Boyle's Law Pulmonary ventilation,or breathing, is induced by changes in the volume of the lungs and the air pressure within them.During normal inhalation the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract,and the ribcage elevates. As the volume of the lungs increases,air pressure in the lungs drops below atmospheric pressure, and air rushes in.During normal exhalation,the muscles relax,the lungs become smaller,pressure inside them rises,and air is expelled.Boyle's Law explains this relationship between volume and air pressure:an increase in the volume of a container lowers the body’s demand for more oxygen can change normal breathing to forced breathing. Additional muscles increase the changes in volume of the thoratic cavity so that more air can pass in and out more rapidly 35.14 Function of the Epiglottis Inhaled air and ingested nutrients both pass through the oropharynx behind the oral cavity.A cartilaginous structure called the epiglottis directs food and fluid away from the trachea and into the esophagus,preventing inhalation of this material. The stem of the epiglottis attaches to the hyoid bone and the anterior rim of the thyroid cartilage.The superior portion of the epiglottis moves freely,and can swing up or down, like a trap door.With each swallow, the larynx rises and the epiglottis folds down over the laryngeal opening,closing off the aiiway.If particles make their way into the trachea,the cough reflex pushes air forcefully up through the larynx, forc ing the particles back up and out. 35.7 NasalMucosa Air that enters the nose is filtered, moistened,and warmed by structures in the respiratory mucosa. Coarse hairs filter out large dust particles.Seromucous glands secrete antimicrobial substances and mucus that traps and moistens the air.Blood flowing through capillaries in the mucosa warms the air.The filtered, moistened and warmed air then continues towards the trachea.... 35.11 Olfaction The process of olfact ion,or smelling,begins with hair-like cilia that line the nasal cavity.This lining is called the olfactory epithelium.As air enters the nasal cavity,some chemicals in the air bind to and activate nervous system receptors on the cilia. This stimulus sends a signal to the first-Order neurons connected to the epithelial cells.The signal is carried by these neurons from the nasal cavity through openings in the ethmoid bone,and then to the olfactory bulbs of the brain. The signals then move from the olfactory bulbs along the olfactory tracts to the olfactory area of the cerebral cortex. 37.8 Internal Respiration The bloodstream delivers oxygen to cells and removes waste carbon dioxide through a process called internal respiration.In the lungs, oxygen is absorbed into the erythrocytes in the blood stream. These cells,commonly called red blood cells,contain gas-transporting molecules called hemoglobin.Oxygen binds to these molecules.The oxygenated blood then moves through the vasculature.At the narrow capillaries within body tissues,red blood cells release oxygen,which then diffuses through the capillary wall into tissues.Meanwhile,the waste product carbon dioxide diffuses into the bloodstream , where it is carried inside red blood cells and in plasma. The deoxygenated blood travels through the vasculature and back to the lungs,where carbon dioxide is expelled from the body. 37.10 Breathing Rate and Regulation Respiration is an involuntary function. Nerve impulses transmitted by the pons and the medulla oblongata to respiratory muscles regulate the respiratory rate. The rate of normal breathing is 12 to 15 breaths per minute. The body adjusts the rate and depth of normal breathing in response to metabol c needs . When the body uses m0<e oxygen 0< hOlds too much carbon dioxide,sensors in the circulatory system called chem0<eceptOC'S send signals to the brain. The rate and depth of ventilation/breathing increases so that more gas can be exchanged. Involuntary breath ing mechanisms can be overridden by the cerebral cortex. Actions,including talking, sneezing and coughing, can also alter breath ing patterns f0< short periods of time. 35.17 Phonation Phonation is the production of sound by structures inthe upper respiratory tract. During exhalation, air passes from thelungs through the larynx.Muscles in the larynx can act to move the arytenoid cartilages that then move the cords. The cords are pushed together and air passes between them in such a way as to make them vibrate. creating sound. Greater tension in the vocal folds creates more rapid vibrations and higher pitched sounds . Lower tension causes slower vibration and a tower pitch. Sounds can also be altered by other factors: high pressure creates louder sound, longer folds producelower pitch sounds,and shorter folds produce higher pitch. Structures in the oral and nasal cavities can also modify the sounds produced by the vocal folds. volume of the lungs and the air pressure within them.During normal inhalation the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract,and the ribcage elevates. As the volume of the lungs increases,air pressure in the lungs drops below atmospheric pressure, and air rushes in. During normal exhalation,the muscles relax,the lungs become smaller,pressure inside them rises,and air is expelled.Boyle's Law explains this relationship between volume and air pressure:an increase in the volume of a container lowers the pressure of the air inside.A decrease in the volume raises pressure in the reduced space.The body's demand for more oxygen can change normal breathing to forced breathing.Additional muscles increase the changes in volume of the thoracic cavity so that more air can pass in and out more rapidly. 37.1 Pulmonary Ventilation and Boyle's Law Pulmonary ventilation,or breathing, is induced by changes in the volume of the lungs and the air pressure within them.During normal inhalation the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract,and the ribcage elevates. As the volume of the lungs increases,air pressure in the lungs drops below atmospheric pressure, and air rushes in.During normal exhalation,the muscles relax,the lungs become smaller,pressure inside them rises,and air is expelled.Boyle's Law explains this relationship between volume and air pressure:an increase in the volume of a container lowers the 34.1 Respiratory System Overview During inhalation, air containing oxygen passes through the nose and mouth to thelungs. During exhalation,air containing carbon dioxide and other waste,passes out the same path. This process of moving airin and out of thelungs is called pulmonary ventilation.In the lungs oxygen trav els from tiny air sacs called alveoli into the bloodstream. At the same time carbon dioxide travels from the bloodstream Into the alveoli for elimination. This process of gas exchange between the tungs and the blood is called external respiration.Internal respiration exchanges gases between the blood and the body's cetl…….. 37.5 ExternalRespiration Inside the lungs,oxygen from the air is exchanged for waste carbon dioxide from the bloodstream .This process of external respiration takes place in hundreds of millions of microscopic sacs called alveoli. Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries surrounding them,and is pumped through the bloodstream. Carbon dioxide from oxygen- depleted blood diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli,and is expelled through exhalation. 35.1O Sneezing Sneezing is an involuntary expiration of air to rid the nasal passages of foreign material. Particles that enter the nostrils and irritate nerve endings in the nasal mucosa trigger impulses that are transmitted via the fifth cranial nerve to the brain's sneezing center in the medulla. This sets off a respiratory response:Rapid inspiration fills the lungs,the epiglottis and vocal cords close, and the muscles of exhalation in the chest and abdomen tighten in a spasmodic contraction.These events create a buildup of pressure in the lungs.When a sufficiently high level of pressure is attained, the vocal cords relax,the epiglottis opens,and an expulsion of air rushes through the nose and mouth. The force of the sneeze propels the irritants out of the nasal cavity…. 36.4 The Trachea and Bronchi The trachea conveys air between upper and lower respiratory structures .This flexible tube extends from the larynx to the upper chest,where it divides into the bronchi. Between 15 and 20 cartilaginous C-shaped rings keep the trachea from collapsing or over expanding. The shape of these cartilaginous rings allows the trachea to change shape to accommodate masses of food passing through the esophagus. The smooth muscle of the trachea can contract to decrease its diameter.This allows air to be expelled out of the lungs more forcefully during coughing.The trachea divides into the bronchi and bronchioles in the lungs.Relaxation of smooth muscle in the bronchioles during exercise causes them to dilate-this bronchodilation allows greater ventilation.A llergic reactions and histamines cause the opposite effect,known as broncho