Calculation Methods for the Structural Behavior
of Laminated Glass
Dr. Stephen J. Bennison*, Mr. Ingo Stelzer*, Mr. Phillip S. Davies*, Mr. Jay G Sloan*,
Professor Huang Xiaokun** and Mr. Liu Gang**
* E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co Inc., Wilmington, DE USA
** China Academy of Building Research (CABR), Beijing China
Keywords
1=Laminated Glass 2=Ionoplast
4=Effective Thickness 5=Finite Elements
Abstract
Our understanding of the structural
performance of laminated glass has
made great advances over the past
decade. In this contribution we review
two major calculation methods that
have been developed to compute
stress and deformation development
during the loading of laminated glass:
1) the effective thickness method, and
2) the finite element method. Key
to both approaches is an accurate
constitutive model for the interlayer
deformation characteristics. Any model
for the polymer needs to represent
accurately the interlayer response
to temperature and load duration.
Validity of both approaches has been
tested by comparing simulations to
controlled experiments that quantify the
deformation characteristics of laminated
glass plates and beams. The calculation
methods developed allow determination
of laminate stress and deflection
for different geometries, laminate
constructions, interlayer types, loading/
support configurations, load histories,
and temperatures. Development of
these methods has laid the foundation
for objective structural design with
laminated glass and optimum, value-
engineered glazing solutions.
Introduction
Computation of laminate deformation
and associated glass stress development
is an integral component of the design
process for laminated glass. The
glass industry continues to demand
improved calculation methods in
response to: 1) novel glass design
opportunities and applications, 2)
development and commercialization
of new materials of construction for
glazing applications, 3) the relentless
market forces of value engineering. The
structural behaviour of laminated glass
is a complex topic and many factors
influence the response of a laminated
plate or beam to an imposed load.
Despite this complexity, much progress
has been made in understanding
laminated glass in the last decade
[1-3]. This progress is primarily
attributable to advances in mechanics
GLASS PERFORMANCE DAYS 2009 | www.gpd.fi
Façade Session - Advanced Architectural Glass Applications
3=PVB
6=Strength
and associated computational tools [4] 1 shows the shear modulus properties
and the development of appropriate of the Ionoplast interlayer (DuPont™
interlayer property information that SentryGlas®) used in the tests and
accurately captures the effects of load required to calculate the laminate
duration and temperature on the effective thickness.
polymer constitutive properties. In this
contribution we review two approaches
SentryGlas® Shear
to the calculation of laminate structural Temperature, T (oC) Modulus, G – 1 minute
behavior. The first, the effective load duration (MPa)
thickness method, is relatively new 10 225
and fills a need to provide a simplified 20 195
method than can be implemented in 24 173
basic calculation schemes and standards 30 110
or codes of practice. The second, 40 30.7
the finite element method, is a well 50 11.3
established engineering method and
60 3.64
has seen growing use in the design of
laminated glass during the last few years
70 1.88
as interlayer property information has
80 0.83
become readily available. Table 1
SentryGlas® shear moduli for a range of tem-
Effective Thickness Method perature (1 minute load duration).
The concept of the “effective” thickness
of laminated glass has recently gained The calculated effective laminate
traction in the design community and thickness for stress behaviour is
is based on analysis of composite compared to the measured behavior in
sandwich structures originally developed Figure 1. As can be seen, the predicted
by Wölfel [5]. The analysis proposes effective thickness behaviour is in
analytic equations that provide a close agreement with the measured
method of calculating the thickness behaviour. We have also carried out
of a monolithic beam with equivalent similar experiments using PVB laminates
bending properties to a laminated and have found the approach to be
beam. This thickness then can be accurate in describing the effective
used in place of the actual thickness
in analytic equations for deformation
of beams and simplified finite element
analysis. The analytic equations describe
the shear coupling between two glass
plies through the interlayer. The shear
coupling depends primarily on the
interlayer shear modulus, G, glass
properties, laminate geometry and the
length scale in the problem. A summary
of the mathematical foundation of the
effective thickness method is presented
in the accompanying contribution by
Calderone et al in these proceedings [6].
We have tested the effective
thickness formulations directly by
comparing the computed laminate
effective thickness with direct
measurements of the laminate Figure 1
effective thickness from a model four
Effective thickness for a nominal 5 mm glass /
point bend experiment (following the 0.76 mm DuPont™ SentryGlas® / 5 mm glass
proposed ISO 1288-3 standard). Table laminate under four point bending for a range
of temperatures.
433
 thickness of laminates in the four point
bend test.
Strictly, the effective thickness
analysis only applies to pure bending
of beams and it is important to identify
the correct length scale to use in a
design calculation (usually the shortest
dimension along a bending direction).
Façade Session - Advanced Architectural Glass Applications

Despite these restrictions, the approach

is a great simplification to the analysis Figure 2 Figure 3
of laminated glass and when properly Finite element model of the four point bend Details of the model mesh at a loading point
test [4].
used, can provide efficient design
solutions with minimal computation.
Key to the use of this approach is the
availability of comprehensive interlayer
modulus data and knowledge of the
temperature/load duration conditions
for the loading actions.

Simulation of Four Point Bend Test

Using Finite Elements
We now examine the use of the finite
element approach for calculating glass
stress and deflection of a laminate
beam subjected to four point bend
loading. Key to any finite element
model is the use of the correct element
types, proper definition of the boundary
conditions, accurate materials properties
and sufficient mesh density. Also,
judgment should be used to incorporate
the necessary level of geometry and
materials detail while minimizing the
model size for computational efficiency.
Figures 2 and 3 show the finite element
model used to simulate the proposed
ISO 1288-3 four point bend test.
Note, a two dimensional model has
been used (plane strain approximation)
and one half of the sample and loading/
support is considered due to mirror
symmetry. Two dimensional four-
node plane strain elements have been
used for all materials. All polymers
have been modeled using a hybrid
element formulation to allow for a
material Poisson ratio that approaches
0.5 (incompressible limit). Note also,
elements have been formulated using
an incompatible mode formulation
to prevent element shear locking (a
well know issue with simulation of
pure bending deformation [4]). The
simulations have been repeated with
ever increasing mesh density until steady
state predictions of the maximum glass
stress are attained. This is a key step
in any finite element simulation to
ensure that mesh sensitivity effects are
minimized.
The results of finite element
simulations and actual experiments
are shown in Figure 4. As can be
seen, predictions of glass maximum
principal stress compare well with
values measured using resistance strain
gages attached to the glass surface
at the laminate beam center. In
these simulations, a 1 minute 80 ºC,
SentryGlas® shear modulus has been
used.
Figure 5 shows contours of glass
maximum principal stress (note that
the model has been reflected across
the symmetry plane and extruded
Figure 4 Figure 5
Comparisons of finite element predictions with Contours of glass maximum principal stress.
measured glass stress in a four point bend test.
5 mm glass / 0.76 mm DuPont™ SentryGlas® /
5 mm glass laminate at 80 ºC.
along the plane strain direction to aid
visualization).
Conclusions
We have demonstrated that the
effective thickness and finite element
methods are capable approaches for
calculating glass stress and deflection
behavior of laminated glass under
various loading and support conditions.
These approaches may be readily
incorporated into any rational design
process for laminated glass.
References
[1] Bennison, S.J., Jagota, A. & Smith, C.A., (1999)
“Fracture of Glass/Polyvinyl Butyral (Butacite®)
Laminates in Biaxial Failure,” J. Am. Ceram.
Soc., 82[7] 1761-70
[2] Bennison, S.J., Smith, C.A., Van Duser, A. and
Jagota, A., (2001) “Structural Performance
of Laminated Safety Glass Made with “Stiff”
Interlayers”, proceedings of the seventh
international conference on architectural and
automotive glass: Glass Processing Days 2001,
Tampere (Finland), published by Tamglass Ltd.
Oy, Vehmaistenkatu 5, Tampere.
[3] Van Duser, A., Jagota, A., Bennison, S.J. (1999)
“Analysis of Glass/Polyvinyl Butyral (Butacite)
Laminates Subjected to Uniform Pressure”
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE,
125[4] 435-42
[4] ABAQUS version 6.8, (2009) Simulia,
Pawtucket, R.I. 02860 USA.
[5] Wölfel, E., (1987) Nachgiebiger Verbund
Eine Näherungslösung und deren
Anwendungsmöglichkeiten. In: Stahlbau
6/1987 pp. 173-180
[6] Calderone, I., Davies, P.S., Bennison, S.J.,
Huang X., Liu G., “Effective Laminate
Thickness for the Design of Laminated Glass”,
proceedings of the eleventh international
conference on architectural and automotive
glass: Glass Performance Days 2009, Tampere
(Finland), published by Tamglass Ltd. Oy,
Vehmaistenkatu 5, Tampere.

434 GLASS PERFORMANCE DAYS 2009 | www.gpd.fi