Name Barnali Chakraborty

Roll No. 520924936

Subject Management Process and

Organizational Behaviour

Assignment No. MB0022 – Set 1

Study Centre Cybertech Info (1626)

Date of Submission: 30 November, 2009

MB0022 Set 1
1. Elaborate the functions of Management.

Ans. Follett defined management as “the art of getting things done through
people.” Management functions have been grouped into four categories:-

1) Planning –

It involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving

these goals and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities.
Every organization needs to plan for change in order to reach its set goal.
Effective planning enables an organization adapt to change by identifying
opportunities and avoiding problems. It provides the direction for the other
functions of management and for effective teamwork. Planning also
enhances the decision-making process. All levels of management engage in
planning in their own way for achieving their preset goals. Planning in order
to be useful must be linked to the strategic intent of an organization.
Therefore, planning is often referred to as strategic in nature and also
termed as strategic planning.

Strategic planning is the process of developing and analyzing the

organization’s mission, overall goals, general strategies and allocating
resources. The tasks of the strategic planning process include the following
steps:

Define the mission: A mission is the purpose of the organization. Thus,

planning begins with clearly defining the mission of the organization. The
mission statement is broad, concise, summarizing what the organization
does.

Conduct a situational or SWOT analysis: a situation or SWOT (strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis is vital for the creation of any
strategic planning. SWOT analysis provides the assumptions and facts on
which a plan will be based. Analyzing strengths and weaknesses comprises
the internal assessment of the organization.

2) Organizing –

Organizing involves designing, structuring, and coordinating the work

components to achieve organizational goal. It is the process of determining
what tasks are to be done, who is to do, how the tasks are to be grouped,
who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made. A key issue in

accomplishing the goals identified in the planning process is structuring the

work of the organization. Organizations are groups of people, with ideas and
resources, working toward common goals. The purpose of the organizing
function is to make the best use of the organization's resources to achieve

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 organizational goals. Organizational structure is the formal decision-making
framework by which job tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated.
Formalization is an important aspect of structure. It is the extent to which
the units of the organization are explicitly defined and its policies,
procedures, and goals are clearly stated. It is the official organizational
structure conceived and built by top management. The formal organization
can be seen and represented in chart form. An organization chart displays
the organizational structure and shows job titles, lines of authority, and
relationships between departments.

The steps in the organizing process include:

1. Review plans
2. list all tasks to be accomplished
3. divide tasks into groups one person can accomplish – a job
4. group related jobs together in a logical and efficient manner
5. assign work to individuals
6. delegate authority to establish relationships between jobs and grouping
of jobs

3) Leading –
An organization has the greatest chance of being successful when all of the
employees work toward achieving its goals. Since leadership involves the
exercise of influence by one person over others, the quality of leadership
exhibited by supervisors is a critical determinant of organizational success.
Leading involves the following functions:
a) Team building – rigid department boundaries and fixed teams are giving
way to adhoc squad whose membership changes with every project. Teams enable
knowledge-based and innovative decision making.
b) Consensus building – top performance demands the joint effort of many
people working together toward a common goal. Together, employees can do
more than the collective efforts of each individual working alone.
c) Selecting – selecting competent, high performing employees capable of
sustaining their performance over the long run is a competitive advantage. The
selection process consists of forecasting employment needs, recruiting candidates,
interviewing applicants and hiring employees.
d) Training – after employees are selected, they enter an orientation
program to be formally introduced to their jobs. Training refers to improve an
employee’s knowledge, skills and attitudes so that he or she can do the job.

4) Controlling –

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 It involves monitoring the employees’ behaviour and organizational
processes and take necessary actions to improve them, if needed. Control is
the process through which standards for performance of people and
processes are set, communicated and applied. Effective control systems use
mechanisms to monitor activities and take corrective action, if necessary.

There are four steps in control process. They are as follows:

a) Establish Performance Standards – standards are created when

objectives are set during the planning process. A standard is any guideline
established as the basis for measurement.

b) Measure Actual Performance – supervisors collect data to measure

actual performance to determine variation from standard.

c) Compare Measured Performance Against Established Standards –

comparing results with standards determines variation.

d) Take Corrective Action – the supervisor must find the cause of

deviation from standard. Then he or she takes corrective action to remove
or minimize the cause.

Controls are most effective when they are applied at key places. Supervisors
can implement controls before the process begins i.e. feed forward
controls, during the process i.e. concurrent controls, or after it ceases i.e.
feedback controls.

2. Compare Classical Conditioning theory vs Operant Conditioning theory.

Ans: Learning refers to a process that enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude
(KSA) of individuals to increase his/her willingness to adopt those newly
acquired KSA and to implement them at the workplace. There are three
theories of learning viz. classical conditioning, operant conditioning and
social learning.

Classical conditioning:

Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by

Pavlov. This process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with
a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus does not lead to an
overt behavioral response from the organism. This is called as Conditioned
Stimulus. Significant stimulus evokes an innate, often reflexive, response.
This is called Unconditioned Stimulus and Unconditioned Response,
respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two
stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral
response to it. It is the Conditioned Response. Classical conditioning was
first experimented by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to
salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. During his research on the
physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov used a bell before giving food to his
dog. Rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat, after a few
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 repetitions, the dog started to salivate in response to the bell. Thus, a
neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus as a result of consistent
pairing with the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov referred to this learned
relationship as a Conditioned Response.

Operant Conditioning:

The operant conditioning theory is proposed by B.F. Skinner (1953, 1954).

This is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in overt
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to
stimuli. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced
(rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement is the
key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforce is anything that strengthens
the desired response.
Principles of operant conditioning are as follows:
1. Behavior is learned.
2. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur.
3. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses
can be reinforced.
4. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli producing
secondary conditioning.
5. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired
responses. For example, if a subordinate is praised by his boss for
looking good in a certain attire, the subordinate is likely to wear that
attire and present himself in front of boss, especially when he needs to
please the boss.

3. Define Attitude. Explain the Cognitive Dissonance theory.

Ans. Attitudes are evaluative statements that are either favorable or unfavorable
concerning objects, people, or events. Attitudes are not the same as values,
but the two are interrelated. There are three components of an attitude:

1. Cognition - It is the mental process involved in gaining knowledge and

comprehension, including thinking, knowing, remembering,
judging, and problem solving.

2. Affect - is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

3. Behavior - The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an

intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or
something.

Most of the research in OB has been concerned with following three

attitudes:

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 1. Job satisfaction

It is defined as an individual's general attitude toward his/her job. A

high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the job
and vice-a-versa.

2. Job involvement

It is the measure of the degree to which a person identifies

psychologically with his/her job and considers his/her perceived
performance level important to self-worth.

3. Organizational commitment

It is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular

organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the
organization. Research evidence has shown a negative relationship between
organizational commitment and both absenteeism as well as turnover. An
individual's level of organizational commitment is a better indicator of
turnover than the far more frequently used job satisfaction predictor, because,
it is a more global and enduring response to the organization as a whole than
is job satisfaction.

Attitudes and Consistency

When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an

equilibrium state where attitudes and behavior are again consistent, by altering either
the attitudes or the behavior, or by developing a rationalization for the
discrepancy.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory:- Festinger (1957), while linking attitudes with behavior,
argued that, any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will attempt to
reduce the dissonance. The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by the
importance of the elements creating the dissonance, the degree of influence the
individual believes he/she has over the elements and the rewards that may be involved
in dissonance:
Importance: If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the
pressure to correct this imbalance will be low.
Influence: If the dissonance is perceived as an uncontrollable result, they are less likely
to be receptive to attitude change. Though dissonance exists, it is possible to
rationalize and justify it.
Rewards: The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced with high
rewards.

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However, it is not possible for any individual to completely avoid dissonance. Due to
moderating factors, individuals will not necessarily move, to reduce dissonance - or
consistency.
Contemporary research has shown that attitudes can significantly predict future
behavior and has confirmed Festinger's original view that relationship can be enhanced
by taking moderating variables into account (Robbins, 2003). The most powerful
moderators are:

1. Importance - refers to fundamental values, self-interest, or identification

with individuals or groups that a person values.
2. Specificity - More specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior,
the stronger the link between the two.
3. Accessibility - Attitudes that are easily remembered are more likely to
predict behavior than attitudes that are not accessible in
memory.
4. Social pressures - Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior are more likely
to occur where social pressures to behave in certain ways hold
exceptional power.

5. Direct experience - The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much

stronger if an attitude refers to an individual's direct
personal experience.

4. Define Personality. Elucidate Trait Theory.

Ans. The term ‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin term ‘persona’
which means to ‘speak through’. A very common meaning of the term
personality is the role which the person displays in the public domain at
large. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and
development of a person’s whole psychological system-it looks at some
aggregate whole that is greater that the sum of the parts. Allport defined
personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to his
environment.”

Trait Theory:

The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in

the study of personality. The trait theory suggests that individual
personalities are composed broad dispositions. Consider how you would
describe the personality of a close friend. Chances are that you would list a
number of traits, such as outgoing, kind and even-tempered. A trait can be
thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to
behave in certain ways.

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 Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or
humanistic theories, the trait approach to personality is focused on
differences between individuals. The combination and interaction of various
traits combine to form a personality that is unique to each individual. Trait
theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality
characteristics.

Some of the most important research works on personality traits are

mentioned below:

Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Model:

Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of
traits, which made it impossible to predict behaviour. Cattelle’s is one of
the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits
have been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors.
The 16 traits are shown in the chart below.

Abstractedness imaginative versus practical

Apprehension insecure versus complacent
Dominance aggressive versus passive
Emotional Stability calm and stable versus high-strung and
Liveliness enthusiastic versus serious
Openness to Change liberal versus traditional
Perfectionism compulsive and controlled versus indifferent
Privateness pretentious versus unpretentious
Reasoning abstract versus concrete
Rule Consciousness moralistic versus free-thinking
Self-Reliance leader versus follower
Sensitivity sensitive versus tough-minded
Social Boldness uninhibited versus timid
Tension driven and tense versus relaxed and easy going
Vigilance suspicious versus accepting
Warmth open and warmhearted versus aloof and critical

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language dictionary

alone contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality traits.
He categorized these traits into three levels:

Cardinal Traits: Traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to the
point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. People with

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 such personalities often become so known for these traits that their names are
often synonymous with these qualities. Consider the origin and meaning of the
following descriptive terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan,
Christ-like, etc. Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and tend to
develop later in life.

Central Traits: The general characteristics that form the basic foundations of
personality. These central traits, while not as dominating as cardinal traits, are
the major characteristics you might use to describe another person. Terms such
as intelligent, honest, shy and anxious are considered central traits.

Secondary Traits: Traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences

and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances.
Some examples would be getting anxious when speaking to a group or impatient
while waiting in line.

Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions underline all other
personality dimensions. The Big Five factors and their constituent traits can be
summarized as follows:

• Openness - appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas,

curiosity, and variety of experience.
• Conscientiousness - a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and
aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior.
• Extraversion - energy, positive emotions, urgency, and the tendency to
seek stimulation in the company of others.
• Agreeableness - a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather
than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
• Neuroticism - a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as
anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional
instability.

Case Study

1. Explain the motivational problem in this case by relating it to Hertzberg’s

theory.

Ans: To better understand employee attitudes and motivation, Frederick

Herzberg performed studies to determine which factors in an employee's
work environment caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

The studies included interviews in which employees where asked what

pleased and displeased them about their work. Herzberg found that the
factors causing job satisfaction (and presumably motivation) were different
from those causing job dissatisfaction. He developed the motivation-hygiene
theory to explain these results. He called the satisfiers motivators and the
dissatisfies hygiene factors, using the term "hygiene" in the sense that they
are considered maintenance factors that are necessary to avoid
dissatisfaction but that by themselves do not provide satisfaction.

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 The following table presents the top six factors causing dissatisfaction and
the top six factors causing satisfaction, listed in the order of higher to lower
importance.

Leading to satisfaction

• Achievement
• Recognition
• Work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth

Leading to dissatisfaction

• Company policy
• Supervision
• Relationship with boss
• Work conditions
• Salary
• Relationship with peers
• Security

According to this theory the problem that is causing dissatisfaction to the

employees is that the unproductive employees of the organization are also
enjoying the same benefits as the employees who are working hard, which is
not acceptable to them. The factors causing dissatisfaction to the
employees are much more than the satisfying factors.

Following are the motivational problems in this case:

a) Problems and benefit plans are tied to the length of service.

b) Unproductive workers enjoying all the same benefits of the organization
as the workers who are working hard.
c) Efficiency of the efficient workers is unrewarded.

2. Analyze the problem in depth and find out a solution to the problem.

Ans. In this case the problem is that the organization is providing a good working
conditions, benefits and wages best in the industry; still there are some
other things in the company by which the workers are not satisfied. For
instance, it is also been seen that according to the performance the rewards
are not given satisfactory. Those employees who are unproductive, not
showing any efficiency in their work are getting the same benefits as those
who are giving their 100% in the company. And by seeing this, the other
employees are also underperforming and joining the bad wagon of non-
performers.

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 According to me the solution to this problem would be that the organization
should work on the problems that are being faced by the employees and
following remedial measures should be taken:

If the motivation-hygiene theory holds, management not only must provide

hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction, but also must provide
factors intrinsic to the work itself in order for employees to be satisfied
with their jobs.

Herzberg argued that job enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation, and
that it is a continuous management process. According to Herzberg:

• The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the
employee.
• Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given
increasing levels of responsibility.
• If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then the firm
should consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one
who has a lower level of skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there
will be a motivation problem.

Critics of Herzberg's theory argue that the two-factor result is observed

because it is natural for people to take credit for satisfaction and to blame
dissatisfaction on external factors. Furthermore, job satisfaction does not
necessarily imply a high level of motivation or productivity.

3. If you are the HR Manager how would you motivate the employees so
that they work better?

Ans. If I would be the HR Manager then I will adopt the following motivational
techniques to motivate the employees so that they can work better:

Recognize individual differences - Employees have different needs. Therefore,

managers need to understand what is important to each employee. This will
allow individualizing goals, level of involvement, and rewards to align with
individual needs.
Use goals and feedback - Employees should have tangible and specific goals.
Feedback should also be provided regularly to inform the employees about their
performance in pursuit of those goals.
Include employees in decision-making - Employees should be included in making
decisions that affect them, for example, choosing their own benefits packages
and solving productivity and quality problems.
Link rewards to performance - Rewards should be contingent on performance
and employees must perceive a clear linkage.

Maintain equity - Rewards should be perceived by employees as equating

with the inputs they bring to the job, i.e; experience, skills, abilities,

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 effort, and other obvious inputs should explain differences in performance
and, hence, pay, job assignments, and other obvious rewards.

***END***

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