverding C.H., 1977, ―Secondary Flows Within ASME Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 134,85-89.
TurbomachineryBladings,‖ Secondary Flows in Turbomachines,‖ [14 ] SonodaToyotaka, Hasenjäger Martina, Arima Toshiyuki and Sendhoff
AGARD-CP-214, 11, 1–19. Bernhard, 2009, ―Effect of End Wall Contouring on Performance of
[7 ] Moon, Young J. and Koh Sung-Ryong, 2000, ―Counter-rotating Ultra-Low Aspect Ratio Transonic Turbine Inlet
streamwise vortex formation in turbine cascade with endwall fencing,‖ Guide Vanes,‖ ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, 131, 011020-1-
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[8 ] SahaArun K. and AcharyaSumanta, 2008, ―Computations of [15 ] Vinod Kumar Singoria, Deepika Sharma, Samsher, 2012 ―Effect of
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Turbomachinery, 130, 031008-1- 031008-10. Faridabad, Haryana, India, 132-141.
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Figure 7: Total pressure distributions in wake region very close to end wall o f BSR cascade having Roughness of 500 𝞵m.
Figure 8: Total pressure distributions in wake region at mid span of BSR cascade having Roughness of 500 m.
Table 1
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Table 2
Summary of Total Energy Loss, Profile Loss and Secondary Loss for smooth, SSR, PSR & BSR cascades for different levels of roughness
Location Roughness Percentage of Percentage Contribution percentage of Second
roughness osecondary loss
levels Total energy loss Profile loss in t loss relative to total l
in total energy of energy of the air (C=A
in smooth blades
( m) the air (A) (mid span value)
(D=100*C/A)
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