Surface Mining

Primary Loading Tool

Selection Guide
Wherever there’s loading, we’re there.
Loading applications vary between mine sites, so it’s important to have appropriate loading tools.
Caterpillar is the only mining equipment manufacturer to offer every type of loading tool for surface
mining – electric rope shovels, hydraulic front shovels, hydraulic backhoes, and wheel loaders.
This guide presents an overview of these tools and describes how to use each type most effectively.
Together, you and your customer can use this information to make highly informed decisions for
every mine plan.
Contents

Selection Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Product Descriptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-7
Site Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12
Mining Methods/Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-19
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21
Buckets and Dippers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-23
Selection Process
Surface mining-specific needs and working face attributes are primary selection considerations. The overall goal is to maximize profit
with a loading system that meets targeted hourly production at the lowest cost-per-unit of material moved.

Mine Site Considerations Equipment Considerations

• Electrical infrastructure • Life of the surface mining operation
• Longevity of the operation • Electric power availability
• Annual production target • Primary loading
• Face material • Multiple loading faces
• Material fragmentation • Secondary functions such as stockpiling, loading rail cars,
• Penetration characteristics feeding the primary crusher, cleanup, and maintaining a
• Material angle of repose surge pile
• Face height and angle The electric rope shovel, hydraulic front shovel, hydraulic
backhoe, and wheel loader fit into primary loading functions in
• Bench width
surface mining applications. The equipment that is best for the
• Maneuvering space job depends on the characteristics of the job site.
• Multiple loading faces
• Floor conditions
• Job set-up
• Load area support equipment needs
• Blasting restrictions

4
Product Descriptions

Electric Rope Shovels

Electric rope shovels offer the lowest cost-per-ton loading Favorable Conditions
solution for long-life mines. Although they have traditionally
required electrical infrastructure, Caterpillar is developing an • Working a single face of the correct height
off-grid power solution to allow non-electrified mines to consider • Solid, level floor
this loading tool option.
• Wide benches to facilitate truck maneuverability
They are most efficient when the work face is between 12 and 18
• Well-shot material
meters (39 and 59 feet) high. Line of sight is high above the truck
being loaded, giving the rope shovel operator excellent visibility • Cleanup and ground support
of the truck bed. • Good trail cable management
Due to the large size of the machine, it is possible to use a
double-side loading method for added efficiency. This method Unfavorable Conditions
allows the rope shovel to load one truck while another truck gets • Poor underfoot
into position on the other side, for continuous loading. Trucks are
• Low faces
positioned up to 7 meters (20 feet) away from the rope shovel’s
crawlers throughout the loading cycle, helping to reduce or • Poorly shot or unshot material
eliminate collisions during truck spotting. • Multiple face location
An electrically powered machine, the rope shovel’s immense • Selective digging
payload capability, low maintenance requirements, and
high reliability make it the lowest total cost-per-unit loading
tool available.

5
Product Descriptions

Hydraulic Front Shovels and Hydraulic Backhoes

Hydraulic shovels combine the benefits benches may be narrow. Truck positioning Hydraulic shovels are also available as
of high digging forces with large capacity and proper truck match are critical. The AC version with electric drive, which
buckets. They can selectively dig deposits operator’s eye level is also sufficient offers lower cost-per-ton for electrified
anywhere in the face, giving operators for same level loading if the truck is not mine sites, similar to electric rope
added flexibility. Hydraulic front shovels extremely oversized. shovels.
are usually used in tight material (12 m/
40 ft plus) to penetrate tough material.
Hydraulic backhoes work best when
Hydraulic Front Shovels Hydraulic Backhoes
positioned on an upper bench with
haulers at a lower level for high Favorable Conditions Favorable Conditions
productivity and best operator view into
the truck bed. They are also capable of • Selective digging • Low to moderate bench heights
same-level loading if required. Bench • Multiple face heights • Truck spotted either on top of bench
height should correspond to stick • Single face loading or on the floor below the backhoe
length for adequate reach in loading • Multiple targets • Tight load area
and dumping. • Tight load area • Short swing – 60°
Free-flowing faces with low angles of • Tough digging • Well-shot material
repose favor the front shovel due to the • Can work in poor floor conditions
limited reach of the backhoe. Unfavorable Conditions
• Define dig pattern and maintain
Hydraulic shovels work well in poor • High benches
underfoot conditions (soft or jagged Unfavorable Conditions • Excessive tramming
floors) and in tight quarters, where • Excessive tramming • Multiple benches
• Low benches • Unstable benches
• No cleanup support • Low angle of repose material
• Multiple faces • No cleanup support

6
 Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide

Wheel Loaders
Large wheel loaders have grown in size over time to match Favorable Conditions
increasing off-highway and mining truck payload capacities.
They increase productivity with consistent high bucket fill • Level, dry, smooth, firm floors
factors and are used effectively as primary loading tools where • Sufficient crossfall and drainage in wet areas to minimize
mobility is paramount. In conditions common to crushed-stone tire damage
applications, wheel loaders keep loading floors clean, work
• Well-fragmented materials that minimize crowding time,
between multiple faces, and transport oversize material away
particularly in the toe-area of the cut
from loading area. Productivity remains high even when the
machines encounter face conditions such as free-flowing • Lower face profile
material or material with low angles of repose. • Multiple faces and frequent traming
These reasons, plus traditionally low owning and operating
costs, have made wheel loaders very popular in mines Unfavorable Conditions
worldwide. • Poor underfoot conditions – wet, soft, jagged
Although wheel loaders articulate at a full 40 degrees, they still • Tight load areas
need ample maneuvering room. Caution should be noted with
• Poorly shot material
wheel loaders in tight box cuts. Due to the lack of room, the
loader may grind tires and decrease their life. This occurs by
not keeping the loader moving fore and aft while making tight
maneuvers and chewing the rubber from the tread.

7
Site Conditions
INFRASTRUCTURE
Mine sites equipped with an electrical infrastructure have the
option to choose electric rope shovels and/or electric powered
hydraulic shovels for their loading tool needs. Using electric
machines lowers the operation’s overall cost and reduces
emissions. They do require trail cables connected to sub-
stations, which limits their mobility.
For non-electrified mine sites, diesel-powered hydraulic shovels
and wheel loaders remain the primary loading tool options.
Diesel-powered machines offer a distinct advantage in mobility
and flexibility, despite a higher operating cost. However, with the
introduction of our off-grid power solution, non-electrified mines
now have the option to use electric rope shovels. Greenfield
mines in the planning process must weigh the long-term cost
implications between investing in an electrical infrastructure
for electric-powered loading tools and using diesel-powered
equipment only.
8
ESTIMATED LIFE-OF-MINE
The expected longevity of the mine site also plays a role in
loading tool selection. Electric rope shovels are designed to have
an operating life of 120,000 hours, making them a viable option
for mines with estimated lives that meet or exceed a timeframe
of 20 years.
For mine sites with shorter estimated lives, hydraulic shovels
and wheel loaders may be more viable options. Hydraulic
shovels and wheel loaders are designed to have an operating
life of approximately 50,000 to 60,000 hours without exchange of
major steel structures, dependent upon application and proper
maintenance.
 Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide

Loading Conditions
There is no single loading tool that will do all things on all jobs; each has a definite application range in which it is regularly used and is
suitable economically. This chart shows generally accepted guidelines for matching equipment to loading conditions.

Factor Condition Wheel Hydraulic Hydraulic Electric

Loader Front Shovel Backhoe Rope Shovel
Load Area Single open bench
Double-sided loading
Multiple benches
Confined area
Poor truck positioning
Material Condition Good fragmentation
Tight material
Oversize material
Selective digging
Bench Height High *
Low *
Angle of Repose Steep
Shallow
Floor – Shape Level and firm
Uneven or undulating
Floor – Surface Dry, good traction
Wet, good traction
Wet, low traction
Wet and jagged
Bucket/Dipper Performance Achieve rated capacity
Match multiple targets (truck size)
Dig above grade
Dig below grade
Cleanup Blast cleanup
Scaling face
Load area cleanup
Digging out toe
Travel Multiple loading sites
Mobility for blasting
Load and carry
Secondary Tasks Blending

Dark Yellow – Ideal *Bench height needs to be optimized for hydraulic backhoe.

Medium Yellow – Recommended

Light Yellow – Capable
Grey – Not recommended 9
Site Conditions

Blasting and Fragmentation

Good blasting and fragmentation techniques play an important Improved fragmentation through blasting can have downsides
role in the productivity and life expectancy of your loading tools, as well:
whether you’re using an electric rope shovel, hydraulic shovel, or • Higher cost of drilling
wheel loader. Benefits include:
• Increased cost of explosives
• Improved bucket fill and reduced bucket load time result in
better loader productivity, longer loading tool life, and reduced • More fines produced
cost per ton of material loaded Typically, the improvements in loading tool productivity more than
• Improved primary loading tool productivity, as less time is offsets the higher costs associated with drilling and blasting.
spent digging out and placing oversized pieces of material for
secondary breakage
• Reduction of oversized pieces of material and associated
secondary breakage costs
• Reduced congestion in the loading area caused by a shortage
of oversized pieces of material rocks, leading to improved
truck exchange time
• More consistent truck payloads
• Less tipping impact at hoppers and crushers
• Reduced crushing costs and improved crusher throughput,
lowering crushing cost-per-ton

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 Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide

Floor Conditions
Solid, flat floors are ideal for all loading systems, but changing floor conditions require a careful choice of track shoes for hydraulic
shovels and electric rope shovels, and tires for wheel loaders, that are the best fit for the operation.

Tracks
In most surface mining applications, the narrowest single
grouser shoes are generally the most durable choice. In soft,
spongy conditions, a wider shoe provides better flotation. On
jagged or rolling ground, hydraulic shovels and electric rope
shovels will often “pad” a floor by adding fines to form a stable
loading platform. This can prevent the shovel from rocking
on the undercarriage during the loading cycle, as rocking
significantly reduces undercarriage life and operator efficiency.
Wheel loaders, which do not experience these undercarriage
constraints, also do an excellent job of adding fines and
filling in low areas to construct a better working surface.
Electric rope shovels and the larger hydraulic shovels rely on
support equipment, like track-type tractors or wheel dozers, to
adequately prepare ground conditions.
Most loading systems can work on pitched slopes, or pitched
seams, but wheel loaders typically are less effective than
hydraulic shovels on steeper grades. Electric rope shovels are
also not well suited to work on highly pitched slopes or seams. If
floor conditions are severe (wet) or change cannot be controlled,
wheel loader production may decrease. Tracked machines are
better suited for such conditions.

Soft/Spongy Jagged/Rolling Pitched Wet

11
Site Conditions

ground pressure
Nominal ground pressure and gross machine weight are In general, ground pressures increase as machine size
indicators of machine flotation in poor underfoot conditions. increases. Very large machines, like electric rope shovels and
Hydraulic shovels exert approximately one-third of the ground larger scale hydraulic shovels, must have a solid sub-base to
pressure compared to similar-sized wheel loaders. operate effectively. Also, wider tracks or tires will reduce
ground pressure.
Changing floor conditions, such as rainwater or the freeze/thaw
Ground Pressures Tire or Track
cycle, must also be taken into account. Good mobility, traction,
Electric Rope Shovels* and flotation must be considered during the entire range of
conditions. The operator has the ability to adapt the face and
7295-7495 220-374 kPa (32-54.1 psi)
floor conditions for the loading tool to ensure
Hydraulic Shovels continued productivity:
6015/6015 FS-6090 FS 167-251 kPa (24-37.4 psi) • Face height
Wheel Loaders • Floor padding (adding rock fines to the floor)
988-993 345-551 kPa (50-80 psi) • Additional support units

* The 7495 HF includes a high-floatation undercarriage specifically

designed for soft ground conditions, similar to what is found in the
Canadian oil sands. The ground pressure for the 7495 HF is 216 kPa
(31.4 psi).

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 Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide

Mining Methods/Techniques
the loading process
In many ways, loading is the central part of any earthmoving process. The entire system’s productivity is governed by the loading
tool’s productivity. There are strong links to the muckpile condition upstream and the truck fleet downstream of the loading tool.
If the loading process is productive and cost-effective, the entire material moving process will be as well.

Blasting Loading Cost

$
Rock strength Crowd/rimpull Repairs
Laminations Breakout Tires and U/C
Drill pattern and angle Bucket shape Bucket/GET
Hole size Penetration Labor
Explosives Fill factor
Powder factor Productivity

Productivity
A good indicator of material ability is the average time it takes • Loading time should take less than 16 seconds, regardless of
to fill the bucket/dipper. A proper loading tool productivity study the loading tool.
measures the four-part loading cycle: • Loading times longer than 10-16 seconds may be an indication
1. Dump that the material/muckpile is not properly conditioned for the
2. Travel empty or swing empty loading tool. It could also be an indication of the operator’s
skill level.
3. Dig
Note: Load times are averaged and will vary cycle to cycle as the
4. Travel loaded or swing loaded loading face changes. Handling oversize pieces of material or
The total cycle time is the sum of segments 1 through 4. digging the toe of a highwall will increase individual dig times.

Typical cycle times (in seconds):

Electric Rope Shovels 28-44 sec (avg 37)
Hydraulic Front Shovels 21-32 sec (avg 26.5)
Hydraulic Backhoes 21-31 sec (26)
Wheel Loaders 28-42 (avg 35)

13
Mining Methods/Techniques

digging ranges

Electric Rope Shovel

Hydraulic Backhoe
14
 Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide

Hydraulic Front Shovel

Wheel loaders, hydraulic front shovels,

and electric rope shovels are positioned
in front of the working face. All three are
able to dig from the bottom to the top
of the face in one fluid motion, but only
the hydraulic front shovel has selective
digging capability. Selective digging
refers a machine’s ability to penetrate
the face at any height. Hydraulic
backhoes are generally positioned at
the top of the face, allowing the machine
to dig below grade via a digging motion
that moves toward the machine, enabling
selective digging capability.
Wheel Loader
15
Mining Methods/Techniques

SINGLE-SIDE LOADING DOUBLE-SIDE LOADING

• Truck is on left-hand side, so that truck driver and shovel
operator have direct eye contact
• Shovel can follow a straight working face without major
repositioning effort
• Good floor conditions are easy to maintain
• Support equipment can clean the excavated area behind
the shovel without interfering the loading action
• Always mine the face from right to left, then travel back
and continue
• Tracks 45° towards face, travel motors to rear
• Minimized truck spotting time for higher short-term productivity
• Higher risk of collisions
• Well-trained operators required
• While loading to the right side, both shovel operator and truck
driver are on the blind side
• Shovel cannot follow straight working face and has higher
repositioning effort
• Permanent clean-up support required
• Tracks 90° towards face, travel motors to rear

Hydraulic Backhoe Top loading –

Truck on upper level
• Applied for drop cuts and difficult-to-access or wet areas at
the pit bottom
• Increased lifting effort and larger swing angle requires longer
cycle time
• Approximately 15% to 20% lower productivity

16

Typical Hydraulic Backhoe application –
Truck on lower level
• Lowest risk for collision with proper bench height due to clear
separation of loading and hauling equipment
• Excellent operator view into the truck body
• Potential for short swing angles
• Shortest attachment lifting distance possible
• Various options for truck positioning with loading through the
body gate or over the side wall
Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide
Drive-by loading
• Truck spotting time eliminated for highest productivity, because
the next truck does not need to reverse for positioning
• 90° swing angle
• Loading through the gate is more difficult due to limited space
for dumping
17
Mining Methods/Techniques

PASS MATCH
Caterpillar offers a world-class range of wheel loaders, hydraulic shovels, and electric rope shovels, as well as a full line of off-
highway and mining trucks designed to work together for maximum productivity. The loading tool must be matched to the truck, with
the correct bucket/dipper size, to optimize loading cycles.

Rope Shovel Pass Match Guide

Truck Rope Shovel
7495 7495 HF 7495 HD 7395 7295
797F
MT6300 AC
4 4 – – –
Passes Passes

795F
MT5500 AC
3 3 – – –
Passes Passes

MT5300 AC 3 3 4 – –
Passes Passes Passes

793F, 793D
MT4400D AC
– – 3 4 –
Passes Passes

789D
MT3700 AC
– – 3 4 –
Passes Passes

785D, 785C
MT3300 AC
– – – – 3
Passes

18
 Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide

Hydraulic Shovel Pass Match Guide

Truck Hydraulic Shovel
6060 6050 6040 6030 6018 6015
6090 FS
6060 FS 6050 FS 6040 FS 6030 FS 6018 FS 6015 FS
797F
MT6300 AC
4 6 7-8 – – – –
Passes Passes Passes

795F AC
MT5500 AC
3-4 5-6 6-7 – – – –
Passes Passes Passes

MT5300D AC 3 5 6 – – – –
Passes Passes Passes

793F, 793D
MT4400D AC
3 4 5 6 – – –
Passes Passes Passes Passes

789D
MT3700 AC
– 3-4 4 5 6 – –
Passes Passes Passes Passes

785D, 785C
MT3300 AC
– – 3 4 4-5 7-8 –
Passes Passes Passes Passes

777G
777D
– – – – 3-4 5 8
Passes Passes Passes

Wheel Loader Pass Match Guide

Truck Wheel Loader
994H 994H 994H 993H 993H 992H 992H 990H
Extended High Lift High Lift High Lift High Lift High Lift

793F, 793D
MT4400D AC
7 – – – – – – –
Passes

789D
MT3700 AC
– 6 5 – – – – –
Passes Passes

785D, 785C
MT3300 AC
– – 4 6 – 7 – –
Passes Passes Passes

777G
777D
– – – – 3-4 4-5 4 5-6
Passes Passes Passes Passes

19
Applications
Working the Face
Excavating and loading operations account for a significant
portion of total material movement costs, so it is prudent to
search for the most cost-effective approach.
There are several types of excavating faces:
• 
Well Fragmented – The ideal conditions for all loading tools.
• 
Selective Digging – Both hydraulic front shovels and hydraulic
backhoes are able to selectively dig. The narrow bucket and
ability to load anywhere in the face makes it a good selective
loading tool for extracting specific material without disturbing
or handling unwanted material.
• 
Consolidated/Poorly Shot – Hydraulic shovels may work in this
situation. Other site needs may drive the selection process. In
some cases hydraulic shovels can even work in free digging
rock applications, such as limestone. Pre-condition is a
certain grade of natural fractures in the deposit, such as layer
boundaries or fissures.
• 
Free Flowing – Favors the wheel loader, but a hydraulic
backhoe could be placed on top of the pile for high production
applications with proper support equipment. This type of
material produces high fill factors and fast cycle times,
resulting in high productivity.
Free Flowing
Selective Digging
Tight Shot Face
20
All the loading tools can work these types of faces, but each
one has its best fit. For instance, a loading tool with high digging
forces applied at an easy loading face would be a waste of
capability, raising the cost-per-unit. Or a wheel loader digging in
consolidated excavation might result in low productivity and high
component wear (GET), driving up unit cost.
Breakout forces and digging range play a part in each machine’s
digging ability.
• 
Electric Rope Shovels provide breakout forces that can
facilitate digging of the toughest materials. However, digging
well-blasted material is preferred, as it reduces wear and tear,
limits downtime for maintenance, extends operating life, and
provides high rates of productivity.
• 
Hydraulic Shovels have the ability to dig tougher materials,
partly due to the higher breakout force per length of cutting
edge. The bucket can penetrate at the weakest spot of the
working face, which is typically the border area of individual
layers, and can follow the direction of the layers. These higher
cutting forces provide better loading, particularly for material
that is fragmented and keyed together, or material that does
not flow well into a bucket.
• 
Wheel Loaders have adequate breakout force for all but the
toughest materials.
Consolidated
Well Fragmented
 Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide

Mobility and Multiple Uses

Electric Rope Shovels
Electric rope shovels have limited mobility.
The sheer size of the electric rope shovel
places stress on the crawler links during
tramming, increasing maintenance costs
as a result of excessive movement. In
addition, electric rope shovels require a
trail-cable that is connected to a nearby
sub-station, limiting the rope shovel’s
ability to move great distances quickly
and frequently.
Similar to hydraulic shovels, electric
rope shovels are considered primary
loading tools in a mining application.
They are primarily used for the loading
of overburden, and in some cases ore,
in the mine.
Hydraulic Shovels
Due to slower travel speeds compared
to wheel loaders, the hydraulic shovel’s
mobility tends to be limited. In most
mining applications the hydraulic
shovel is a primary loading tool, and
is therefore used primarily for the
loading of overburden and ore in the
mine. However, hydraulic backhoes
can also be used for auxiliary jobs
(e.g., drop cuts and preparation of
ramps). Moreover, diesel-powered
hydraulic shovels offer more mobility
than electric rope shovels (and electric-
powered hydraulic shovels), because
they are not tethered to a trail cable.
Wheel Loader
With their ability to quickly move from
face to face, wheel loaders have a
mobility advantage over hydraulic shovels
and electric rope shovels. This provides
a degree of flexibility not available with
track machines. Tires provide wheel
loaders the flexibility to save time:
• Moving out for a blast
• Moving to a new face
• Moving to a stockpile for a blending
operation
• Hopper and crusher loading
• Moving back to the service shop for
maintenance
Mobility is a key attribute that allows
the wheel loader to do multiple tasks
throughout a mine site.

Support Equipment and Bench PREPARATION

With any loading system, “good housekeeping” habits are
maximum travel speeds (forward)
necessary in the load area to avoid unnecessary undercarriage
maintenance and tire failures due to running over loose rocks on Electric Rope Shovel
the floor. A wheel dozer or wheel loader can be used as cleanup 1.3 km/hr (.82 mph)
support by pushing loose material back into the face, most often
in the loading area where the trucks are staging, but in some Hydraulic Shovel
cases for the electric rope shovel and hydraulic shovel working 6015/6015 FS-6090 FS
areas. The wheel loader is very mobile and has a wide sweeping Large Wheel Loader
bucket. It is therefore well suited to handle its own cleanup
chores. To a certain extent, the hydraulic shovel is also able to 21.7-38.6 km/hr (13.5-24 mph)
clean up the loading area; however, in most cases the use of
support equipment is more economical.

21
Buckets and Dippers
Bucket and Dipper Options
Caterpillar offers a wide range of purpose-built, high
performance buckets and dippers, each designed to function
as an integral part of the wheel loader, hydraulic shovel, and
electric rope shovel. The combination of the correct bucket or
dipper with the correct machine will provide the best possible
performance in a particular application.
Choosing the correct bucket or dipper can:
• Reduce cycle and loading times
• Lower operating costs by 10 to 20 percent or more
• Eliminate unnecessary stress and fatigue for the machine,
bucket, and operator

Electric Rope Shovel Dipper Hydraulic Front Shovel Bucket

Electric rope shovels do not have buckets, they have dippers.

22
 Surface Mining Primary Loading Tool Selection Guide

Hydraulic Backhoe Bucket Wheel Loader Bucket

23
Caterpillar Loading Solutions
The success of your operation has a lot to do with selecting the
proper loading machine. The goal is to achieve the best results
at the lowest cost. First-hand knowledge and experience in
analyzing field data and site conditions can greatly increase
efficiency and improve production.
Deciding on one machine over another is a complicated process.
Cat wheel loaders, hydraulic shovels, and electric rope shovels
offer an established reputation in the industry for quality, with
exceptionally low owning and operating costs.

For more information, visit https://mining.cat.com.

AEXQ0956
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