10

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Long-term transient flow occurs in several physical scenarios. This chapter

presents the review of the pertinent technical literature on several topics regarding the
occurrence and analysis of long-term transient flow performance in reservoirs.

The first section begins by reviewing the physical scenarios that cause a long-
term transient flow in tight gas reservoirs. We focus in vertical wells with hydraulic
fractures in tight gas wells and the presence of natural fractures in a tight matrix that
causes permeability anisotropy.

The second section reviews literature concerning flow geometry under different
physical scenarios. Among these scenarios, we include the transient flow regimes that
may develop in a vertical well with a hydraulic fracture and a well intersected by a fully
penetrating finite conductivity vertical fracture in a dual porosity reservoir. We also
present some references that deal with models and solutions for fractured wells in
homogeneous reservoirs and dual porosity reservoirs. Later, we review linear flow,
bilinear flow, and spherical flow regimes. Because radial flow has been received too
much attention in the last decades, its literature review is not presented here.

Finally, the last section focuses exclusively on the literature review of the
development of decline curve analyses for the analysis of production data.

Our goal in this literature review is to identify what causes long-term transient
flow in reservoirs, identify the main models and solutions in homogeneous and dual
porosity reservoirs, as well as the existence of decline curve models that can be used to
evaluate production data form individual tight gas wells.
 11

2.2 Physical scenarios for long-term transient flow

Long-term transient behavior was detected in almost all tight basins that produce
gas. Actual field data shows transient flow for years in a large number of wells because
of the extremely low permeability20,23,24,36,41-46,47. Long-term linear24,32,45 and bilinear47
behavior have been reported in tight gas wells that did not have particularly large
fracture treatments.

Several papers discuss physical scenarios which may cause a long-term transient
flow20,22-24,41,47-50. The following are physical scenarios that would cause long-term
transient flow (linear, bilinear, radial, spherical flows) in tight gas reservoirs: the
geometry of the reservoir, anisotropy, natural fracturing formations (dual porosity),
channel sands, bar sands, edge-or bottom-water-drive reservoirs, wells between parallel
faults, horsts, stratified reservoirs in which low-permeability layers drain into high-
permeability layers, high permeability streaks, and hydraulic fracture (vertical wells
intercepted by vertical, horizontal, or diagonal fractures, and horizontal wells with
fractures).

The following sources from the literature present some physical scenarios that
may cause transient flow for several years in tight gas reservoirs.

Bagnall and Ryan41 described some cases that present linear flow behavior in
actual production data. These cases were Devonian shale cases. They concluded that
Devonian shale gas production is largely controlled by natural fracturing where the gas
rate from such wells is a function on the density and width of these natural fractures.

Kohlhaas and Abbott23 discussed that some conditions in which a late linear flow
regime would originate are channel sands, bar sands, edge or bottom-water-drive
reservoirs. Wells between parallel faults, horsts, and stratified reservoirs in which low-
permeability layers drain into high-permeability layers then drain radial to wellbore.
They also explained that a spherical flow is present as an intermediate period between
two radial flow periods for wells, which have a short completion interval in thick
formations.
 12

Stright and Gordon24 described late linear flow on tight gas wells in the Picenace
basin, which did not have particularly large fracture treatments. They detected that for
several years this linear flow indicated that half-fracture lengths are much longer than
would be expected from hydraulic fracturing treatments. They believed that this long-
term linear flow could be caused by long natural fractures in the formation originated by
normal tectonic processes in a relatively hard formation, thin high permeability streaks,
and long narrow reservoir shapes.

Littlefield et al.50 pointed out that natural fractures greatly affect the production
of many reservoirs.

Cinco-Ley and Meng22 showed that a fractured well in a natural fractured

reservoir could exhibit fifteen different flow periods that are the combination of flow
systems with a fractured well in a homogeneous reservoir and dual porosity reservoir.

Du Kuifu and Stewart48 discussed how the bilinear flow regime could occur in
several geological scenarios including a horizontal well in a fractured or layered
reservoir with transient dual porosity behavior during the intermediate flow period, a
vertical well between two parallel leaky boundaries due to faulting or sedimentary
process, and a vertical well near a high conductivity fault. They present an example
where long-term bilinear flow is detected in a horizontal well.

Arévalo and Wattenbarger47 reported recent results of an ongoing study of the

daily production rates and wellhead pressures of six fractured tight gas wells in Utah.
Through production analysis, they identified and interpreted the flow periods by using
diagnostic and specialized plots of pressure and production data. Then, they evaluated
reservoir properties in function of the observed transient performance. They would
expect that these wells would show the following transient periods: early linear, then
bilinear, and then late linear flow. They concluded that in this low permeability
reservoirs there are natural paths of higher permeability/conductivity. These may be
natural streaks of higher permeability or maybe natural fractures. The authors would
 13

expect that a number of such higher permeability streaks are present in the vicinity of
any well but they may not be connected to the wellbore.

Anisotropic permeability. Long-term transient flow in tight gas reservoirs may develop
because of large permeability ratios. Anisotropic permeability in porous medium has
been examined in several papers51-67 and books7,8-72. Permeability anisotropy may occur
for a variety of reasons. One of the most important reasons is the presence of parallel
natural fracturing. These formations are often candidates for horizontal drilling. The
optimum wellbore orientation is perpendicular to the direction of maximum
permeability. The wellbore orientation may lie at any angle to the principal axes of
permeability. A similar situation that may occur is the case of a well with a hydraulic
fracture in a naturally fractured reservoir. Although the created fracture would tend to be
parallel to the primary set of natural fractures, this is not always the case. Tectonic
stresses control the direction of growth of both natural fracture systems and hydraulic
fractures65.

Siebrits et al.66 have been documented cases where repeated fracture treatments
had different orientation from the original fractures because of the change in the tectonic
stresses caused by reservoir depletion.

A horizontal well in an anisotropic reservoir with the wellbore parallel to one of

the principal axes of permeability has been studied by a number of researchers. Besson61,
Zhang and Dusseault63, and Yildiz and Ozkan64 studied the case of a horizontal well
having the wellbore at an arbitrary orientation with respect to the principal axes of
permeability.

Besson61 analyzed the case of a horizontal or slanted wellbore in a formation with

horizontal to vertical anisotropy. He gave the transformations for the general case of kx 
ky  kz, but he did not take into account the case of areal anisotropy further.

Zhang and Dusseault63 presented a solution based on transforming the anisotropic

system to an equivalent isotropic system. They also proposed graphical and numerical
 14

methods for determining the permeability anisotropy from analysis of tests in two
horizontal wells having different azimuths.

Yildiz and Ozkan64 presented a solution by defining dimensionless variables that

perform an implicit coordinate transformation. They concluded that the intermediate
time linear flow period does not occur unless the well axis is normal to the maximum
permeability direction.

Gatens at al.62 studied the fractured well case for the situation where the
hydraulic fracture is parallel to one of the principal axes of permeability.

Spivey and Lee65 presented a method for finding the equivalent isotropic system
for a horizontal well or a hydraulically fractured well at an arbitrary azimuth in an
anisotropic reservoir. This equivalent isotropic system can be used to calculate the
pressure response for a constant rate production or the rate response for constant
pressure production. They gave new analytical solutions for a fractured well case for a
situation where the hydraulic fracture is parallel to one of the principal axes of
permeability, and the case of a horizontal well in an anisotropic reservoir with the
wellbore parallel to one of the principal axes of permeability. Their solutions were
obtained by transforming the original problem with anisotropic permeability into an
equivalent problem with isotropic permeability. They concluded that any flow regime
that may appear in an isotropic system would also appear for the proper combination of
properties in an equivalent anisotropic system. They assume a finite-conductivity
fracture for the hydraulically fractured well case.

Arévalo et al.39 discussed how the presence of natural fractures causes a long-
term linear flow. They showed how directional fractures in a reservoir cause large
permeability ratios. The effect of this anisotropy is to transform the reservoir into an
equivalent “long skinny” homogeneous reservoir, and any well in this reservoir will be
likely to exhibit long-term linear flow.
 15

2.3 Flow geometry under different physical scenarios

Log-log diagnostic plots and type curve analysis can be used in production
analysis actual data of wells providing a powerful tool to detect flow geometries and the
presence of heterogeneities in the reservoir. Experience has shown that a reservoir may
display a behavior that consists of a variety of flow models. All types of log-log and
diagnostic plots (linear, bilinear, logarithmic, spherical, and boundary dominated flow)
must be combined to identify different cases and estimate formations parameters,
heterogeneities in the formation, OGIP, and reserves. Because radial flow has been
received too much attention in the past, its literature review is not presented here.

Spivey and Lee73 sketched out techniques for detecting flow regimes in function
of pressure and pressure derivative responses. For each flow regime, they provided
methods for choosing the data and the adequate plotting procedure to analyze the straight
line. They discussed radial, linear, bilinear, spherical, and boundary dominated flow
(volumetric behavior).

Hydraulically fractured wells: flow regimes, models and solutions. Gringarten et al.74
presented a type curve analysis method which allows the identification of different flow
regimes and the estimation of formation permeability, k, and fracture half-length, xf.

The transient behavior of a well intersected by a fully penetrating finite

conductivity vertical fracture may exhibit, in common, the following flow regimes 75: 1.
Early Linear flow from the fracture into the wellbore, 2. Bilinear flow in which linear
flow in the fracture is superposed by a linear flow from the formation into the fracture, 3.
Linear flow from the formation into the fracture, 4. Radial, early-transient flow, 5. Late
transient or transition flow, and 6. Pseudo-steady-state radial flow. Wellbore effects, such
as storage or skin, may obscure one or more of the early periods on a particular well test.
It should be noted that the linear-flow periods are early periods in the flowing life of the
well and radial flow is late in the life.
 16

Models, analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical solutions for both liquid and
gas flow under different inner and outer boundary conditions for vertical well with
hydraulic fracture are presented and discussed by Prats76, Prats et al.77, Scott78, Russell
and Truitt79, Wattenbarger and Ramey80, Morse and Von Gonten81, Gringarten and
Ramey82, Gringarten et al.74,83, Gringarten84, Cinco-Ley et al.75,85-87, Agarwal et al.25 and
Thompson88 .

Models and different solutions for a vertical well with horizontal and inclined
fractures are presented by Crawford and Landrum 89,90, Landrum and Crawford91,
Hartsock and Warren54, Holditch and Morse92, Gringarten and Ramey83, Sung and
Ertekin93, Valko and Economides94, and Cinco-Ley et al.95

Horizontal wells and longitudinally fractured horizontal wells may develop

several flow geometries in function of the well and boundary conditions. Some studies
are presented by Babu and Odeh96, Odeh and Babu97, Aguilera et al.98, Mukherjee and
Economides99, Economides at al.100, Raghavan et al.101, Valko and Economides102,103,
Villegas et al.104.

Naturally fractured reservoirs: flow regimes, models, and solutions. Naturally

fractured reservoirs have been the object of intensive research during the last two
decades in the geologic as well as the engineering fields. Transient pressure analysis has
been receiving particular attention.

Cinco-Ley and Meng22 showed that a fractured well in a dual porosity reservoir
could exhibit fifteen different flow periods that are the combination of both flow systems
fractured well in a homogeneous reservoir and dual porosity reservoir. A fractured well
in a homogeneous reservoir might exhibit the following flow periods: bilinear flow,
transition, pseudolinear flow, transition, and pseudoradial flow. However, a dual porosity
reservoir exhibits three flow periods: fracture dominated flow, transition, and flow
dominated by the storativity of the total system (fracture + matrix).
 17

Models under different inner and outer boundary conditions for dual porosity
reservoirs are presented by Arnold et al.56, Parsons59, Huskey and Crawford60, Prats105,
Asfari and Whiterspoon106, Locke and Sawyer107, Beliveau108, Warren and Root109,
Odeh110, Kazemi et al.111, Kazemi112, de Swaan113, Streltsova114, Serra et al.115,
Najurieta116,117, Aguilera7,118, Abdassah and Ersghagi119, and Leung120.

Similarly, some solutions for dual porosity models are shown by Mavor and
Cinco-Ley121, Da Prat et al.122, Chen et al.123, and Ozkan et al.124

Barenblatt and Zheltov125 analyzed naturally fractured reservoirs by considering

interporosity flow in a model made out of orthogonal, equally spaced fractures.

Warren and Root109 used the same assumption than Barenblatt and Zheltov 125 and
presented the conclusion that a conventional plot of p vs. log (t) should result in two
parallel straight lines with a transition period in between. The separation between the
two parallel straight lines permitted calculation of the storativity ratio, .
Kazemi112 used a numerical model of a finite reservoir with a horizontal fracture
assuming a transient interporosity flow and verified Warren and Root’s conclusion with
respect to the two parallel straight lines. The transient period in Kazemi’s model was
different due to the transient rather than PSS interporosity flow assumptions.

de Swann113 developed a diffusivity equation and analytical solutions for

transient interporosity flow. However, in his method he could not study the transient
period between the two parallel straight lines.

Najurieta116,117 developed approximate analytical solutions of de Swaan’s radial

diffusivity equation which could study the transition period as well as the first and late
straight lines.

Streltsova8,114 used a gradient flow model indicating that the transition period
gives a straight line with a slope equal to 0.5, the slope of the early and late straight
lines. She showed that the 0.5 slope gives value of w approximately equal to 0.37, 0.26,
and 0.48.
 18

Serra et al.115 presented the same Strelstsova’s conclusion with the use of a
stratum model for the cases in which the w was smaller than 0.0099.

Several types curves have been developed to analyze naturally fractured

reservoirs with transient126,127 and PSS128 interporosity flow. These curves, including the
pressure derivative, are useful but must be used carefully to avoid potential errors due to
uniqueness problem.

Aguilera7,129 has presented approximations taken into account tectonic, regional,

and contractual fractures under the assumption of PSS, transient and gradient
interporosity flow.

All previous references have considered radial flow towards the wellbore. In
some cases, hydraulic fractured wells are in wells with low productivities in efforts to
enhance communication into the network of natural fractures.

Aguilera118 presented formulas for calculation of linear flow in naturally

fractured reservoirs. He discussed that linear flow would happen in the case of dual
porosity systems which are hydraulically fractured. He showed that a log-log plot of p
vs. t should result in two parallel straight lines with a slope to 1/2 and a transition period
which is function on the type of interporosity flow (transient, pseudosteady state or
gradient and the shape of the matrix block). This procedure allows the evaluation of the
storativity ratio, w, and the estimation of the distance between natural fractures. A
specialized plot of p vs. t on Cartesian coordinates should result in two distinct
straight lines. The first straight line has a slope bigger than the second straight line. The
ratio of these slopes squared gives the w.

El-Banbi35,36 presented a systematic organization of liquid and gas cases where

linear flow prevailed in homogeneous and dual porosity reservoirs. He derived many
new Laplace transform linear solutions for pressure and production performance under a
variety of boundary condition.
 19

Hydraulically fractured well in dual porosity reservoirs. Hydraulic fractured wells

are in wells with low productivity in efforts to enhance communication into the network
of natural fractures. Houze et al.130, developed analytical solutions in Laplace space with
an infinite conductivity or uniform flux fracture under both pseudosteady-state matrix
and transient matrix interporosity models. Lancaster and Gatens131 used type curves
developed for infinite conductivity vertically fractured wells in dual porosity reservoirs
to analyze well test data in gas shales. Ben Naceur and Economides 132 developed
numerical solutions for infinite and finite conductivity fractures in transient interporosity
naturally fractured reservoirs. Cinco-Ley and Meng22 developed a semi-analytical model
for finite conductivity fractures in double porosity reservoirs under both constant
pressure and constant rate solutions.

Linear flow regime. Long-term linear behavior has been detected in almost all tight
basins that produce gas in low permeability reservoirs 20,23,24,36,40-47. Causes of linear flow
in tight gas reservoirs are numerous: linear reservoirs, high permeability streaks, wells
between two no-flow boundaries, transient dual porosity behavior for radial reservoirs,
wells intercepted by vertical, horizontal, or diagonal fractures, horizontal wells, and
horizontal wells with fractures.

Muskat68 discussed steady-state single-phase and multiphase linear flow systems

and their pressure distribution. He also shows linear flow geometries in terms of core
analysis and line-derivative networks applied to secondary recovery.

Buckley and Leverett used linear steady-state flow to develop the rate of advance
equations for planes of constant saturation during displacement in porous media.

Miller133 gave solutions for linear flow in aquifers. These solutions are for the
infinite acting and bounded aquifers for both the constant rate and constant pressure
solutions.
 20

Nabor and Barham134 generalized Miller’s solutions in dimensionless variables

and derived solutions for constant pressure outer boundary case. In linear heat
conduction, Carslaw and Jaeger135 presented the mathematics for these solutions.

Wattenbarger20 and Wattenbarger et al.32,.33 searched literature and found that some
authors did not use correct equations in analyzing data under constant flowing
bottomhole pressure. They noticed that analytical solutions for constant bottom hole
flowing pressure production and constant rate production are not the same. They
mentioned that only a constant rate production equation in gas well is well known. Then,
they adapted the linear solutions of Miller133 and Nabor and Barham134 for fractured wells
in a rectangular geometry for both the constant rate and constant pressure cases for linear
flow in a rectangle. The authors developed correct transient and stabilized linear
equations plus infinite series. Similarly, a methodology for estimating k Ac product

and original gas in place, OGIP, for tight gas reservoirs was developed.

El-Banbi and Wattenbarger36 presented a practical approach to analyze both

pressure (well testing) and production (decline curve analysis) data, which are
influenced by linear flow. They pointed out that constant rate solutions are different from
the constant pressure solution and the use of wrong equations in the analysis of tight gas
wells may result in errors as high as 60%. They also showed the application of
techniques in analyzing actual production data.

Helmy37,38 developed different methods for analyzing the performance of wells

producing at constant flowing bottomhole pressure from tight gas reservoirs exhibiting
linear flow and subjected to periodic shut-ins.

The following sources from the literature sustain the presence of linear flow for
several years in some tight gas reservoirs.

Boardman and Knutson42 recognized linear, intermediate, and near radial flow
regimes from the plots of cumulative gas production versus time of many tight gas sand
wells in the Uinta basin of Utah. They explained that most wells exhibited near linear
 21

flow for at least five years of production. They found in their plots slopes of 0.5 and 1.0
representing conditions of linear and radial flow regimes, respectively.

Hale and Evers136 used numerical simulation to achieve type curves for vertically
fractured wells producing at constant rate or constant flowing bottom-hole pressure. The
fracture was considered elliptical in shape. They used elliptical equations to study the
production data. They concluded that a single group of elliptical equations properly
models tight gas wells when flow is linear, radial, or transitional between those two
systems. They also showed that the group of constant-pressure equations is different
from the group of constant rate equations. The authors also showed two field cases
where linear flow occurred for 3 and 5 years respectively. They commented that several
tight gas wells in Wyoming prevail in linear flow for years.

Kohlhaas and Abbott23 explained that linear flow conditions develop early in the
life of a well, which has been hydraulically fractured. After, this early linear flow regime
is followed by early radial flow. Then, late linear flow may develop due to certain
configurations of reservoir geometry. They developed techniques for analyzing spherical
and linear flow. They also suggested that the pressure data should be graphed in different
plots to help identify and recognize the different flow regimes.

Stright and Gordon24 described long-term linear performance on tight gas wells in
the Picenace basin, which did not have particularly large fracture treatments. They
observed that this linear flow behavior for many years indicates that fracture lengths are
much longer than would be expected from hydraulic fracturing treatments. They
discussed that if a log-log diagnostic plot qg versus t for the first or two years of
production has a half slope, then a t extrapolating technique would be used for qg
forecasting. They suggested that boundary dominated effects can be represented by an
exponential decline curve.

Hale43 used different decline equations to analyze the production data of more
than 6,000 gas wells in tight formations. The wells studied are in the Rocky Mountains,
ranging from the Green River Basin of Wyoming to the San Juan Basin of New Mexico.
 22

Most of these wells are exploited from tight gas reservoirs and have been hydraulically
fractured. He mentioned that a long-term linear flow was registered in many wells in the
area. He concluded that linear decline analysis is the best technique of reserve
forecasting before boundary reservoir is detected which would normally be detected
after 4 years of exploitation. The author established that exponential decline forecasts
would be used after this period of time.

Ammer et al.44 used log-log plots of cumulative gas produced versus time to
analyze the production mechanisms of 284 producing wells in the Clinton formation of
Eastern Ohio. The production characteristics signified that the sandstone exhibits linear
flow (1/2 slope) in 48% of the wells, intermediate slopes (0.5-0.9) in 45% of the wells,
and radial flow slope (0.9) in 7% of the wells. Nearly all of the intermediate slopes were
close-linear slopes. The authors explained that a correlation of slope with the
environment of deposition was established. They mentioned that an intermediate flow is
indicative of a well draining multiple layers with different flow characteristics.

Nott and Hara46 analyzed production data from 17 oil wells in a low permeability,
high porosity, and hydraulically fractured reservoir. They explained that refracturing
treatments in these wells successfully extended the existent fractures and the
productivity increased 17% for 18 months after treatment. They used the Miller’s linear
flow model to analyze these wells through the half slope straight line detected on
cumulative oil produced, Np, versus t plot to determine the fracture half-length, xf. They
found that fracture half-length is comparable to the drainage boundaries dimensions
assigned to each well. These hydraulic fractures are of infinite conductivity and extend
to the drainage boundaries of the wells. After five years of depletion, the reservoir is
considered to be still in transient linear flow. Finally, they used areal simulation to
validate the application of linear flow equations to this reservoir and to predict the
increment of oil production due to longer fractures in new wells.

Wattenbarger et al.32,33 in a recent analysis of a field with about 60 wells, detected

a long-term linear flow in about one-third of the wells. Several of the other wells could
not be analyzed because of severe rate fluctuations generated by gas market constraints.
 23

None of the wells showed pseudo-radial flow theoretically expected in wells with
hydraulic fractures.

Bilinear flow. Bilinear flow is detected in hydraulic fractured wells and natural fractured
reservoirs. Bilinear flow may be observed in production data from tight gas reservoirs.
Long-term bilinear behavior has been detected in some tight basins that produce
gas24,44,47.

Some conditions that cause bilinear flow are: a vertical well between two parallel
leaky boundaries due to faulting or sedimentary process, a vertical well near a high
conductivity infinite fault, a vertical well with a finite conductivity fracture 25,85, a
horizontal well in a fractured reservoir with transient dual porosity behavior during the
intermediate linear flow period, a horizontal well in a layered reservoir with transient
dual porosity behavior during the intermediate linear flow period and a linear reservoir
with transient dual porosity behavior.

Several authors discussed the occurrence of bilinear flow regime in reservoirs.

Some of them presented models, solutions, and type curves under different conditions
for both homogeneous and dual porosity reservoirs22,75,86,137. Among these, the following
sources from the literature sustain the occurrence of bilinear flow regime in some
reservoirs.

Cinco-Ley and Samaniego75 were the first that introduced the idea of bilinear
flow in petroleum reservoirs. They presented a new technique to analyze data on the
bilinear flow period for the analysis of short-time pressure data for wells intersected by a
vertical fracture with low or intermediate conductivity. Similarly, another paper 86, they
showed that at early time a finite conductivity fracture exhibits bilinear flow, while the
damaged fracture cases show linear flow. A plot of pwf vs. 4
t gives a straight line whose
slope depends of height, width and permeability of the fracture.
 24

Cinco-Ley et al.87 showed that the transient pressure behavior for a well with a
low conductivity vertical fracture [( k f w) D  0.1] exhibits three flow periods only:
bilinear flow, transition period, and pseudo-radial flow.

Cinco-Ley and Meng22 studied a well with finite conductivity vertical fracture in
a dual porosity reservoir. They found that in the transient matrix flow model the pressure
behavior exhibits a 1/8 slope in a log-log plot during the bilinear flow dominated by the
transition period of the fluid transfer. Similarly, they showed that a plot of pressure
versus t1/8 yields a straight line passing through the origin. An important result is that
they demonstrated that bilinear flow is not the only flow period that exhibits the slope of
1/4. In the pseudolinear flow, and if the fluid transfer is in the transition period, log-log
plot of the pressure versus time exhibits a straight line with a slope of 1/4.

Du Kuifu and Stewart48 discussed how the bilinear flow regime could occur in
several geological scenarios including a horizontal well in a dual porosity reservoir, a
vertical well leaky channel or near high conductivity fault.

Spherical flow. Spherical flow solutions have been discussed extensively by several
authors138-143. In general, spherical flow geometry is detected as an intermediate period
between two radial flow periods for wells that are completed in thick reservoirs with
only a small interval open to flow. In general, two types of assumptions are made for the
solution of this problem: (1) flow into a fictitious spherical sink and (2) flow into a
cylindrical wellbore of infinite conductivity. The second case is more realistic and
various numerical and simplification techniques have been used to solve the equations.
Several authors have discussed the difference of the two cases.

Kazemi and Seth138, Gringarten and Ramey141, as well as many other

investigators, discussed the theoretical basis of the formulas used to analyze spherical
flow.

Raghavan and Clark140 reviewed most of the theoretical difficulties and discussed
several characteristics of interpretation from a theoretical viewpoint.
 25

Kohlhaas and Abbott23 developed techniques for analyzing spherical flow based
in a previous work developed by Goodrich 143. They suggested that pressure data should
be graphed versus 1 / t to help identify and recognize spherical flow.

2.4 Decline type curve analysis

In this section, we focused exclusively our literature review on the decline type
curve analysis of production data in a closed reservoir system.

Fetkovich introduced the most significant development in the decline type curve
analysis of production data144. Fig. 2-1 shows the original version of the decline type
curves developed by Fetkovich. These decline type curves show the connection of the
constant pressure analytical solutions and the standard empirical decline curve solutions
on a single dimensionless curve for unfractured well in a bounded circular reservoir.
However, Fetkovich-McCray decline type curve145 represents a modern technology in
decline type curve analysis. Fig. 2-2 shows a Fetkovich-McCray decline type curve for
an unfractured vertical well in a bounded reservoir. In these curves, three plotting
functions are used on a single plot to ensure a unique match of the data and the type
curve.

Arps146 presented a comprehensive review of previous efforts for the graphical

analysis of production decline behavior. He developed an empirical family of functional
relations based on the hyperbolic decline model that was provided for the analysis of
actual production rate. He included in his hyperbolic decline model the exponential,
hyperbolic, and harmonic decline rate relations. Arps’ work contributed the most
important advances toward the development of the modern decline curve analysis. In the
many publications that followed Arps' work on decline curves, the focus has been on the
development of type curves (dimensionless or normalized flow rate solutions) for
analysis of production rate and pressure data.
 26

Fig. 2-1 - Fetkovich rate type curve in dimensionless variables for an unfractured well
centered in a bounded circular reservoir144.

Slider147 published a new type curve matching procedure based on a semi-log

analysis approach to extrapolate production rate. He used a practical curve-fitting
process using Arps’ equations. Slide’s approach is more direct and uniform than using
Arps expressions as regression relations. A disadvantage is that Slide’s procedure needs
significant amount of time in data preparation

Gentry148 developed a new set of type curves that simplify the solution
approached and gave a confident extrapolation of production decline in actual data. This
approach gave us an effective graphical method for solving all types of production
decline curves (harmonic, hyperbolic, and exponential).
 27

Fig. 2-2 - Fetkovich-McCray rate integral function type curve in dimensionless

variables for an unfractured well centered in a bounded circular reservoir145.

Nind149 presented graphical plotting functions that allowed unique straight-line

relations for the hyperbolic decline curve family (with the exception of the exponential
case). Nind's approach is basically a graphical regression of the Arps equations.

Fetkovich144 published an analytical solution for a well produced at a constant

bottomhole pressure during boundary-dominated flow conditions. Fetkovich mentioned
that the PSS flow rate relation could be used to correlate boundary-dominated flow
performance as a single exponential decline curve as shown in Fig. 2-1. This decline
type curve can be used for the simultaneous analysis of production data for both
transient flow and boundary-dominated flow conditions. Fetkovich presented several
actual data from oil and gas wells to illustrate the use of the decline type curve analysis
 28

technique, and this approach has become a classic mechanism for the analysis of
production data.

Maley45 presented that decline curves equations can be used to give accurate and
theoretical valid projection of tight gas reservoirs. He used a hyperbolic equation with b
value higher than one to study gas production data. He concluded that in the standard
decline equations the hyperbolic equation is a better estimator that the square root of
time plots in the cases he analyzed. He explained that a b value of two and decline factor
of 0.5/month give approximately a linear flow decline.

Fetkovich et al.150 presented several actual data from oil and gas wells to
illustrate the use of the decline type curve analysis technique. This procedure has
become a classic mechanism for the analysis of production data of rate versus data were
analyzed to estimate reservoir properties, and to forecast rate. The authors concluded that
the analysis of transient flow production data is not possible using the Arps hyperbolic
equations, since the Arps equations imply that the system is in depletion and that
transient flow data should never be used to estimate reservoir volumes (as this practice
generally gives optimistic forecasts). They suggested that reservoir volume in relation to
related flow characteristics should not be estimated using decline curve type analysis
techniques prior to the development of boundary-dominated flow.

Fraim and Wattenbarger151 proposed an iterative procedure using the OGIP to

predict average reservoir pressure calculations. They used a pseudotime function to take
into account the variation of gas properties and provide an exponential decline behavior
for gas wells produced at a constant pwf production. The normalized pseudopressure and
pseudotime functions will linearize the gas diffusivity equation, which then yields a
liquid flow behavior (i.e., an exponential decline during boundary-dominated flow).
These pseudo functions of pressure and time provide a procedure to analyze gas
production data. The pseudo-time function for this case is based on average reservoir
pressure. Then, an initial estimation of OGIP is required in order to initiate the
pseudotime calculation. Refinement of the OGIP estimation occurs in the matching of
production data onto the liquid type curve. After, we estimate the best OGIP, we
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calculate the correct pseudotime function, and hence the gas flow problem is treated like
the liquid case.

Blasingame and Lee152 developed a new theoretically based approach for

predicting reservoir drainage area size and shape from a well producing a single-phase
liquid of small and constant compressibility at any flowrate condition. The approach
uses a Cartesian plot of pressure drop/rate versus a material balance time function
(cumulative production/flowrate) where these functions yield a straight-line trend in
which the slope and intercept to the origin would be used to calculate the pore volume of
the reservoir and the shape factor. The model can be used for analyzing actual field
production data that are influenced by arbitrary changes in pwf and flowrate. The model is
valid for boundary-dominated flow as long as changes in flowrates are relatively
continuous. They showed the practical application of this new method to a wide range of
variable-rate scenarios for wells in bounded reservoirs.

Blasingame and Lee153 adapted their reservoir limits testing technique15 to the
general case of variable-rate/variable-pressure data from gas wells. In this case, they
linearized the gas diffusivity equation using adequate pseudotime and pseudopressure
functions. The procedure is similar to the material balance time function in the liquid
case where the pseudotime function also included a variable-rate term. Similar to
Fraim’s and Wattenbarger’s151 work, Blasingame’s and Lee’s method requires the
estimation of average reservoir pressure in order to calculate the pseudotime function.
This average reservoir pressure is evaluated using an iterative procedure in which the
OGIP is estimated and the pseudotime function is verified using an average reservoir
pressure computed from the new estimate of gas-in-place. Theoretically, this method is
only applicable after the initial pressure transient has reached the outer boundary of the
reservoir. However, they discussed that the calculated average pressure profile may also
be valid for analyzing transient gas flow data when numerical simulation is used.

Blasingame, McCray, and Lee154 developed an approach for the analysis of

production decline data where the pwf varies significantly as a function of time. They
tried to create an equivalent constant pressure analysis formulation (a constant pressure
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analog time function that could be used for the analysis of variable rate/variable pressure
drop production data). Their work utilized recursion-type formulas to transform variable-
rate data into the constant pressure solution profile for the boundary-dominated flow
condition. However, they mentioned that these recursion formulas tend to break down
when significant data noise is present.

Palacio and Blasingame145 presented a method based on the use of decline type
curves analysis that can be used to analyze gas well production data. The authors
attempted to take the variable-rate/variable-pressure case into an equivalent constant rate
case. The approach developed is logical and consistent, and can be easily obtained using
the liquid flow expression and the material balance relation for a slightly compressible
liquid. They extend their approach for gas cases introducing a modified pseudotime
function which strictly matches production data to the harmonic curve (b=1) of the
Fetkovich decline type curve. The authors showed that for any case of production data,
using the pressure normalized flowrate function and the material balance pseudo-time
function will give a harmonic decline rate for flow of gas during boundary-dominated
flow. These authors published a modified Fetkovich-McCray decline type curve for an
unfractured vertical well in a bounded reservoir. In these type curves, three plotting
functions should be used on a single plot to ensure a unique match of the production data
and the type curve.

2.5 Summary

In this chapter, we presented the review of the technical literature on various

topics dealing the occurrence and analysis of long-term transient floe behavior in
reservoirs.

In conclusion, this literature review shows, in general, that emphasis has been
placed on well test analysis rather than long-term performance in oil reservoirs and
conventional gas reservoirs. Some solutions are only developed for constant rate
production. The petroleum literature needs, in general, straightforward and stepwise
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methodologies to analyze and predict the production performance of unconventional gas

reservoirs (i.e., tight gas reservoirs). These straightforward and step-by-step
methodologies would have applications in analyzing production data of gas wells in
transient and boundary dominated flow in tight reservoirs. In field application,
production data analysis has an advantage over well test methods in terms of cost and
because no production is lost because of the (often long) shut-in periods required for
well tests in tight reservoirs.