Explanation[edit]

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Classical mechanics

Second law of motion

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Modeling an object as a continuum assumes that the substance of the object completely fills the
space it occupies. Modeling objects in this way ignores the fact that matter is made of atoms, and so
is not continuous; however, on length scales much greater than that of inter-atomic distances, such
models are highly accurate. Fundamental physical laws such as the conservation of mass,
the conservation of momentum, and the conservation of energy may be applied to such models to
derive differential equations describing the behavior of such objects, and some information about the
particular material studied is added through constitutive relations.
Continuum mechanics deals with physical properties of solids and fluids which are independent of
any particular coordinate system in which they are observed. These physical properties are then
represented by tensors, which are mathematical objects that have the required property of being
independent of coordinate system. These tensors can be expressed in coordinate systems for
computational convenience.

Concept of a continuum[edit]
Materials, such as solids, liquids and gases, are composed of molecules separated by space. On a
microscopic scale, materials have cracks and discontinuities. However, certain physical phenomena
can be modeled assuming the materials exist as a continuum, meaning the matter in the body is
continuously distributed and fills the entire region of space it occupies. A continuum is a body that
can be continually sub-divided into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk
material.
The validity of the continuum assumption may be verified by a theoretical analysis, in which either
some clear periodicity is identified or statistical homogeneity and ergodicity of
the microstructure exists. More specifically, the continuum hypothesis/assumption hinges on the
concepts of a representative elementary volume and separation of scales based on the Hill–Mandel
condition. This condition provides a link between an experimentalist's and a theoretician's viewpoint
on constitutive equations (linear and nonlinear elastic/inelastic or coupled fields) as well as a way of
spatial and statistical averaging of the microstructure.[1]
When the separation of scales does not hold, or when one wants to establish a continuum of a finer
resolution than that of the representative volume element (RVE) size, one employs a statistical
volume element (SVE), which, in turn, leads to random continuum fields. The latter then provide a
micromechanics basis for stochastic finite elements (SFE). The levels of SVE and RVE link
continuum mechanics to statistical mechanics. The RVE may be assessed only in a limited way via
experimental testing: when the constitutive response becomes spatially homogeneous.
Specifically for fluids, the Knudsen number is used to assess to what extent the approximation of
continuity can be made.

Car traffic as an introductory example[edit]

Consider car traffic on a highway, with just one lane for simplicity. Somewhat surprisingly, and in a
tribute to its effectiveness, continuum mechanics effectively models the movement of cars via
a partial differential equation (PDE) for the density of cars. The familiarity of this situation empowers
us to understand a little of the continuum-discrete dichotomy underlying continuum modelling in
general.

To start modelling define that: measure distance (in km) along the highway; is time (in

minutes); is the density of cars on the highway (in cars/km in the lane); and is the flow

velocity (average velocity) of those cars 'at' position .

Conservation derives a PDE (Partial differential equation)[edit]

Cars do not appear and disappear. Consider any group of cars: from the particular car at the back of

the group located at to the particular car at the front located at . The total number of cars
in this group . Since cars are conserved (if there is overtaking, then the `car at the front \ back'

may become a different car) . But via the Leibniz integral rule

This integral being zero holds for all groups, that is, for all intervals . The only way an

integral can be zero for all intervals is if the integrand is zero for all . Consequently,
conservation derives the first order nonlinear conservation PDE

for all positions on the highway.

This conservation PDE applies not only to car traffic but also to fluids, solids, crowds,
animals, plants, bushfires, financial traders, and so on.

Observation closes the problem[edit]

The previous PDE is one equation with two unknowns, so another equation is needed to
form a well-posed problem. Such an extra equation is typically needed in continuum
mechanics and typically comes from experiments. For car traffic it is well established that

cars typically travel at a speed depending upon density, for some experimentally

determined function that is a decreasing function of density. For example, experiments

in the Lincoln Tunnel found that a good fit (except at low density) is obtained by (km/hr
for density in cars/km).[2]
Thus the basic continuum model for car traffic is the PDE

for the car density on the highway.

Major areas[edit]
Elasticity
Describes materials that return to their rest shape
Continuum after applied stresses are removed.
Solid mechanics
mechanics The study of the
The study of the physics of continuous
physics of materials with a defined
continuous Plasticity
rest shape.
materials Describes materials that Rheology
permanently deform after a The study of
sufficient applied stress. materials with both
 solid and fluid
Non-Newtonian characteristics.
fluids do not undergo
Fluid mechanics strain rates
The study of the proportional to the
physics of continuous applied shear stress.
materials which deform
when subjected to a
force.
Newtonian fluids undergo strain rates
proportional to the applied shear stress.

An additional area of continuum mechanics comprises elastomeric foams, which exhibit

a curious hyperbolic stress-strain relationship. The elastomer is a true continuum, but a
homogeneous distribution of voids gives it unusual properties.[3]