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37.

1 Pulmonary Ventilation and


Boyle's Law
Pulmonary ventilation,or breathing,
is induced by changes in the
volume of the lungs and the air
pressure within them.During
normal inhalation the diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles
contract,and the ribcage elevates.
As the volume of the lungs
increases,air pressure in the lungs
drops below atmospheric pressure,
and air rushes in.During normal
exhalation,the muscles relax,the
lungs become smaller,pressure
inside them rises,and air is
expelled.Boyle's Law explains this
relationship between volume and
air pressure:an increase in the
volume of a container lowers the
body’s demand for more oxygen can
change normal breathing to forced
breathing. Additional muscles increase
the changes in volume of the thoratic
cavity so that more air can pass in and
out more rapidly
35.14 Function of the Epiglottis
Inhaled air and ingested nutrients
both pass through the oropharynx
behind the oral cavity.A
cartilaginous structure called the
epiglottis directs food and fluid
away from the trachea and into the
esophagus,preventing inhalation of
this material. The stem of the
epiglottis attaches to the hyoid
bone and the anterior rim of the
thyroid cartilage.The superior
portion of the epiglottis moves
freely,and can swing up or down,
like a trap door.With each swallow,
the larynx rises and the epiglottis
folds down over the laryngeal
opening,closing off the aiiway.If
particles make their way into the
trachea,the cough reflex pushes
air forcefully up through the larynx,
forc ing the particles back up and
out.
35.7 NasalMucosa
Air that enters the nose is filtered,
moistened,and warmed by
structures in the respiratory
mucosa. Coarse hairs filter out
large dust particles.Seromucous
glands secrete antimicrobial
substances and mucus that traps
and moistens the air.Blood flowing
through capillaries in the mucosa
warms the air.The filtered,
moistened and warmed air then
continues towards the trachea....
35.11 Olfaction
The process of olfact ion,or
smelling,begins with hair-like cilia
that line the nasal cavity.This
lining is called the olfactory
epithelium.As air enters the nasal
cavity,some chemicals in the air
bind to and activate nervous
system receptors on the cilia. This
stimulus sends a signal to the
first-Order neurons connected to the
epithelial cells.The signal is
carried by these neurons from the
nasal cavity through openings in
the ethmoid bone,and then to the
olfactory bulbs of the brain. The
signals then move from the
olfactory bulbs along the olfactory
tracts to the olfactory area of the
cerebral cortex.
37.8 Internal Respiration
The bloodstream delivers oxygen
to cells and removes waste carbon
dioxide through a process called
internal respiration.In the lungs,
oxygen is absorbed into the
erythrocytes in the blood stream.
These cells,commonly called red
blood cells,contain
gas-transporting molecules called
hemoglobin.Oxygen binds to these
molecules.The oxygenated blood
then moves through the
vasculature.At the narrow
capillaries within body tissues,red
blood cells release oxygen,which
then diffuses through the capillary
wall into tissues.Meanwhile,the
waste product carbon dioxide
diffuses into the bloodstream ,
where it is carried inside red blood
cells and in plasma. The
deoxygenated blood travels through
the vasculature and back to the
lungs,where carbon dioxide is
expelled from the body.
37.10 Breathing Rate and
Regulation
Respiration is an involuntary
function. Nerve impulses
transmitted by the pons and the
medulla oblongata to respiratory
muscles regulate the respiratory
rate. The rate of normal breathing
is 12 to 15 breaths per minute. The
body adjusts the rate and depth of
normal breathing in response to
metabol c needs . When the body
uses m0<e oxygen 0< hOlds too
much carbon dioxide,sensors in
the circulatory system called
chem0<eceptOC'S send signals to
the brain. The rate and depth of
ventilation/breathing increases so
that more gas can be exchanged.
Involuntary breath ing mechanisms
can be overridden by the cerebral
cortex. Actions,including talking,
sneezing and coughing, can also
alter breath
ing patterns f0< short
periods of time.
35.17 Phonation
Phonation is the production of
sound by structures inthe upper
respiratory tract. During exhalation,
air passes from thelungs through
the larynx.Muscles in the larynx
can act to move the arytenoid
cartilages that then move the
cords. The cords are pushed
together and air passes between
them in such a way as to make
them vibrate. creating sound.
Greater tension in the vocal folds
creates more rapid vibrations and
higher pitched sounds . Lower
tension causes slower vibration
and a tower pitch. Sounds can also
be altered by other factors: high
pressure creates louder sound,
longer folds producelower pitch
sounds,and shorter folds produce
higher pitch. Structures in the oral
and nasal cavities can also modify
the sounds produced by the vocal
folds.
volume of the lungs and the air
pressure within them.During
normal inhalation the diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles
contract,and the ribcage elevates.
As the volume of the lungs
increases,air pressure in the lungs
drops below atmospheric pressure,
and air rushes in. During normal
exhalation,the muscles relax,the
lungs become smaller,pressure
inside them rises,and air is
expelled.Boyle's Law explains this
relationship between volume and
air pressure:an increase in the
volume of a container lowers the
pressure of the air inside.A
decrease in the volume raises
pressure in the reduced space.The
body's demand for more oxygen
can change normal breathing to
forced breathing.Additional
muscles increase the changes in
volume of the thoracic cavity so
that more air can pass in and out
more rapidly.
37.1 Pulmonary Ventilation and
Boyle's Law
Pulmonary ventilation,or breathing,
is induced by changes in the
volume of the lungs and the air
pressure within them.During
normal inhalation the diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles
contract,and the ribcage elevates.
As the volume of the lungs
increases,air pressure in the lungs
drops below atmospheric pressure,
and air rushes in.During normal
exhalation,the muscles relax,the
lungs become smaller,pressure
inside them rises,and air is
expelled.Boyle's Law explains this
relationship between volume and
air pressure:an increase in the
volume of a container lowers the
34.1 Respiratory System
Overview
During inhalation, air containing
oxygen passes through the nose
and mouth to thelungs. During
exhalation,air containing carbon
dioxide and other waste,passes
out the same path. This process of
moving airin and out of thelungs
is called pulmonary ventilation.In
the lungs oxygen trav els from tiny
air sacs called alveoli into the
bloodstream. At the same time
carbon dioxide travels from the
bloodstream Into the alveoli for
elimination. This process of gas
exchange between the tungs and
the blood is called external
respiration.Internal respiration
exchanges gases between the
blood and the body's cetl……..
37.5 ExternalRespiration
Inside the lungs,oxygen from the
air is exchanged for waste carbon
dioxide from the bloodstream .This
process of external respiration
takes place in hundreds of millions
of microscopic sacs called alveoli.
Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses
from the alveoli into the pulmonary
capillaries surrounding them,and is
pumped through the bloodstream.
Carbon dioxide from oxygen-
depleted blood diffuses from the
capillaries into the alveoli,and is
expelled through exhalation.
35.1O Sneezing
Sneezing is an involuntary
expiration of air to rid the nasal
passages of foreign material.
Particles that enter the nostrils and
irritate nerve endings in the nasal
mucosa trigger impulses that are
transmitted via the fifth cranial
nerve to the brain's sneezing center
in the medulla. This sets off a
respiratory response:Rapid
inspiration fills the lungs,the
epiglottis and vocal cords close,
and the muscles of exhalation in
the chest and abdomen tighten in a
spasmodic contraction.These
events create a buildup of pressure
in the lungs.When a sufficiently
high level of pressure is attained,
the vocal cords relax,the epiglottis
opens,and an expulsion of air
rushes through the nose and
mouth. The force of the sneeze
propels the irritants out of the nasal
cavity….
36.4 The Trachea and Bronchi
The trachea conveys air between
upper and lower respiratory
structures .This flexible tube
extends from the larynx to the
upper chest,where it divides into
the bronchi. Between 15 and 20
cartilaginous C-shaped rings keep
the trachea from collapsing or over
expanding. The shape of these
cartilaginous rings allows the
trachea to change shape to
accommodate masses of food
passing through the esophagus.
The smooth muscle of the trachea
can contract to decrease its
diameter.This allows air to be
expelled out of the lungs more
forcefully during coughing.The
trachea divides into the bronchi and
bronchioles in the lungs.Relaxation
of smooth muscle in the
bronchioles during exercise causes
them to dilate-this bronchodilation
allows greater ventilation.A llergic
reactions and histamines cause the
opposite effect,known as broncho

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