Carrier Recovery ¨C the process of extracting a phase-coherent reference carrier from a receiver signal.

Sometimes called Phase Referencing.

Methods of Carrier Recovery:

Squaring Loop ¨C a common method of achieving carrier recovery for BPSK. The received BPSK
waveform is filtered and squared.

Costas (Quadrature) Loop ¨C it produces the same results as a squaring circuit followed by on ordinary
PLL in place of the BPF.

Remodulator ¨C it produces a loop error voltage that is proportional to twice the phase error between
the incoming signal and the VCO signal. It has a faster acquisition time.

Clock Recovery ¨C it is the regeneration of clocks at the receiver that are synchronous with those at the
transmitter for the precise timing or clock synchronization between transmit and receive circuitry.

Constellation Diagram ¨C sometimes called Signal State-Space Diagram. A pattern showing all the
possible combinations of amplitude and phase for a signal.

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) ¨C also known as Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK). Binary FSK is a form
of constant-amplitude angle modulation and similar to conventional frequency modulation (FM) except
that the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels.

Continuous-Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CP-FSK) ¨C it is a BFSK except that the mark and space
frequencies are synchronized with the input binary bit rate.

Differential Phase Shift Keying:

SAME LEVEL - the output signal has no phase shift (0 degrees).

DIFFERENT LEVEL-C the output signal has phase shift (180 degrees).

Binary Phase Shift Keying:

SAME LEVEL - the output signal has no phase shift (180 degrees).

DIFFERENT LEVEL-C the output signal has phase shift (0 degrees).

Bit Error Rate (BER) an empirical record of a system's actual error performance. It is determined after
the transmission is done. Based on the previous (historical/empirical).

Probability of Error, P(e) - it is a theoretical expectation of the bit error rate of the given system. It is
determined before transmission. Based on the future (expectation/theoretical/mathematical).

Trellis Code Modulation (TCM) ¨C an encoding technique that is used to those data transmission rates in
excess of 56kbps that can be achieved, however, over standard telephone circuit. Developed by DR.
Ungerboeck at IBM Zuerich Research Laboratory. It involves using Convolutional (Tree) Codes, which
combines encoding and modulation to reduce probability of error, thus improving the bit error
performance
Mark frequency is logic 1. Space frequency is logic 0. The mark and space frequencies is separated from
the carrier by the peak frequency deviation. Either of the mark or space can be greater or lesser.

Bandwidth Efficiency ¨C also known as the Information Density, Modulation Efficiency and Spectral
Efficiency. Used to compare the performance of one digital modulation technique to another. It is the
ratio of the transmission rate in bps to the minimum bandwidth and has a unit of bps per Hertz (bps/Hz)
or bits per cycle (bits/cycle).

FSK Performance:

-Poorer error performance than PSK or QAM.

-Its use is restricted to low performance, low cost asynchronous data modems.

-Seldom used for high performance digital radio system.

Offset Quaternary Phase Shift Keying (OQPSK) ¨C also known as Offset-Keyed QPSK (OKQPSK). Is a
modified form of QPSK where the bit waveforms on the I and Q channel are offset or shifted in phase
from each other by one-half of a bit time.

Mary Encoding

As the level (M) of the PSK increases, the transmission time is faster. However, the signal's spacing is
decreased and can cause interferences and errors.

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) ¨C Also known as Digital Amplitude Modulation (DAM), On-Off Keying
(OOK) and Continuous Wave (CW). The simplest digital modulation technique

Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) ¨C primary advantage is simplicity with which it can be
implemented. No carrier recovery is needed. Uses XNOR as its primary circuit. Two input bits determines
the phase shift of the signal.

Mark frequency is logic 1. Space frequency is logic 0. The mark and space frequencies is separated from
the carrier by the peak frequency deviation. Either of the mark or space can be greater or lesser.

Constellation Diagram ¨C sometimes called Signal State-Space Diagram. A pattern showing all the
possible combinations of amplitude and phase for a signal.

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) ¨C also known as Phase Reversal Keying (PRK) and Biphase Modulation.
Two output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency. One output represents logic 1. Another
output represents logic 0.
Telphony

Scanning ¨C it is the successive analyzing and synthesizing of the light values of elements constituting a
picture area.

Types of Scanning:

Raster Scanning ¨C the image to be scanned is divided vertically into several horizontal segments called
scan lines. Each scan line is divided into a number of equal short segments called picture elements
(pixels/pels).

Cylindrical Scanning ¨C the document is first fixed around a drum by means of clips. The drum turns on
its axis, it moves along a threaded track so that each turn of the drum displaces it axially by one line
width.

Electronic CCD Scanning ¨C a light sensitive semiconductor device that converts varying light amplitudes
into an electrical signal.

Index of Cooperation (IOC) ¨C the number derived from WIDTH-HEIGHT RATIO of the source document.

Conditions of IOC:

-Receiver IOC equal to transmitter IOC.

-Receiver IOC greater than transmitter IOC.

-Receiver IOC less than transmitter IOC.

Analog Companding ¨C companding occurs before converting the signal to digital form. Digital
Companding ¨C companding occurs after converting the signal to digital for. Easier than analog
companding.

Aperture Error (Aperture Distortion) ¨C when the amplitude of the sampled signal changes during the
sample pulse time.

Aliasing (Foldover Distortion) ¨C will occur if Nyquist Criterion is not met.

Quantization Error (Quantization Noise) ¨C the error produced by rounding off values.

Peak Limiting (Overload Distortion) ¨C if the magnitude of the sample exceeds the highest quantization
interval.

Natural Sampling ¨C the input analog waveform is sampled by a sampling pulse with an output sampled
waveform obtaining the shape of the input analog waveform.
Flat Top Sampling ¨C also known as Sample & Hold. The input analog waveform is sampled by a sampling
pulse with an output sampled waveform that is flattened at the top (staircase waveform). Most
commonly used.

Idle Channel Noise ¨C the random, thermal noise that is present only into the input of the PAM sampler
when there is no analog input signal.

Midtread Quantization ¨C a method used to reduce idle channel noise.

Midrise Quantization ¨C in the PCM codes, the lowest magnitude positive and negative codes have the
same voltage range as all the other codes.

Vocoding Techniques:

Channel Vocoders ¨C the first channel vocoder was developed Homer Dudley in 1928. Dudley's vocoder
compressed conventional speech waveforms into an analog signal with a total bandwidth of
approximately 300Hz.

Formant Vocoders ¨C it takes advantage of the fact that the short-term spectral density of typical speech
signals seldom distributes uniformly across the entire voice band spectrum (300-3000Hz). Instead, the
spectral power of most speech energy concentrates at three to four peak frequencies called formants.

Linear Predictive Coders ¨C it extracts the most significant portions of speech information directly from
the time waveform rather than from the frequency spectrum as with the channel and formant
vocoders.v

Differential PCM ¨C the difference in amplitude of two successive samples is transmitted rather than the
actual sample. Designed specifically to take advantage of bits.