The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 1

Hattie Burford

Math Education Standards

Dr. Beth Wentworth

July 16, 2017

The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 2

Progression of Algebra Through Grades K-12 with Similarities and Differences

Algebra is the study of different methods for solving equations in which letters and

general symbols are used to represent numbers, quantities, and formulae. According to the

Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (PSSM) (2000), the Algebra Standard

emphasizes relationships among quantities, including functions, ways of representing

mathematical relationships, and the analysis of change. On the other hand, the Common Core

Mathematics Standards do not have Algebra as a single standard, but instead have it paired as

“Operations and Algebraic Thinking”. Lastly, the Nebraska Math Standards believes that the

Algebra content will communicate algebraic concepts using multiple representations to reason,

solve problems, and make connections within mathematics and across disciplines. These three

different sources for mathematics standards share many differences and similarities in the

progression through grades K-12.

Principles and Standards for School Mathematics K-5

According to the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (2000), by viewing

algebra as a strand in the curriculum starting in prekindergarten, students will learn, understand,

and prepare for more-sophisticated work with numbers, symbols, and algebraic expressions in

the middle school and high school curriculums. PSSM describes understanding patterns

relations, and functions as natural and interesting for young children. By the end of 5th grade

PSSM state that students should begin to use variables and algebraic expressions as they describe

and extend patterns. Representing and analyzing mathematical situations and structures using

algebraic symbols is to develop gradually from preschool to high school. Young children are to

use algebraic observations to recognize patterns, investigate properties of whole-number

The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 3

operations, and develop the understanding of a variable as a placeholder for a specific number.

Similarly, the notion of equality is suggested to be introduced early on as a signal to “do

something”, and will develop the symbol of equivalence later on. Also, the PSSM believes that

elementary students should use objects, pictures, and symbols to model situations that involve

the addition and subtraction of whole numbers. Furthermore, students should use these models to

make predictions, draw conclusions, or better understand quantitative situations. Lastly,

analyzing change in various contexts is referred to by PSSM as “fundamental to understanding

functions and to understanding many ideas presented in the news”. In order to develop this

concept, students learn to first describe qualitative change, followed by quantitative change.

Common Core Math Standards K-5

The Common Core State Standards begins its content of Operations and Algebraic

Thinking standards in Kindergarten. Similar to the PSSM, children in Kindergarten are to

understand and investigate properties of whole number operations, such as understanding

addition and putting together and adding to, and understanding subtraction as taking apart and

taking from. Common Core State Standards also recognizes the importance of using objects,

pictures, and symbols to model situations. For example, in the standards for grade 1, students

will use objects, drawings, and equations with a symbol for the unknown number to represent the

problem. Equivalence is another shared concept between Common Core and PSSM, working

with equal groups of objects to gain foundations for multiplication in Grade 2. Lastly, generating

and analyzing patterns and relationships is another common concept that is learned in the 4th and

5th grades of Common Core, and fundamental to PSSM. Experience with performing operations,

understanding the meaning of the equal sign, becoming familiar with performing and writing
The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 4

equations, identifying patterns, and using symbols in expressions are all concepts that were

found in both the Common Core Standards and PSSM. However, there were a few differences

between the two recognized in grades K-5. For example, there is a strong emphasis in Grade 4

with word problems and their applications such as solving multistep word problems posed with

whole numbers and having whole-number answers using the four operations, multiplying and

dividing to solve word problems, and representing verbal statements with equations. Though the

PSSM may also value these ideas, Common Core delivers specific standards in which these areas

should be met.

Nebraska Math Standards K-5

Unlike the Common Core Standards and PSSM, the Nebraska State Standards begin at

grade level 3. Upon the first comparison of these three sources, the Nebraska State Standards

appeared to be much more in depth, with more examples, pictures, and deeper clarification than

the other two sources. For example, the Nebraska State Standards include an “extended

indicator” that offers access or entry points to the grade-level standards. Nonetheless, there are

several standards in grade 3 that are similar to those of the Common Core standards and PSSM.

For example, recognizing patterns, creating and using models to represent mathematical

situations, and identifying and applying properties of whole numbers while adding and

subtracting. In grade 4, the Nebraska State Standards also apply properties of whole numbers to

solve equations, but a greater emphasis was found on using symbols to compare quantities.

Furthermore, Nebraska State Standards expects students at this level to be able to select

appropriate operation and relational symbols to make a number sentence true. Though this is

similar to standards in Common Core, there are standards clarifications that help teachers view
The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 5

examples of how these standards can be met, and appropriate teacher notes for teachers to

reference. Lastly, Nebraska State Standards also emphasizes modeling in context in grade 5,

where students create, use, and compare models representing mathematical situations. However,

these standards also emphasize the use of tables and graphs, which were not notably emphasized

in the other two sources.

Principles and Standards for School Mathematics 6-12

According to the PSSM, once the algebraic foundation is built, more-sophisticated work

can be done in the middle and high school grades. The PSSM believes that in grades 6-8 there is

a significant emphasis on algebra, along with geometric concepts, while in grades 9-12, the

standards are extended to data analysis and statistics as well. Understanding patterns, relations,

and functions are all concepts that grades 6-12 build on. By the end of secondary school, students

should be comfortable using the notation of function to describe relationships. In the middle

grades students begin by learning about linear functions, before extending their knowledge to

function classifications and more complex functions. Representing and analyzing mathematical

situations and structures using algebraic symbols is developed gradually. Middle school students

should be able to understand how the diagram relates to the equation, and high school students

should be able to represent the relationship with symbols. Furthermore, variables and equality

are two more concepts that are viewed as a notion at first, and then used in equations and

symbolic manipulation in the middle and high school grades. Modeling and representing the

understanding of quantitative relationships is where much of the content in the middle and high

school grades is focused. According to the PSSM, high school students should be able to develop

models by drawing on their knowledge, for instance, to decide whether a situation would best be
The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 6

modeled by a linear function or a quadratic function. The students are also expected to draw

conclusions from the model. Lastly, the middle-school grades focus on linearity and the idea of

constant rate of change, preparing students for high school where they are to learn about classes

of functions that have nonconstant rates of change.

Common Core Mathematics Standards 6-12

The Common Core Standards differ in grades 6-8 in that algebraic standards are now

presented as “expressions and equations” standards. Similar to that of PSSM, the standards in

grades 6-8 build upon the content that was emphasized in grades K-5. For example, applying and

understanding previous arithmetic and algebraic expressions, and representing and analyzing

quantitative relationships using dependent and independent variables. The Common Core also

highlights the importance of the connections between proportional relationships, lines, and linear

equations. Students are to analyze and solve linear equations and pairs of simultaneous linear

equations. This agrees with the PSSM assumption that a strong background in functions and

linear functions is essential to move forward in high school. Interestingly, the Common Core

Standards adds another domain, functions, in grade 8, that is not seen in previous grades. This

domain addresses defining, evaluating, and comparing functions, along with using them to model

relationships between quantities. A difference noted from PSSM is that once the Common Core

Standards reach the high school grade levels, the domains algebra and functions are still

separated. However, the algebraic domain is similar to the PSSM in expressions evaluated at a

deeper level, equations created, reasoning with equations and inequalities, and using tools and

strategies to model mathematics. The difference between the two in grades 9-12 lies in the

function domain where the importance of interpreting and building functions is highlighted.
The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 7

Furthermore, exponential models and trigonometric functions are addressed to prepare students

for further mathematical practices.

Nebraska Math Standards 6-12

Beginning in grade 6, the Nebraska Math Standards addresses the importance of using

relationships to make generalizations, symbols to represent numeric values in equations, and

applying properties to solve equations, similar to those of the Common Core and PSSM. They

also include standards to interpret models of quantitative relationships. Another common

standard between all three is the application of properties to solve equations such as order of

operations. In the grade 8 standards, Nebraska emphasizes solving one step equations and

identifying values that make inequalities true, both of which are also mentioned in the PSSM and

Common Core. However, one difference noted is in grade 8, the standard to identify

representations of numbers squared, as a standard of its own. Interestingly, the Nebraska State

Math Standards does not specify standards by grade level after the eighth grade. Instead, the

standards jump to the twelfth grade, which encompasses the standards to be used for grades 9-12.

Nonetheless, similar to the Common Core Standards, functions are a large make-up of the

Nebraska Math Standards. Students are to interpret values of a function in a table, identify linear

relationships, and analyze the effect of rate of change. However, one difference in relation to

Common Core and PSSM, is that the Nebraska Math Standards highlights comparing linear and

non-linear segments and graphs as its own standard. The in-depth detail of standards is a

common observation that is consistent throughout much of the Nebraska State Math Standards,

grades K-12. This may have much to do with the reason why these standards jump from K-8 to

12th grade standards, encompassing 9-12.

The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 8

Conclusion

Though there are many differences in the standards between PSSM, Common Core Math

Standards, and Nebraska State Math Standards, the progression of standards from K-12 is very

similar. All three sources recognize the importance of a strong algebraic background to build on

in the middle-school grades, and explore even further in the high school grades. One major

difference was the progression was that the Nebraska State Math Standards did not begin in

kindergarten, but grade 3. Another major difference seen was also from the Nebraska State Math

Standards, where instead of listing standards in grades 9-12, they listed all of the standards as

one grade. Though Common Core and Nebraska Standards align similarly and address

comparable ideas, the Nebraska State Math Standards contains more in-depth information,

provides more examples, displays sample problems with pictures, graphs, etc. Clarifications,

teachers’ notes, and these visual examples are the primary differences in delivery.

Incorporation of Process Standards from PSSM

Problem Solving

Problem solving is such an important area that I believe needs to be covered more

thoroughly and more often in students’ education. I would incorporate this in grades K-5 by first

introducing students to problem solving, and the different strategies that are used. I would have

the students learn a step –by-step process to help them determine the problem, create a plan, and

carry it out to find the solution. In grades 6-8, I would add another step to the process, and have

the students reflect on their strategy. In grades 9-12, the students should be able to solve

problems that arise by using past knowledge. I would then encourage them to think deeper, to
The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 9

build on past knowledge to create new mathematical knowledge through their problem-solving

processes.

Reasoning and Proof

This is an area in which many students at the high school, or even college level, have not

had much experience with. I believe that this is a problem for students because even though they

may know how to reason, make conjectures, and prove concepts, they do not realize they are

doing it. In grades K-5, I would incorporate reasoning into math by having them not only make

conjectures using addition/subtraction, or patterns, but by explaining to them they just proved a

mathematical concept. In grades 6-8, the students will have been exposed to this idea, and can

dive further into what a conjecture is. Lastly, in grades 9-12, I would incorporate two column

proofs, along with inductive and deductive reasoning to show students that there are different

ways to develop and evaluate mathematical arguments.

Communication

I feel that this process would be easier to incorporate in the early years of math education.

In grades K-5, students are eager to hear what their peers have to say, how they solved a

problem, and are open to communicate different ideas. I would start by teaching them how to

organize their thoughts, perform a think-pair-share technique to communicate with their peers,

and as a group, or pair, share their thoughts with their teacher and others. In the grades 6-12, I

believe these same strategies are important. I also would incorporate students working together

on a problem, or sharing their work on a problem. This allows the students to analyze and

evaluate the mathematical thinking of others.

The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 10

Connections

Making connections among mathematical ideas, and building on those connections to

contexts outside of mathematics into the real world is, in my opinion, one of the more difficult

processes to achieve. In order for students to make connection among mathematical ideas, they

need to have a strong foundation in math. In grades K-5 I would create these connections

whenever possible, and would create projects/problems in which they come up with these

connections on their own. In grades 6-12, it is important to present mathematical problems that

apply to contexts outside of mathematics. This will need to be incorporated even to students in

classes such as AP Statistics or AP Calculus, because these applications will become more

complex.

Representation

Early on in math education, I believe that it is important for students to learn how to

model and interpret mathematical concepts. In order for students to learn how to do this, they

must first be exposed to these representations. In grades K-5, I would incorporate representation

into lessons by provided as many visual aids as possible in order to help students see

representations of mathematical concepts. They can then be taught how to organize, record, and

communicate ideas through these representations. In grades 6-12, I would then ask students to

translate how a specific mathematical representation could be used to solve a problem.

The Comparison and Applications of Algebra Standards Through Grades K-12 11

References

Principles and standards for school mathematics. (2008). Reston, VA: National Council of

Teachers of Mathematics.

Mathematics Standards. (n.d.). Retrieved July 18, 2017, from

http://www.corestandards.org/Math/

NEBRASKA MATHEMATICS STANDARDS. (n.d.). Retrieved July 18, 2017, from

https://www.education.ne.gov/math/Math_Standards/Adopted_2015_Math_Standards/2015_Neb

raska_College_and_Career_Standards_for_Mathematics_Vertical.pdf