SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS 285

THE GENESIS OF GIANT PORPHYRY MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS

J. D. Keith, E. H. Christiansen
Department of Geology, Brigham Young University
Provo, Utah
U.S.A., 84604

and

R. B. Carten
U. S. Geological Survey, Mackay School of Mines
Reno, Nevada
U.S.A., 89557-0047

ABSTRACT

Giant porphyry molybdenum deposits are best exemplified by the Climax

and Henderson deposits in Colorado. The high grades of these deposits are
probably inherited from magmatic molybdenum concentrations of about 4 to 5
ppm, which are high for metaluminous rhyolitic magmas that average about 2
ppm molybdenum. High magmatic molybdenum concentrations in metaluminous
rocks appear to be related to high magmatic oxygen fugacities (2 or 3 log units
above QFM oxygen buffer) and are correlated with high niobium concentrations.
High oxygen fugacities are likely inherited from calc-alkaline or lamprophyric
predecessors. High niobium and molybdenum are related to extreme fractionation
of rhyolitic magmas. Much higher concentrations of molybdenum ( > 1,000 ppm)
in the ore fluid (and the cupola magma) are probably achieved by crystallization
in the deeper portions of a magma chamber accompanied by convection of the
evolved liquid to the cupola and volatile fluxing.
Exploration criteria for a giant, high-grade deposit include: 1) a tectonic
setting that indicates a changeover from compressional to extensional tectonics,
2) thick continental crust at the time of deposit formation may encourage extreme
differentiation and crustal contamination, 3) an isotopically zoned magma chamber
indicative of a long-lived heat source, 4) a large, sub-volcanic, central-vent ash
flow/dome system that erupted less than 100 km3 of rhyolite, and 5) high niobium
concentrations ( > 75 ppm) in a subalkaline, magnetite-bearing rhyolite.

INTRODUCTION listed in Table I are geographically located in

The grade and tonnage data of each
deposit cited in this paper, as well as the
assignment of each deposit to a general class
(Table 1), is modified from the system
presented in Carten et al. (in press). Deposits
Figure 1. Deposits considered in this paper
are restricted to porphyry Mo deposits which
characteristically do not contain recoverable
Cu and porphyry Mo-Cu deposits which
contain coproduct or byproduct Cu and grades
of Mo which average greater than 0.05 % Mo .
286 SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

Table 1. Grade and tonnage of granite-related Mo and Mo-Cu deposits (modified after
Carten et al., in press).

Production + reserves
% Mo % Cu metric % Mo
Deposits country grade grade tons cutoff reference
6
(10 )

GRANITE-RELATED No: HIGH-SILICA RHYOLITE-ALKALINE SUITE

1) Climax USCO 0.216 769 0.120 mineable S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990
0.240 907 geologic S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990
2) Henderson USCO 0.294 266 0.180 geologic unpublished data
0.228 437 0.120 geologic unpublished data
0.171 727 0.060 geologic carten et al., 1988a
3) Urad USCO 0.209 12 mined Wallace et al., 1978
4) Big Ben USMT 0.090 109 0.036 mineable W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
0.098 376 0.060 geologic W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
5) Middle Mtn USCO -------- Ranta, 1974
6) Mt Emmons USCO 0.264 141 0.120 mineable Ganster et al., 1981
7) Redwell Basin USCO 0.098 108 0.060 geologic Thomas and Galey, 1982
8) Mt Hope USNV 0.162 91 0.120 geologic W.H. White, writ. comm., 1990
0.100 510 0.035 geologic G. Westra, pers. comm., 1990
9) Mt. Pleasant CNNB 0.077 34 geologic Kooiman et al., 1986
10) Pine Grove USUT 0.170 125 0.120 geologic Sillitoe, 1980i
D.E. Ranta, writ. comm., 1982
11) Questa USNM 0.144 277 0.120 mineable S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990
12) Log Cabin USNM 0.090 45 0.060 geologic S.D. Olmore, writ. comm., 1979
13) Silver Creek USCO 0.310 40 0.200 geologic Cameron et al., 1986
14) Bordvika NRWY ----- --- Geyti and Schonwandt, 1979
15) Cave Peak USTX 0.146 0.040 26 0.100 mineable W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
Sharp, 1979
16) Drammen NRWY ---- ---- Ihlen et al., 1982
18) Flammefjeld GRLD -- - -- --- Geyti and Thomasson, 1984
17) Malmbjerg GRLD 0.138 136 0.100 geologic Geyti and Thomasson, 1984
19) Nordli NRWY 0.084 181 0.030 geologic Pedersen, 1986
20) Three Rivers USMN - -- ---
- - Giles and Thompson, 1972;
Thompson, 1982
20a)Cone Peak USNM ______ Mo_
Thompson, pers. comm., 1990

GRANITE-RELATED No: DIFFERENTIATED MONZOGRANITE

21) !danac CUBC 0.094 94 0.060 geologic W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
0.053 270 0.030 geologic Kirkham et al., 1982
22) Anduramba AUQL 0.070 16 geologic witcher, 1975
23) Bald Butte USMT 0.100 14 geologic S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990
24) Bell Moly CNBC 0.066 32 mineable Woodcock and Carter, 1976
25) Bjorntjarn SWDN 0.175 1 geologic Ohlander, 1985
26) Boss Mtn CNBC 0.074 63 geologic Kirkham et al., 1982
27) Canicanian PLPN 0.051 15 geOlogic Knittel and Burton, 1985
28) Cannivan USMT 0.096 185 geologic Worthington, 1977
29) Carmi CNBC 0.091 34 geologic Kirkham et al., 1982
30) Compaccha PERU 0.072 100 geologic Heintze, 1985; Hollister, 1978b
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS 287

31 ) East Kounrad URKZ 0.150 30 ? Sutulov, 1978

32 ) Endako-Denak CNBC 0.087 336 0.048 mineable Kirkham et al., 1982
33 ) Kitsault CNBC 0.115 108 0.060 geologic W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
34 ) Lacorne CNQU 0.210 4 mineable Kirkham et al., 1982
35 ) Logtung CNYT 0.031 162 geologic Noble et al., 1984, 1987
36 ) Lucky Ship CNBC 0.090 14 geologic Pilcher and McDougall, 1976
37 ) Mackatica YUGO 0.078 181 geologic H.T. Shassberger
writ. comm., 1961
38 ) Mt. Haskin CNBC 0.090 12 geologic Kirkham et al., 1982
39 ) Munka SWDN 0.125 2 geologic Ohlander, 1985
40 ) Pidgeon Mo CNON 0.080 14 geologic Kirkham et al., 1982
41 ) Preissac CNQU 0.199 3 geologic Kirkham et al., 1982
42 ) Pine Nut USNV 0.060 181 0.030 geologic K. Roxlo & D.E. Ranta
writ. comm., 1982
0.084 54 0.060 geologic K Roxlo & D.E. Ranta,
•.

writ. comm., 1982

43 ) Quartz Hill USAK 0.077 1216 0.027 geologic S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990
0.091 793 0.060 mineable S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990
44 ) Red Bird CNBC 0.108 34 0.060 geologic. Kirkham et. al., 1982
45 ) Red Mountain CNYT 0.100 187 0.060 geologic Brown and Kahlert, 1986

46 ) Roundy Creek CNBC 0.208 1 geologic Kirkham et al., 1982

47 ) storie Moly CNBC 0.078 101 0.040 geologic Bloomer, 1981
48 ) Thompson Creek USID 0.110 181 0.050 geologic Schmidt et al., 1982

49 ) Trout Lake CNBC 0.138 50 0.060 geologic Boyle and Leitch, 1983
50 ) Tyrnyauz URRS 0.065 50 ? Sutulov, 1978
51 } Yorke-Hardy CNBC 0.240 21 0.120 geologic W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
0.151 125 0.060 geologic W.H. m1ite, pers. comm., 1990

GRANITE-RELATED Mo-CU (No> 0.05 %)

52 ) Buckingham USNV 0.058 0.034 1297 0.036 geologic W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
0.074 0.040 503 0.060 geologic W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
53 ) Copaquire CILE 0.070 0.300 50 geologic Ambrus, 1978

54 ) Cumo USID 0.059 0.074 1258 0.030 geologic W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
0.086 0.058 403 0.060 geologic W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
55 ) Cumobabi MXCO 0.099 0.266 67 0.060 geologic W.R. White, pers. comm., 1990
56 ) EI Creston MXCO 0.074 0.060 181 0.030 geologic W.H. ��ite, pers. comm., 1990
0.092 0.071 126 0.060 mineable W.H. White, pers. comm., 1990
57 ) Hall USNV 0.091 0.045 181 mineable Shaver, 1986
58 ) Jin Dui Cheng CINA 0.100 0.030 907 geologic S.R. Wallace, pers. comm., 1990

59 ) Mocoa CLBA 0.062 0.400 260 geologic sillitoe et al., 1984

60 ) Mt Tolman USWA 0.056 0.090 793 0.036 mineable W.C. Utterback, pers. comm., 1982
0.054 0.090 2177 0.027 geologic W.C. Utterback, pers. comm., 1982
61 ) Rialto USNM 0.070 0.100 27 geologic Hollister, 1978b; Thompson, 1968

l
Abbreviations as used in USGS Bulletin 1693
 tv
00
00

�D
<>-

�?
.v>-

(j,.27
10
/'0

,-�:��= ���'..�
� ��� t
�.. .
JO- 1·-�
• , 3. 5 i
57.. M··1l�' \? d� CI.l

. 2�
.1 5
·····
gs
CI.l
AZ
�
@
:>
Western United States z
Figure 1. Location map for granite-related Mo and Mo-Cu deposits. Deposit numbers �
correspond to listing in Table 1. Spatially and temporally related deposits are combined as
follows: 2 = Henderson and Urad; 6 = Mount Emmons and Redwell Basin; 11 = Questa
(Sulphur Gulch, Goat Hill) and Log Cabin; 20 = Three Rivers, Cone Peak, and Rialto; 33 =
�
Kitsault, Bell Moly, and Roundy Creek. State codes for the inset of the western United States
are AZ = Arizona, CO = Colorado, ID = Idaho, MT = Montana, NV = Nevada, NM = New �
CI.l
-
Mexico, TX = Texas, UT = Utah, and WA = Washington.
cA
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE D EPOSITS
(Table 1; Carten et aI., in press). Porphyry
Mo deposits are further subdivided into those
associated with high-siliCa or alkaline rhyolites
which are rich in potassium, fluorine, and
incompatible trace elements and are
exemplified by the Climax deposit (albeit a
premier example), and those associated with
less silicic granitoids that exhibit average
concentrations of fluorine and incompatible
elements.
Examination of the grade and tonnage
of 61 porphyry Mo and Mo-Cu deposits (Fig.
2) indicates that a continuum in deposit grades
and tonnages may exist; however, most
deposits consist of 50 to 200 million tons of
ore, but only 12 deposits contain more than
200 million tons of ore. These 12 deposits can
be considered "giant" in terms of tonnage, but
only two deposits - Climax and Henderson -
contain over 200 million tons of high-grade
ore (Fig. 1 and 2). Clearly, the .most
economically desirable molybdenum deposit
must be in this class and be "giant" in terms
of both tonnage (-200 million tons) and grade
(> 0.15 % Mo). Processes and factors which
contribute to the development of these types
of deposits will be emphasized.
The genesis of these deposits in light
of more recent work on the partitioning
behavior . and magmatic abundances of
molybdenum will also be reviewed. Inasmuch
as Climax-type magmas are often equated
with topaz rhyolites, recent studies on the
evolution of topaz rhyolites will be examined
along with the volcanic rocks that are
cogenetic with the Climax-type Pine Grove
and Questa deposits in southwestern Utah and
northern New Mexico respectively. Two large
tonnage deposits that are less well
characterized, but appear to not be Climax
types are the Quartz Hill, Alaska deposit and
Mt. Tolman, Washington deposit; processes
that may have acted to produce the large
tonnages with moderate-grade ores will be
reviewed as well.
Several studies in recent years have
clearly demonstrated that the molybdenum in
289
porphyry deposits is derived "in toto" from
the magma or the resulting stocks (Stein and
Hannah, 1985; Carten et aI., 1988a, 1988b;
White et al., 1981). This being the case, some
factors that might produce a high-grade
deposit seem readily apparent. These include
the initial molybdenum content of the parent
magma and the increase in molybdenum
content with differentiation. The source region
for the magma and metal has been proposed
as residing in the upper crust (Wallace et al.,
1978), lower crust (White et al., 1981; Stein
and Hannah, 1985), and mantle (Westra and
Keith, 1981). Related factors that could
control the grade of the deposit include how
effectively molybdenum is sequestered by
early magmatic minerals (Keith and Shanks,
1988) and how strongly it is partitioned into
an .evolved aqueous phase (Candela, 1989a;
Keppler and Wyllie, 1991). Any discussion of
what factors or processes are responsible for
variations in tonnage and grade must begin
with the source and differentiation processes
of the magma. Processes that control the
location and duration of molybdenite
deposition from the aqueous phase also
obviously control the grade. These include
multiple stocks forming overlapping ore
bodies and steep chemical and thermal
gradients around the stock or pluton.
The tonnages of porphyry molybdenum
deposits are also significantly affected by the
factors just mentioned. However, additional
factors that are perhaps more directly linked
with the tonnages are the size and water
content of the parent magma chamber, and the
size and shape of the ensuing productive stock
or cupola. For example, if mineralization
occurs in a broad, shallow cupola along the
roof of a large batholith, then the total amount
of magmatic water and metals participating in
mineralization may also be large, but
unfocused. The ensuing deposit could be
large, but low grade.
Most of these mineralization controls
have been discussed or reviewed by other
workers. However, the essential question that
290 SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

0.35
•
0.3 �
"-
• "-
0.25 0 Mt Emmons "- �
'#. 'a. --..Henderson
-<
--.. --..
....... ::::::. Climax
0.2
� .... Pine Grove
.....
...... .

a 0.15 <i---- .....

• Questa

� o -- Mt Hope

�t-\O�
-- __

0.1 G- J:. Quartz Hill

----.l...--D
�t,!oJ!n���
_

o >s
X
�-.
-
0.05
Big Ben X - - - - - - - - X-x.
_ __

2177 tons
0

o +-��4-�����4-��
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Ore (millions of metric tons)

Figure 2. Tonnage-grade diagram for granite-related Mo and Mo-Cu deposits. Deposits

discussed in the text are labelled. Solid squared represent the high-silica rhyolite - alkaline suite;
open circles are the differentiated monzogranite Mo suite; crosses are the Mo-Cu suite. All data
are from Table 1 (Carten et al., in press).

remains unanswered is whether the processes Climax-type versus quartz monzonite type
that produce giant porphyry molybdenum (White et al., 1981), granite versus
deposits are inherently different from those granodiorite types (Mutschler et al., 1981),
which produce normal deposits. Is there a calc-alkaline versus alkali-calcic (and alkalic)
discontinuity in either sizes of parent magma types (Westra and Keith, 1981), and
chambers or the mineralizing processes fluorine-enriched versus fluorine-deficient
associated with them? We will discuss this types (Theodore and Menzie, 1984). One of
question along with what are the best the two classes is generally typified by
exploration characteristics to use in fmding a high-silica rhyolites or granites that are rich in
giant deposit. potassium, fluorine, and incompatible trace
elements. Characteristics of this class are
CLASSIFICATION AND GENERAL exemplified by the Climax deposit. The other
CHARACTERISTICS class is typified by a less silicic calc-alkaline
granitoid that exhibits average concentrations
Most classification schemes for of fluorine and incompatible elements.
porphyry molybdenum deposits divide them Climax-type deposits are of primary concern
into two main groups. These include in this paper because they exhibit both
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS 291

high-grades of molybdenum and large the mantle abundance of molybdenum and

tonnages (Sillitoe, 1980; White et aI., 1981). tungsten are 0.059 ppm and 0.010 ppm,
However, both types will be examined in respectively (Newsom and Palme, 1984;
order to understand the processes responsible Newsom et al., 1986) whereas upper crustal
for formation of high-grade deposits. abundances are 1.5 ppm and 2.0 ppm,
The Henderson porphyry molybdenum respectively (Taylor and McClennan, 1985).
deposit is one of the premier examples of a These data suggest that tungsten is more
giant molybdenum deposit in terms of both incompatible and therefore more enriched in
tonnage and grade (727 millon tons of 0.17wt the crust than is molybdenum (by a factor of
% Mo; Table 1). In addition, the most recent 200 for W and only 25 for Mo). Newsom and
studies (Carten et al., 1988a; Seedorff, 1988) Palme (1984) attribute the more strongly
represent a culmination of 75 man years of incompatible behavior of tungsten to an
geological investigation making it one of the oxidation state of 6 +, whereas the oxidation
most well-studied porphyry deposits in the state of molybdenum varies from 6 + to 3+
world. under terrestrial conditions. Tungsten may
exhibit an oxidation state of 4 + in some of
MOLYBDENUM AND TUNGSTEN the most reduced granitoid magmas (Cygan
GEOCHEMISTRY IN and Chou, 1987; Candela, 1988). Newsom
IGNEOUS ROCKS and Palme (1984) suggest the molybdenum
valences less than 5 + are perhaps more
Inasmuch as molybdenum and tungsten common and evidence of a 4 + valence has
occur in the same group of the periodic table been observed in metal-silicate partitioning
and exhibit many similarities in geochemical experiments. A valence of 4+ for
behavior, it is instructive to contrast and molybdenum might indicate that its
compare the behavior of both elements to geochemical behavior would be similar to Ti
understand the ore-forming process. For (similar charge and ionic radius). A
example, both molybdenum and tungsten are correlation in the abundance of Mo and Ti has
often sequestered by the same magmatic been obserVed by Kuroda and Sandell (1954)
phases. Such a comparison is essential because for some igneous rocks.
the partitioning behavior of 6 + molybdenum Tacker and Candela (1987) also
has not been investigated experimentally; suggest that the dominant oxidation state for
however, this is the valence that may be most molybdenum in silicate magmas varies from
important in porphyry systems and is the 4 + to 3 + between nickel-nickel oxide and
valence commonly exhibited by tungsten. graphite-methane buffers. Molybdenum
The concentration of both molybdenum becomes more incompatible in magnetite and
and tungsten in the mantle is less than in C1 ilmenite as oxygen fugaCity is increased
chondrites, indicating that a significant (Tacker and Candela, 1987; Bouton et al.,
fraction of Earth's original endowment of 1987).
these metals now resides in the core (Newsom
and Palme, 1984). Although molybdenum and Associated alkaline mafic rocks
tungsten generally exhibit strongly
incompatible behavior in crystallizing magmas The presence of lamprophyre dikes at
due to formation of large oxy-anions, under Climax, Henderson, Quartz Hill, and Chicago
sufficiently reducing conditions (Fe-FeO) Basin and of zoned magma chambers that are
these metals may be strongly partitioned into floored with alkaline mafic rocks at Pine
a liquid metal phase, as apparently happened Grove, Questa, and Grizzly Peak
during core formation. The best estimates of (mid-Tertiary volcanic field in central
292
Colorado) indicate that mantle-derived mafic
alkaline magmas may represent a portion of
the parental magma of Climax-type rhyolites.
There is no isotopic constraint for eliminating
them as a portion of the source material.
Alkaline igneous rocks (minettes, lamproites,
and nephelinites) from the Cenozoic volcanic
fields in the Elkhead Mountains in Colorado,
the Leucite Hills, Wyoming, and the western
Colorado Plateau, Utah, have epsilon Nd and
epsilon Sr values (Thompson et aI., 1991;
Vollmer et aI., 1984; Tingey et aI., 1991) that
are not far removed from those exhibited by
Climax-type systems. Despite the generally
low concentration of molybdenum in the
mantle (0.059 ppm), mantle-derived alkaline
magmas formed by extremely small degrees
of partial melting « 1 % ) have substantially
higher concentrations of molybdenum that
would not lower the average molybdenum
content of a largely crustal melt. For
example, Newsom and Palme (1984) noted
that continental alkali basalts have high
contents of incompatible elements including
molybdenum concentrations up to 4.5 ppm
(well above the crustal average of 1.5 ppm)
and Newsom et al. (1986) report as much as
6.3 ppm Mo in alkaline ocean island basalt.
Shoshonites, minettes, and melanephelinites
from central Utah contain 0.2 to 3.0 ppm Mo
(unpublished data).
The source region for mafic alkaline
magmas on the continents is often proposed to
be the metasomatized lithospheric mantle.
Hattori et al. (1992) examined the metal
content of magmatic sulfides from
metasomatized (amphibole-bearing) peridotite
xenoliths from a variety ofloealities; a
xenolith from Nunivak Island, Alaska
(underlain by continental crust) contained
magmatic sulfide blebs with up to 60 ppm
molybdenum, whereas sulfide blebs in
xenoliths from other localities contained no
detectable molybdenum. Insufficient data are
available to speculate on whether the
molybdenum content of lithospheric mantle of
different Precambrian provinces may vary
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
enough to account for the occurrence of
porphyry molybdenum "provinces".
Oxidation state and molybdenum incompat­
ibility in magmas
Perhaps the geochemical characteristic
inherited from the source region that is most
critical for the development of porphyry Mo
magmas is the oxidation state of the magma.
This parameter is fundamental because a
buffer parallel oxidation state is not easily
modified during magmatic fractionation
(Carmichael, 1991). This characteristic may
affect the oxidation state of molybdenum
which in tum affects how incompatible it may
behave during crystal fractionation. As
previously noted, molybdenum may exhibit
valences of 4 + and 3 + between nickel-nickel
oxide and graphite-methane oxygen buffers
(Tacker and Candela, 1987). Most subduction
related (calc-alkaline) and lamprophyric
magmas have oxidation states roughly 2-3 and
4-5 log units above nickel-nickel oxide
respectively. If the trend of increasing
incompatibility of molybdenum with
increasing f02 noted by Tacker and Candela
(1987) continues, then molybdenum may
become even more incompatible in
calc-alkaline and lamprophyric magmas with
high oxygen fugacities where molybdenum
valences greater than 4 + may exist.
Evidence of variable incompatibility
for molybdenum in various rock series should
be noted here. Rubidium is insensitive to
changes in the oxidation state of the magma
and can be used in variation diagrams as a
monitor of magma evolution. A plot of the
abundance of tungsten versus rubidium in
fresh volcanic rocks ranging in composition
from mid-ocean ridge basalts to high-silica
rhyolites shows linear, strongly incompatible
behavior over a range of almost four
orders-of-magnitude (Fig. 3). However, the
enrichment of molybdenum in the same rock
series is much more subdued increasing only
two orders of magnitude; in addition, the
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
enrichment trend branches according to rock
type (Fig. 3). Ocean island basalts and
alkaline rocks exhibit a stronger enrichment
trend than calc-alkaline (metaluminous)
volcanic rocks; very reduced strongly
fractionated rocks such as macusanites,
ongonites, and some topaz rhyolites, such as
Spor Mountain, even show sharply lower
abundances of molybdenum with increased
fractionation, despite strong enrichment of
tungsten (up to 30-70 ppm; E. H.
Christiansen, unpublished data; Pichavant et
aI., 1987). The differences in the behavior of
molybdenum may be the result of variable
oxidation states with molybdenum in a lower
oxidation state (3 + (?» behaving more
compatibly than at higher oxidation states
(6 +, similar to tungsten?) where molybdenum
appears to be moderately incompatible.
The oxidation states of most porphyry
molybdenum systems are not well constrained.
Keith (1982) demonstrated that the oxygen
fugacity of the Pine Grove magma was about
2 log units above nickel-nickel oxide (similar
to most calc-alkaline rocks). Christiansen et
al. (1986) found that the magmatic oxygen
fugacity of the topaz-bearing Chalk Mountain
rhyolite (comagmatic with Climax) was also
about 2-3 log units above nickel-nickel oxide.
However, some topaz rhyolites from
west-central Utah (including Spor MountitiiJ.)
were found to be substantially more reduced,
with magmatic f02 values 2 units below
nickel-nickel oxide. Therefore, this is
permissive evidence that Climax-type magmas
would exhibit modest' enrichment of
molybdenum with continued fractionation,
probably along the trend of other
metaluminous (apparently more oxidized)
magmas (Fig. 3), rather than depletion as
found in more reduced magmas.
From the incompatible trace element
systematics, we conclude that magmatic
concentrations of Mo in metaluminous,
calc-alkaline magmas are generally quite low.
This is indicated by the average molybdenum
content of continental crust and granitoids
293
(1.5 ppm, Taylor and McLennan, 1985).
More importantly, because the enrichment
trend of molybdenum in metaluminous rocks
is relatively flat through the granitoid region
(Fig. 3 ), an approximate magmatic
molybdenum concentration (between 1 and 5
ppm with an uncertainty of only a few ppm)
can be inferred from the granitoid's rubidium
concentration. Rhyolites or granites with
rubidium concentrations of over 1000 ppm are
rare and commonly are reduced types that
display molybdenum depletion with
fractionation. Even if highly evolved oxidized
granitic magmas existed with concentrations
of Rb as high· as 2000 ppm, magmatic Mo
concentrations predicted by this trend would
still be less than 6 or 7 ppm. Moreover, a
survey of the molybdenum contents of
subalkaline volcanic rocks worldwide indicates
that concentrations in excess of 10 ppm have
not been found (Smith, 1985). This does not
include potentially large enrichments of
molybdenum that are inferred to occur at the
apices of Climax-type intrusions (13,000 ppm,
Carten et al., 1988a) due to accumulation of
"
a separate aqueous phase (discussed later), but
only to molybdenum enrichment due to crystal
fractionation.
Molybdenum and niobium
Another explanation of the moderately
incompatible behavior of molybdenum is that
its magmatic fractionation is similar to
niobium. Molybdenum and niobium may
commonly exist as cations of approximately
similar size and charge in magmas. Ocean
island basalts and continental alkaline magmas
(excluding minettes) exhibit higher
concentrations of niobium than do
calc-alkaline magmas at the same rubidium
concentrations (Fig. 3). In addition, niobium
concentrations probably decrease with
continued evolution in macusanite, ongonites,
and the most evolved topaz rhyolites
(Christiansen et al., 1986; Pichavant et al.,
1987; Congdon and Nash, 1991) as does
294 SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

100
A
10

- 1
E
0.
0.
-

s: 0.1

0.01

0.001
B

10
High f02 trend

1
ADR
: Lowf0 2
I
-

E trend
0.
0.
-
0.1
0
�
0.01

Niobate
- Fractionation
E
0.
0.
-

.c
Z
1

.
0 1 L.--
.. -'-I-.....ul....-.l.-,-,-......J.--'-
...LUL
..&-L.J. --.
L. ..&.-.J,
.J- u.
...I..J L1-
.&. --'-..
- .u.J
... �""::"
�
0.01 0.1 1 10 1 00 10 00.."'"':
... 1 OOOO
Rb (ppm)
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE D EPOSITS 295

Figure 3. Concentrations of Rb versus W, Mo, and Nb. A) Concentrations of Rb and W

in fresh terrestrial volcanic rocks are strongly correlated over almost 5 orders of magnitude
showing that W generally behaves as a strongly incompatible element. Mid-ocean ridge basalts
(MORB) and ocean island basalts (OIB) form distinct but nearly continuous fields (stippled). The
field for andesites, dacites, and rhyolites (AD R) extends from but overlaps the upper end of the
field for ocean island basalts (OIB). For rhyolites, only data collected from glassy samples has
been included. B) Concentrations of Rb and Mo in most fresh terrestrial volcanic rocks are
strongly correlated showing that Mo generally behaves as a moderately incompatible element.
Mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and ocean island basalts (OIB) form distinct but nearly
continuous fields. At a given Rb content, the Mo enrichment in andesites, dacites, and rhyolites
(AD R) from subduction zones or continental settings is less than in (OIB). Highly evolved
rhyolites that crystallized under reducing conditions (macusanites and some topaz rhyolites;
stippled pattern, "low f02 trend") have even lower Mo/ Rb ratios, apparently as a result of
magmatic depletion of molybdenum. For rhyolites, only data collected from glassy samples has
been included. C) Concentrations of Rb and Nb in fresh terrestrial volcanic rocks reveal a pattern
similar to that for Rb and Mo in that andesites, dacites, and rhyolites (AD R) from continental
and subduction zone settings are depleted in Nb compared to ocean island basalts (OIB) and even
some mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB). Although apparently more incompatible than Mo in most
magmas, Nb behaves like Mo in that low Nb/ Rb ratios are found in highly evolved rhyolitic
rocks indicated by magmatic depletion of Nb in these rocks. D ata from Newsom et al. (1986),
Govindaraju (1989), Christiansen et al. (1986), Kovalenko et a1. (1978, 1981), Pichavant et al.
(1987), Congdon and Nash (1991), Turley and Nash (1983), Mahood (1981), Hildreth (1981)
and our own unpublished analyses.

molybdenum. For example, the strongly Preservation of magmatic molybdenum and

reduced macusanite glasses also show a
decoupling of the behavior of niobium and
tantalum resulting in a very low Nb/ Ta ratio
of 1.7 (Pichavant et al., 1987). Whether the
behavior of niobium can be ascribed to a
change in oxidation state from 5 +to 4 +in
reduced magmas is unknown. But whatever
magmatic phases control the abundance of
niobium may also control that of
molybdenum..
In summary, ocean island basalts and
continental alkali basalts may inherit modestly
high molybdenum and niobium concentrations
from their sources. However, the high oxygen
fugacities inherited from the source regions of
minettes and calc-alkaline magmas may be of
fundamental importance in allowing
molybdenum concentrations to increase during
crystal fractionation of magmas related to
porphyry molybdenum deposits.
tungsten concentrations
There are several reasons to believe
the tungsten and molybdenum concentrations
of many silicic igneous rocks often do not
represent magmatic values. Perhaps most
importantly, both elements are substantially
partitioned into an aqueous phase when one is
evolved from a crystallizing granitic magma
(Candela, 1989a). If an aqueous phase escapes
from a pluton, then the tungsten and
molybdenum content of a granitoid will be
reduced whereas country rock might become
enriched by deposition of these metals from
that fluid. The very process that makes
mineralization possible, makes determination
of original magmatic values almost
unattainable. In this regard, Ivanova (1963)
studied the distribution of tungsten in biotite
granites and correlative greisens and
concluded that tungsten content of the rocks is
296 SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
100 �----.
A
10 •

[ 1
-
c..
.; JI'. Granites
0.1 •
•
•
•
0.01 •

o .00 11'----'---'--'-'-J...J..I..I--'-",-,-,-,-,-'-----'-'-..L..U...l.--'-'-'-'--'-'-'--w....u.J...--'
0.01 0.1 10 100 1000 110000
Rb (ppm)
�------------------���----------------�
100

B
10

1 •

'...::a\"
- • •• •••
E
c..
-
c..
0.1
o .r •.• Granites
� • • •

0.01

o. 00 1 '----'---'--'-'--W-W-_--'---'--'--L.J..L'-'----'-'-'-'-'-'-'---'-'--��-'--'-'--'-'-''--"'--'-�
0.01 0.1 1 100 1000 10000
100
c
-
10
E
-
c..
c..
1
o
�
0.1 F?ine
Grove

0.01

0.001 _'_'_
L--�_'__'_'_�____'_ _ ...
.......L.- ...L
��....� ---'--"'--'--'-'-.u.l-__'__ ...
-'---'-'....L--- -
-'---'- -
--'-'-'--'-'-'-'

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Rb (ppm)
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS 297

Figure 4. Concentrations of Rb versus Wand Mo for volcanic and granitoid rocks. A)

Concentrations of W in fresh granitoids from western North America are generally depleted
compared to fresh terrestrial rocks of the same Rb content, including the andesites, dacites, and
rhyolites (ADR) commonly associated with tungsten deposits. B) Concentrations of Mo in fresh
granitoids from western North America are generally depleted compared to fresh terrestrial rocks
with similar Rb concentrations, including the andesites, dacites, and rhyolites (ADR) commonly
associated with porphyry molybdenum deposits. C) Judging from the correlation of Rb and Mo
in glassy rhyolitic rocks, the Mo concentrations in the rhyolitic magma at Pine Grove may have
been as high as 3 ppm. However, concentrations of Mo in the volcanic rocks range to as low as
0.2 ppm as a result of post-magmatic losses including loss of a volatile phase during eruption and
meteoric leaching (Keith and Shanks, 1988). Includes unpublished data of J. D. Keith.

primarily a function of alteration. Keith et al.
(1989) made the same conclusion from a
study of the CanTung granitoids, Northwest
Territories. Figure 4 illustrates that the
tungsten content of. granitoids from· western
North America (Keith, unpublished data)
scatter above and mostly below the trend
established for fresh andesites, dacites, and
rhyolites. Keith et al. (1989) also examined
the molybdenum content of barren and
tungsten-related granitoids from western North
America. No correlation of molybdenum.
content with degree of differentiation, size of
associated deposit, or other trace element
concentrations was found. As was the case for
tungsten, the molybdenum concentrations in
these granitoids generally are substantially less
than those of fresh andesites, dacites, and
rhyolites (Fig. 4).
Molybdenum concentrations of rocks
from a porphyry molybdenum deposit would
always be suspect of being either enriched
(especially within 300 m of· an ore zone,
Mutschler et aI., 1981) or depleted by
hydrothermal leaching or loss of a
molybdenum-rich aqueous phase. Even fresh
volcanic rocks may exhibit molybdenum
concentrations lower than pre-eruption
magmatic values due to loss of a
molybdenum-bearing aqueous· phase or to
leaching by meteoric fluids. Keith and Shanks
(1988) documented that at least 90% of the
molybdenum in the non-welded tuff of Pine
Grove was leached by meteoric water; in
addition, they inferred that very fresh
comagmatic rhyolite cobbles eroded from an
extrusive dome had lost -70% of their
original molybdenum content due to escape of
magmatic volatiles (Fig. 4). Although
measured molybdenum concentrations in fresh
Pine Grove rocks range from 0.20 to 1.82
ppm, the pre-eruption magmatic level may
have been as high as -3 ppm (Fig. 4); the
difference may have been lost to meteoric
leaching or degassing of the ash flow tuff
shortly after eruption. Consequently, it is
difficult to determine the magmatic tungsten
and molybdenum concentrations of evolved
water-rich granites and rhyolites.
Molybdenum has.· been found in· fumarolic
crusts associated with similar rhyolitic tuffs
(Zies, 1929). Even strongly differentiated
rhyolitic magmas such as those that formed
the molybdenite deposits at Climax and
Henderson, may originally have contained
only about 4 ppm molybdenum; magmas with
lower rubidium and niobium - such as those
from Quartz Hill and Mount Tolman - may
have originally h a d . moly bdenum
concentrations closer to· -2 ppm. Actual
magmatic concentrations of molybdenum for
these deposits may be unattainable for the
reasons just outlined. If such molybdenum­
niobium-rubidium correlations have some
validity, then the more niobium-rubidium-rich
magmas might be expected to produce larger
tonnages of higher grade molybdenum ore.
Figure 5 illustrates that deposits with higher
 N
1000
L Mo (wt%) Tonnes
1.0
00

Millions
<> Henderson 0.294 266
500 � D PillleGrove 0.170 125
• Questa 0.144 277

300 o Quartz Hill 0.091 793

I • MtTolman 0.056 793
200

......

E 100
0.
0.
'-""

-C
Z 50
en
tI1
0
30 f-- en
�I
N

20 f--Af:mm::H� -..Q- 63
:>
z
�

10 I 41t:,:�"'f:,:,:,:,',:,m:,:tj't:,t,,:,:,:,,,:,w:,:,:,t,l"'F:t:':,}ft:,',q,J,:,:,:¥"t};}:t",:,:,"t,:",tt:,V I I
�
t:::1
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000 �
0
en
Rb (ppm) ....
Jooo3
en
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS 299

Figure 5. Rb and Nb concentrations in silicic igneous rocks associated with porphyry

molybdenum deposits in western North America are similar to other members of the andesite,
dacite, rhyolite group world wide. Granitic rocks at Urad/Henderson are the most fractionated
(indicated by their high concentrations of the incompatible elements Rb and Nb) and host the
highest grade Mo deposit. Rb, Nb, and Mo ore grade decrease regularly in the sequence Pine
Grove, Questa, Quartz Hill, and Mt. Tolman.

niobium and rubidium concentrations do have
larger tonnages of high grade ore.
PETROGENESIS OF MAGMA
RELATED TO CLIMAX-TYPE
MOLYBDENUM DEPOSITS
Lower and upper crustal sources
Do the igneous rocks associated with
giant porphyry molybdenum deposits inherit a
special composition from their magma source
region that distinguishes them from lesser
deposits? Is there a unique tectonic setting or
epoch for their development? In this regard,
White et al. (1981) proposed that because the
Colorado Rocky Mountain region exhibits
many deposits or mineral occurrences
enriched in molybdenum, tungsten, and
fluorine, this indicates a "long-term source"
for these elements in the underlying
continental lithosphere (1.7 Ga). They
suggested that Climax-type magmas were
generated by fractional melting of the lower
crust followed by fractional crystallization of
each batch of magma as it diapirically rose
through the crust. White et al. (1981) suggest
the magmas would be enriched in
molybdenum and other incompatible trace
elements as a consequence. What levels of
molybdenum enrichment would be achieved
by this process are not specified, but they
suggest that Climax-type granitoids are "rather
like" the topaz rhyolites of Burt et al. (1982).
Extensive data on the molybdenum content of
topaz rhyolites are not available, but Keith
and Shanks (1988) found that fresh topaz
rhyolite from southwestern Utah with niobium
and rubidium concentrations similar to those
at Henderson contained 3.3 ( + /- 0.2) ppm
molybdenum. Turley and Nash (1983) found
from 2 to 6 (+ /- 1.5) ppm molybdenum in
vitrophyres from topaz rhyolite lavas at
Smelter Knoll, Utah. There is no evidence
that topaz rhyolites generally contain higher
concentrations of molybdenum than these
values.
Stein (1988) investigated the lead,
strontium, sulfur, and oxygen isotope ratios
and rare earth-element compositions of ores,
and of volcanic and plutonic rocks from the
Colorado mineral belt; the genesis of
Climax-type systems was of particular
concern. Her data were interpreted to indicate
that all the Laramide-Tertiary intermediate to
felsic magmas (including calc-alkaline) had a
lower crustal origin; however, Climax-type
granites were proposed to have originated
from a unique lower crustal source (not
related to calc-alkaline magmatism). The
magmatic characteristics critical to
Climax-type mineralization acquired from this
unique source are not specified.
In their review of the Henderson
deposit, Carten et aI. (1988b) suggest that a
unique magma that contained high
concentrations of ore components was not
required to form the deposit. They argue that
the initial concentration of molybdenum in the
ore-related magma is not as critical to ore
formation as the type and duration of
fractionation processes in a high-level magma
chamber.
The average molybdenum content of
the lower and upper crust is estimated to be
0.8 and 1. 5 ppm respectively (Taylor and
300
McLennan, 1985). One of the ftrst attempts to
defme a special molybdenum-rich source for
Climax-type deposits was analysis of the
molybdenum content of Idaho Springs
Formation and the Silver Plume Granite;
Zahoney (1968) found an average of 5 ppm
and 2-3 ppm Mo in these respective rock
types. On this basis, Wallace et a1. (1978)
suggested that the tungsten and molybdenum
of the Climax and Henderson deposits were
derived from these upper crustal host rocks.
However, later isotopic studies (White et aI.,
1981; Stein, 1988) have demonstrated that
Climax-type magmas and ore deposits in the
Colorado mineral belt could not have
incorporated any appreciable amount of these
upper crustal rocks.
Most recent workers have proposed
that the magma source of Climax-type systems
and topaz rhyolites is in the lower crust
(White et aI., 1981; Christiansen and Wilson,
1982; Christiansen et aI., 1988; Stein, 1988)
although enriched upper mantle has been
proposed also (Westra and Keith, 1981).
White et al. (1981) noted that the initial
87Sr/86Sr values for "unaltered" Climax and
Henderson rocks varies between 0.705 -
0.710. Stein (1988) found signiftcantly higher
and widely varying values of 0.7085 to 0.740
for Climax and Henderson rocks. Chalk
Mountain rhyolite is a relatively unaltered
topaz-bearing extrusive dome that
comagmatic with the Climax rhyolites (Burt et
aI., 1982). Stein (1988) reported a 87Sr/86Sr
value of 0.7085 for Chalk Mountain and
-
0.710 - 0.711 for Climax samples. Fused
ash-flow tuff associated with the Climax-type
Pine Grove deposit in Utah, which
underlain by Proterozoic crust of the same age
as Climax, has an initial 87Sr/86Sr value of
0.7099 (Christiansen and Wilson, 1982).
Although sparse, Nd isotopic data may
reveal more about the source(s) of Climax
type rhyolites, because they are probably less
affected by hydrothermal alteration and
wall-rock contamination than Sr isotope
ratios. Farmer and DePaolo (1984) reported
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
the compositions of 3 samples from
Henderson. Epsilon Nd for these samples
ranged from -9.5 to -9.9. These values are
indistinguishable from the high end epsilon
Nd of Precambrian (1.6 to 1.8 Ga) basement
rocks, suggesting to Farmer and DePaolo
(1984) that the "granitic magmas were derived
exclusively from mid-Proterozoic crust".
However, it should be noted that DePaolo
(1981) observed that Proterozoic crust in
Colorado could have had epsilon Nd as low as
-14 during the middle Tertiary. If such crust
was involved in the genesis of Climax-type
rhyolites then a signiftcant mantle component
with higher epsilon Nd must have been
present even in this magma system.
Moreover, the occurrence of igneous rocks
with epsilon Nd values as low as -13 (Johnson
and Fridrich, 1990) in the same region and
broadly coeval with Henderson is consistent
with the involvement of signiftcant
mantle-derived magma at Henderson. As
noted below, Johnson et a1. (1989) also
propose a similar mixed (mantle and crustal)
heritage for the magmas that led to the
formation of the Questa deposit.
Tectonic setting
Sillitoe (1980) subdivided porphyry
molybdenum deposits into rift-related and
is subduction-related deposits that correspond
fairly well to Climax-type and the "other"
categories respectively. Several authors have
recognized that few Mo deposits occur in
young island arc settings (i.e. Canicanian,
Table 1), and almost always in areas underlain
is by at least thin continental crust (Sillitoe,
1980; Westra and Keith, 1981; Christiansen
and Wilson, 1982). Although some have
claimed that Climax -type systems correlate
with thicker continental crust, others suggest
that they are independent of crustal thickness
(Westra and Keith, 1981). Perhaps the most
commonly suggested tectonic setting for
Climax-type systems is during the changeover
from compressional to extensional tectonics
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE D EPOSITS
(Sillitoe, 1980; Westra and Keith, 1981;
Mutschler et aI., 1981; White et aI., 1981;
Bookstrom, 1981). Some authors prefer to
consider this setting as "atectonic" or back-arc
spreading rather than simply rift-related.
The "changeover" tectonic setting has
also recently been documented for the Coulee
D am intrusive suite (Carlson and Moye, 1990)
that hosts the Cu-rich Mt. Tolman deposit
whose ore-related granite porphyry clearly
evolved from a dominant volume of
granodiorite (Carlson and Moye, 1990).
Additi o n a lly, a " post-orogenic" ,
extension-related setting has been proposed for
the Quartz Hill deposit (Hudson et al., 1981).
The Quartz Hill intrusive complex was
emplaced in the Coast batholith after it had
been extensively uplifted and eroded. A
regional extension-related joint system
controls emplacement of many lamprophyre
dikes as well the Quartz Hill intrusions.
However, the initial 87Sr/86Sr values of 0.7051
for the Quartz Hill intrusions do not differ
significantly from those of the older
s u b d u c t i on- r e l a t e d p l u t o n i c r o c k s .
Additionally, the Quartz Hill intrusions show
minimal enrichment of K20, fluorine, and
other incompatible elements (Hudson et al.,
1981).
Crystal fractionation from calc-alkaline
predecessors
D espite accumulation of a large
amount of data on the petrogenetic and
isotopic evolution of Climax-type rhyolites, a
number of differing source rocks are
permissible. Questa and Pine Grove show
many petrogenetic similarities. Pine Grove
(23-22 Ma; Fig. 1) is located in the Indian
Peak volcanic field that produced dominantly
high-K calc-alkaline dacitic ash flows from 32
to 27 Ma (Best et al., 1989). More than
50,000 km3 of ash flow tuff was erupted.
Smaller volumes of high-K calc-alkaline
rhyolite, trachyandesite, and minor dacite
were erupted near the Indian Peak volcanic
301
field at 18-23 Ma and are roughly
contemporaneous with the inception of
extension in the area (Best et aI., 1987). The
Pine Grove porphyry molybdenum deposit
occurs in the eroded vent of an ash-flow/ dome
complex just east of the rim of the Indian
Peak caldera complex. Initial eruptions began
with high-silica rhyolite and later eruptions
simultaneously vented rhyolitic and dacitic
magma. High-silica rhyolite subsequently
filled the vent to form domes and intruded to
shallow levels to form a Climax -type deposit.
The co-erupted dacitic magma exhibits a mode
and major-element composition very similar to
the voluminous dacitic ash-flows that were
emplaced during the Oligocene and to other
intermediate volcanic rocks of the same age
(23-21 Ma) to the west (Best et ai., 1992).
Shortly after complete crystallization of the
magma chamber, trachyandesitic magma
intruded the vent and other portions of the
crust and covered the tuff of Pine Grove
across the region. Keith (1982) demonstrated
that 60% fractionation of dacitic magma,
using observed phenocryst proportions and
compositions, could produce the major­
element composition of the Pine Grove
rhyolite. The available Sr isotopic data are
consistent with this idea; no significant
differences exist between the Sr-isotopic
compositions of the Pine Grove magma and
the older dacites of the Indian Peak volcanic
field.
Johnson and Lipman (1988)
investigated the origin of the metaluminous
and alkaline volcanic rocks of the Latir
volcanic field, host of the Questa deposit (Fig.
1), in the Rio Grande rift near the
Colorado-New Mexico border. Magmatism in
the Latir field (22 - 28.5 Ma and 11-15 Ma)
is approximately coeval with Climax-type
systems (i.e. Climax, Henderson, Mt.
Emmons) farther north along the Rio Grande
rift. In addition, the age of magmatism spans
the inception of rifting in the area (26 Ma).
Molybdenum mineralization is associated with
waning stages of caldera magmatism. The
302 SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS

highest grades of ore are associated with the rhyolites are exposed. The published analyses
Sulphur Gulch pluton (23-25 Ma) that carry all the earmarks of strongly fractionated
intruded the southern rim of the Que�ta magma: low concentrations of compatible
caldera (Johnson et al . , 1989). Johnson and elements (notably Sr, Mg, and Ti) and high
Lipman (1988) suggested that 60 % concentrations of incompatible elements like
fractionation of a parental magma similar to Rb and Nb . Thus the nature of their more
the Cabresto Lake monzogranite, a slightly mafic predecessors is difficult to deduce.
older resurgent pluton, could produce the Isotopic , maj or- and trace-element
major-and trace-element composition of the compositions of the rhyolitic rocks present no
Sulphur Gulch pluton. They suggest' that a reason to exclude the possibility that they
"base level" intermediate composition magma, evolved by crystal fractionation from high-K
exemplified by the majority of the local calc-alkaline magma (which itself was
volcanic and plutonic rocks, persisted in the partially derived from lower crustal and
area for 6 m.y. The inferred monzogranite mantle sources) .
parent is very similar to the dacite co-erupted One of the reasons that White et al.
with the rhyolitic Pine Grove magma and the (1981) exclude magma evolution from
"base level " composition of the Indian Peak calc-alkaline parents is that one of the
volcanic field (Best et aI. , 1989) . Climax-type deposits, Mt. Emmons, is much
A critical question that should be asked younger (17 Ma) than the cessation of
is whether the petrogenetic processes apparently subduction-related magmatism ( 26 �

exemplified by Pine Grove and Questa Ma). However, non-subduction-related

magmatism operated at other Climax-type volcanic rocks with calc- alkaline
porphyry Mo systems. Bookstrom (1981) characteristics are present elsewhere in the
states that the Climax-type deposits in the Tertiary of the western United States. For
Colorado mineral belt occur along the axes of example, a 16.5 Ma volcanic center in the
slightly older calc-alkaline plutons (mostly Gold Springs and Stateline districts of Utah
less than 40 -Ma) . There are about 30 and Nevada exhibits a complete spectrum of
molybdenum prospects with up to �0.1 % compositions ranging from 68 to 77 % Si02•
MoS2 mineralization in, the mineral belt and The lower-silica rocks have the calc-alkaline
most of these are associated with broadly characteristics of steep REE patterns,
calc-alkaline igneous rocks and appear to be abundant magnetite, and nonevolved trace
subduction related. He notes that the element abundances . The culminating events
" Climax-like" rhyolite porphyries of the of tl!e volcanic center were eruption of a
Winfield prospect (35-38 Ma) formed within high-silica ash-flow tuff and emplacement of
a granodioritic pluton well before initial a dome of topaz rhyolite in the vent. The
rift-related basaltic volcanism C24-26 Ma) . latter hosts a gold-bearing fluorite pipe and
These data would suggest that Climax-type quartz-sericite-pyrite and argillic alteration;
rhyolites and calc-alkaline intermediate precious-metal veins occur adjacent to the
plutons may be comagmatic. A similar vent. Both older (18-21 Ma) and younger
temporal association of broadly calc-alkaline (10-12 Ma) topaz rhyolites occur nearby (Best
magmas (50 to 45 Ma) , topaz-bearing granites et al. , 1992; Best et aI . , 1987) .
and rhyolites (48 Ma) , and a Climax-type Mo Although isotopic signatures of
deposit at Big Ben (48 .5 Ma) , Montana, has Climax-type rhyolites are marginally
been noted by Christiansen et al. (1986) . perrmsslve of purely crustal sources,
The petrogenesis of the igneous rocks well-studied rhyolitic ash-flow systems that
at Climax and Henderson is difficult to erupted a spectrum of cogenetic magma
interpret when generally only high-silica compositions suggest that other interpretations
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS 303

are also possible. For example, the 34 Ma compOSItIon volcanic rocks have relatively
Grizzly Peak Tuff, located approximately 80 uniform initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios of approximately
km southwest of the Climax deposit, varies in 0.7055 (identical to the intermediate lavas of
composition from high-silica rhyolite at the the San Juan volcanic field; Lipman et al. ,
base to low-silica rhyolite at the top of a 1978; Johnson et aI. , 1990). Initial 87Sr/86Sr
single eroded cooling unit; two heterogeneous ratio in the Amalia Tuff increases
tuff layers also contain dacite to mafic latite monotonically with decreasing Sr content
fiamme (Johnson and Fridrich, 1990). Initial from 0.7057 to 0.7098, the Sr-poor tuff
87Sr/86Sr ratios range from 0.7170 to as low as representing the early eruptions . Late-stage
0.7099 and epsilon Nd values vary between roofward assimilation of Proterozoic rocks is
-13.0 and -11.3; similar variations are proposed as the preferred explanation of the
exhibited by Pb and 0 isotopes. Johnson and increasing initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios; convincing
Fridrich (1990) point out that the most mafic evidence of this model is the roofward
composition (57 wt% Si�) is too mafic to be increase in the proportion of zircons with
a partial melt of crustal rocks; this magmatic Proterozoic cores relative to Tertiary zircons
composition is best explained by with no Protero zoic c o res . The
approximately50 wt% crystal fractionation of Mo-mineralized Sulphur Gulch pluton exhibits
basaltic magma, accompanied by 20 to 40 an analogous trend of decreasing initial
wt% assimilation of Proterozoic crust. The 87Srf86Sr ratios (from 0 . 7085 to 0 .7067) with
more silicic portions of the magma were increasing Sr content. The inferred parent
modeled to have formed by crystal (Cabresto Lake pluton) has an initial 87Sr/86Sr
fractionation accompanied by late-stage crustal ratio of 0.7053 (Johnson et aI. , 1990) .
assimilation . Evidence for late-stage Late-stage roofward contamination may also
assimilation included isotopic disequilibrium cause some of the large variations in initial
between whole-rock fiamme and early- and 87Sr/86Sr noted in the Climax, Henderson, and
late-crystallizing phenocrysts separated from Mt. Emmons rhyolites (Stein, 1988). Stein
the same fiamme. They note that without the and Crock (1990) reject that possibility
fortuitous eruption of the more mafic portions because the inferred proportions of wallrock
of the magma chamber, they would have needed to produce the variations are
drawn the erroneous conclusion that the tuff substantially different for the Nd, Sr, and Pb
was generated by 100% crustal melting. The isotopic constraints . However, Johnson et al.
high-silica portion of the Grizzly Peak Tuff (1990) encountered very similar isotopic
would fit all of the isotopic criteria for inconsistencies in modeling the late-stage
derivation from a "Climax-type source" assimilation of the Sulphur Gulch (Questa)
(Stein, 1988; Stein and Crock, 1990), in spite pluton.
of its inferred mantle heritage . Not all high-level magma chambers or
post-caldera plutons show evidence of
Isotopically zoned magma chambers late-stage assimilation. If late-stage roofward
assimilation is a common process in
Plutonic and volcanic rocks related to Climax-type magma chambers, then what
the Questa caldera and porphyry molybdenum process is responsible for causing
deposit also show evidence of derivation from assimilation? Ultimately, the answer is related
chemically and isotopically zoned magma to heat, whether by crystallization or by
chambers. The Questa caldera formed upon underplating or injection of new magma. The
eruption of > 500 km3 of the high-silica fact that Climax-type magmas may show
peralkaline Amalia Tuff (Johnson and consistent isotopic evidence of late-stage
Lipman, 1988). Precaldera intermediate assimilation of roof rocks should not be
304
surprising inasmuch as one of the most widely
recognized characteristics of this deposit type
is the occurrence of multiple intrusions and
ore bodies that are generally emplaced by
assimilation and stoping.
Chondrite-normalized rare-earth
element patterns from Climax, Henderson,
Questa, and Pine Grove (discussed in a later
section) show evidence of some crystallization
and fractionation of the parent magmas
between intrusive units; this could be one
source of heat for assimilation. All four of
these deposits were apparently developed
during the change from subduction-controlled
to extensional tectonics. Thompson et al.
(1991) suggested that extension-related mafic
magma associated with the Rio Grande rift
played a substantial role in extending the life
of "pre-rift" volcanism approximately by 3
m.y. For example, the Sulphur Gulch pluton
(23-25 Ma), which hosts the Questa deposit,
may have evolved from pre-rift magmas that
were kept "alive" by basaltic magmatism
related to rifting (26 Ma). Therefore,
underplated mafic magma at Questa may have
been responsible for the gradual elevation in
initial 87Sr/86Sr associated with roofward
assimilation.
Evidence for extension-related
trachyandesite underplating of the Pine Grove
chamber is perhaps even more conclusive in
substantiating a role for extension-related
magmas. Trachyandesitic magmas were
clearly associated with extensional tectonics
from 22 to 1 8 Ma across the
Pioche-Marysvale volcanic belt.
Trachyandesite magma co-erupted with the
tuff of Pine Grove and intruded the vent just
after final consolidation of the magma
chamber. Keith and Shanks (1988) suggested
that the trachyandesitic magma may have
provided the heat to allow the water-rich Pine
Grove magma to ascend to slightly higher
levels in the crust without solidifying.
White et al. (1981) and Stein and
Crock (1 990) point out that assimilation of
highly radiogenic country rocks around
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
Climax and Henderson could not have been a
very significant magma modifying process.
However, even a trivial amount of
assimilation (0-2 % of Silver Plume Granite,
Bookstrom et aI., 1988) may explain the
monotonic increase in initial 87Sr/86Sr values
between comagmatic rhyolite intrusions. We
do not propose that late-stage assimilation is
adding anything "special" to the magma
chamber, but it may point to a long-lived heat
source at the base of the system that permits
extended crystal fractionation, volatile loss,
and perhaps volatile fluxing without rapidly
solidifying the entire chamber. Isotopic
zonation of the high-level magma chamber
may be one signature of that heat source.
White et al. (1981) also note that
basaltic volcanism is not associated, on a local
scale, with Climax-type systems. However,
felsic rocks at Climax, Henderson, and
Chicago Basin are contemporaneous with
minor volumes of cross-cutting biotite-rich
lamprophyre dikes (Bookstrom, 1981 ;
Bookstrom et aI., 1988). Additionally, mildly
alkaline to transitional basalts (24-20 Ma)
interfmger with basin-fill sedimentary rocks of
the Browns Park Formation west of the
Colorado mineral belt (Thompson et al.,
1991). Bookstrom (1981 ) suggests that the
lamprophyres represent "a different type of
bimodal suite." Some have suggested that
lower thermal input may result in selective
partial melting of less refractory "plums" in a
"plum pudding" mantle with the resulting melt
being isotopically enriched and of alkaline
affinity (Thompson et aI., 1991; Perry et aI.,
1987). Climax, Henderson, aild Chicago
Basin are sufficiently removed from areas of
substantial rifting that rift-related thermal
input may have been low, but sufficient to
extend the life of the magma chambers.
In summary, when only high-silica
rhyolite is erupted or exposed for
examination, the petrogenesis is ambiguous
(Christiansen and Wilson, 1 982; Johnson and
Fridrich, 1990). Inasmuch as high-silica
rhyolitic magmas lie near the ternary
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
minimum, a variety of source materials and
petrogenetic paths may yield essentially the
same bulk composition. We see no reason that
topaz and Climax-type rhyolites could not be
developed by either partial melting of lower
crustal felsic granulite (Christiansen et al. ,
1988; Stein, 1988; Stein and Crock, 1990;
White et aI., 1981), differentiation . of
subduction-related high-K calc-alkaline
magmas (Keith et aI. , 1986; Westra and
Keith, 1981), or extreme fractionation of
rift-related basaltic magma significantly
contaminated by lower crust. However,
rhyolites generated by these processes may not
be equally capable of generating a giant
deposit.
CONCENTRATION AND
TRANSPORTATION MECHANISMS .
Wallace et al. (1968) emphasized that
100-125 km3 of magma is needed to supply
the molybdenum found in the Climax ore
bodies. Carten et al. (1988a) concluded that
enrichment of ore components in tbe .cupola
occurs prior to the onset of crystallization and
that the initial concentration of molybdenum
in the parent magma chamber is not as
significant to ore formation as the type and
duration of processes that deliver
molybdenum to the cupola. Intermingled
barren and productive stocks at Henderson
have the same isotopic composition (Farmer
and DePaolo, 1984) and probably represent
successive draughts from a large, persistent
magma chamber that was contiguous with
each intrusion. Carten et al. (1988a) also
concluded that either variations in residence
time or variations in the efficiencies of
fractionation processes could account for the
intermingling of barren and productive stocks.
Crystallization
Candela (1989a) states that partitioning
of molybdenum into an aqueous phase is most
efficient when an initially dry melt
305
fractionates at shallow depth or when melt
evolves water at great depth, he suggests that
in either case evolution of vapor during
crystallization (second boiling) is more
effective in removing Mo from the melt than
any reasonable first boiling scenario.
However, there is no reason to believe the
Climax -type rhyolitic magmas are dry C 1%
H20) and do not evolve an aqueous phase
until the last few percent of the magma
crystallizes. Keith and Shanks (1988)
documented a high water fugacity and content
for the Pine Grove rhyolites; most rhyolitic
magmas are probably saturated or nearly
saturated with water when they erupt. In
addition, rhyolites that appear to have erupted
from Pine Grove, Questa, Climax, and
Henderson have less than 35% phenocrysts.
The alternative Candela (l989a)
proposes for generating a molybdenum-rich
magma--evolving an aqueous phase at great
depth--may have some application to
crystallization of drier, intermediate-or-mafic
magma at the roots of a stratified magma
system. If buoyant fluids that evolved as a
result of crystallization at depth can extract
molybdenum from the magma they traverse
and then collect efficiently in a high-level
cupola, then they may form a
molybdenum-rich magma and consequently
contribute to ore formation.
Some have proposed that little
additional crystallization or differentiation of
the parent magma chamber occurred from the
time of emplacement of one stock to the next
(Keith and Shanks, 1988; Carten et aI.,
1988a). For example, zirconium and niobium
concentrations are approximately the same for
all stocks at Henderson. However, relatively
constant concentrations of these elements are
perhaps not unusual for metaluminous
magmas; crystal fractionation can occur and
maintain relatively constant values for
zirconium, niobium, and molybdenum.
306
Variations in vapor/melt partitioning
In orthomagmatic hydrothermal fluids,
Mo does not appear to be complexed and
transported with either CI or F; in fact,
Keppler and Wyllie (1991) found that
molybdenum is most strongly partitioned into
an aqueous phase (KD = 5 . 5) when CI and F
are absent. Consequently, if our conclusions
regarding the maximum enrichment, -5 ppm,
of molybdenum in magmas are correct, none
of the experimentally determined vapor/melt
partition coefficients for molybdenum would
produce an extremely molybdenum-rich ore
fluid (one with thousands of ppm Mo) from a
water-rich rhyolitic melt at shallow depths
(Keppler and Wyllie, 1991; Tacker and
Candela, 1987).
Lowenstem et al. (1991) investigated
the copper content of melt inclusions in quartz
phenocrysts from the peralkaline rhyolites
from Pantelleria. They found 3 ppm copper in
matrix glass and in melt inclusions with
fractures to the crystal surface. Non-degassed
melt inclusions contained 20 ppm copper and
melt inclusions that also contained large vapor
bubbles contained up to 300 ppm copper.
They calculated that the vapor/melt partition
coefficients for copper may be well over
1000; this value is much higher than those
determined experimentally ( -50; Candela and
Holland, 1984). Lowenstem et a1. (1991)
propose that the stronger partitioning of
copper into the fluid phase could be due to
more "available CI" in the fluid phase than in
the experiments. This might have been caused
by a high CO2/H20 ratio, rendering He! more
dissociated. They also emphasize that
crystallization-induced volatile saturation
(second-boiling) may not be necessary for the
production of Cu-rich fluids. Exsolved
volatiles were present in pantellerite magma
with only 10% crystals and in rhyolite from
the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes with only
2% phenocrysts (Lowenstem et aI., 1991).
Similarly, there are several reasons
why the vapor/melt partitioning coefficients of
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
molybdenum in natural systems may be
significantly higher than experimentally
determined values. For instance, porphyry
molybdenum systems have f02 conditions of
calc-alkaline rocks (about 2 log units above
NNO) that are well above the f02's
investigated experimentally; the trends of the
experimental data suggest that molybdenum
should be even more strongly partitioned into
the aqueous phase under such high f02
conditions. Candela (1989b) also speculates
that if the oxidation state of molybdenum in
the aqueous phase is higher than in the melt,
then the tendency of molybdenum to enter the
vapor phase may be compounded.
Keith and Shanks (1988) reviewed the
evidence that extension-related trachyandesitic
magmas were episodically injected into the
base of the Pine Grove magma chamber. If
such magmas are injected into the base of a
dacitic or rhyolitic magma chamber, they
would quench or crystallize and release
volatiles that could be fluxed through the
magma chamber. Lamprophyric magmas or
less primitive K -rich mafic magmas that are
generally volatile-rich, may have interacted
with Climax, Henderson, Quartz Hill, and
other porphyry molybdenum systems to
produce similar volatile fluxing.
If such a molybdenum-transporting
magmatic fluid phase existed and was
CO2-rich, then evidence of CO2 in
high-temperature fluid inclusions should
perhaps be found. Linnen and Williams-Jones
(1990) note that aqueous-carbonic fluid
inclusions are common in fluorine-deficient
molybdenum deposits, but are scarce in
fluorine-rich deposits. However, White et a1.
(1981) note that a carbonate daughter mineral
is present in some fluid inclusions from
Henderson. Seedorff (1988) found similar
daughter minerals in fluid inclusions from a
rhodochrosite-bearing alteration assemblage at
Henderson . Thus, CO2-rich fluid inclusions
have been observed at Climax and Henderson,
but are not abundant (Seedorff, 1988; Hall et
al. 1974). Hypersaline fluid inclusions are
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
rare in the F-deficient deposits, but common
in Climax-type systems (Linnen and
Williams-Jones, 1990) . These data suggest
that volatile fluxing by a CO2-rich fluid phase
in Climax-type systems may not be a
significant process.
Analysis of volcanic gas emissions
from active volcanoes indicates that sulfurous
gases are emitted upon the inferred arrival of
new magma at the base of a magma chamber.
At the f02 conditions of calc-alkaline magmas,
S02 and H2S would be present with about
sub-equal fugacities (Whitney, 1988) . The low
solubility of S02 in magmas may allow a flux
of S02-bearing volatiles to rise through a
zoned magma chamber and perhaps scavenge
molybdenum. Molybdenum is not complexed
with sulfur; but the partitioning behavior of
molybdenum relative to a fluid phase that is
rich in an oxidized sulfur species has not been
investigated. Indeed, fluxing of S-rich fluids
through a magma is probably required to
account for large amount of magmatic sulfur
associated with a giant porphyry molybdenum
deposit. The low solubility of sulfur in
high-silica rhyolitic melts argues for such a
process, but mass balance calculations to test
this scenario would involve much uncertainty.
Convection and volatile fluxing
There are several reasons to suspect
that the process of metal enrichment involves
convection and volatile fluxing through a
large volume of the chamber. Keith et al.
( 1986) document that large blocks of
biotite-rich (5-7 %) dacitic magma from the
base of the Pine Grove magma chamber were
rafted to the top of the cupola just prior to the
main episode of ore formation. Individual
blocks are surrounded by rhyolitic magma and
successive intrusions are rhyolitic. Because of
the higher density of dacitic magma relative to
rhyolitic magma, emplacement of dacitic
blocks at the top of a rhyolitic intrusion would
not be expected to occur. One mechanism for
reducing the density of dacitic magma below
307
that of the rhyolite is by exsolution of
volatiles in the dacitic magma. Crystalliiation,
magma mixing, and/or arrival of mafic
magma at the base of the chamber may have
helped create a flux of components with low
solubility such as CO2 or S02; exsolved
bubbles of these gases would contain some
water and other ore constituents such as
molybdenum. Evidence of similarly rafted
blocks in other porphyry systems may often
go unrecognized. As a possible example,
White et al . ( 1 98 1 ) describe a textural variant
of the Late rhyolite at Climax wherein blocks
of biotite-rich (3-5 %) rock, 2 m to 1 cm in
size, occur as inclusions within the mam
phase. Carten et al. (1988a) propose that
convection could augment the transport of ore
components as dissolved or undissolved
volatiles. These data indicate that a stream of
undissolved volatiles could begin at the
deepest levels of the magma chamber.
Central vent architecture
Magmatic volatile collection associated
with both porphyry copper and molybdenum
deposits often appears to be channelled to a
vent associated with prior eruptions; such is
clearly the case with Henderson and Climax.
Although many authors lament the loss of
volatiles and ore constituents associated with
opening a vent, it may be a critical positive
feedback mechanism. Sub�equent volatiles
could be collected from the roof zone by a
single, flaring funnel, eroded into the wall
rocks during eruption. Volatiles collected in
the sub-volcanic pipe could experience a
pressure drop to hydrostatic values more
readily than any other portion of the roof
zone. If the pipe geometry is lacking, then the
ore zone may be more sheetlike extending
along the roof of the chamber as seen at Mt
Tolman (W . Utterback, unpublished report) .
The same volume of magma that could be
"seen" by the vent during eruption may also
be seen during collection of volatiles. The
larger the volume of magma seen by one vent
308
during fluid collection, then the larger, or
higher grade, the deposit could be. Certainly
a single, well-situated vent would be optimal.
Smith (1979) pointed out that central
vent volcanoes do not erupt more than about
100 km3 of ash flow tuff; larger eruption
volumes are related to calderas where multiple
vents are probably involved, as is the case of
the 500 km3 Amalia Tuff expelled from the
Questa caldera. Several resurgent (or slightly
younger) plutons occur along the ring fracture
and elsewhere; all of the intrusions are
variably mineralized with molybdenite
(Johnson et aI., 1989). In addition, the
molybdenite-bearing Sulphur Gulch and Bear
Canyon plutons connect at depth (Leonardson
et aI., 1983), but only the Sulphur Gulch
pluton is ore-grade. Multiple vents or
caldera-related systems may not be as likely to
produce a single giant deposit.
The 10:1 ratio of chamber volume to
eruption volume (Smith, 1979) suggests that
a central vent volcano that erupts the
maximum 100 km3 could "see" no more than
- 1000 km3, but much less may be required
considering that 150 km3 of magma stripped
of 3 ppm of molybdenum would supply all the
metal needed to form the Henderson deposit.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
DEPOSITIONAL SITE
There is no evidence to indicate that
Climax-type systems more efficiently deposit
molybdenum from a magmatic ore fluid than
other types; but they may do it in a smaller
volume of rock t() produce a higher grade.
Carten et al. (l988a) identified one of the
primary controls for the deposition of
molybdenite at Henderson as the presence of
K-feldspar along vein margins. Westra and
Keith (1981) noted a linear correlation
between KzO content of hydrothermally
altered rock and grade, K20-rich stocks may
have equilibrated with a larger volume of
magmatic water prior to consolidation, and
thereby originally contained a greater amount
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
of molybdenum (White et al., 1981).
However, on a fme scale, molybdenite
crystals are preferentially deposited along
K-feldspar crystals relative to quartz or other
minerals. Sericite separates molybdenite from
the K-feldspar. The high modal abundance of
K-feldspar in some Climax-type stocks may
be, in part, a depositional control to their
grade.
Climax-type deposits may also be
high-grade due to deposition from a purely
magmatic aqueous phase that begins
deposition at the magma-wallrock interface.
The ore-fluid for F-deficient deposits may be
a mixture of magmatic and meteoric water
and, at deposits such as Trout Lake, must
have cooled at least a few hundred degrees
prior to mineralization (Linnen and
Williams-Jones, 1990). This amount of
cooling and mixing may result in deposition
over a larger volume of rock resulting in
lower grades. Deposition of molybdenite from
the ore fluid in both Climax- and
F-deficient-type deposits is related to
decreasing temperature and/or pH (Linnen and
Williams-Jones, 1990).
Processes that control the location and
duration of molybdenite deposition from the
aqueous phase would also obviously control
the grade. These would include multiple
stocks forming overlapping ore bodies and
high chemical and thermal gradients around
the stock or pluton.
SUMMARY MODEL AND
EXPLORATION CRITERIA
From the foregoing discussion it is
apparent that the most significant process (or
problem) in the formation of Climax-type
deposits is scavenging a few ppm
molybdenum from a large chamber eventually
to yield an ore fluid with thousands of ppm
molybdenum. A Mo-rich magma would be
formed in the cupola during this process due
to equilibration with the fluid after its arrival
and prior to release during mineralization.
SEG SP-2 GIANT ORE DEPOSITS
The following processes appear to have acted
together to produce a molybdenum-rich cupola
of magma:
1. Crystallization along the walls or
floor of the magma chamber would
account for the gradually reduced REB
content of the magma between
successive intrusions. The successively
deeper U-shaped REE patterns are not
unique to Climax-type systems, but
have been noted in comagmatic
intrusions from other non-mineralized
granitoids (Johnson et al. , 1989) .
Gradual accumulation of water and
fluorine along the chamber roof may
lower the s o li du s , prevent
cry s ta l l i z a ti o n , and p er m i t
assimilation.
2. Underplated or injected mafic
magmas may play several roles. They
may melt the lower crust and mix with
lower crustal melts to provide an
oxidized magma i n which
molybdenum would b eh a v e
incompatibly during fractionation.
They may provide heat for: a)
convective transport of dissolved and
undissolved volatiles to the cupola, b)
assimilation of roof rocks and the
cores of older stocks, c) extension of
the life of the chamber to allow
generation of a large volume of
rhyolitic magma and emplacement of
multiple intrusions. They may also
supply some flux of less soluble,
especially sulfurous, gases.
Examination of the histories of most
volcanoes reveals that they tend to be complex
rather than simple, with the common
occurrence of repeated injections of magma,
storage of magma at different levels, and
magmatic degassing occurring during periods
of relative quiescence or activity. Ore deposits
would be far more common if simple passive
309
crystallization of modestly water-rich magma
near the surface produced an ore deposit. In
terms of increased complexity beyond simple
crystallization of cupola magma, this model
only suggests that convection aids the
transport of volatiles produced by
crystallization along the walls and floor and
from underplated mafic magma. The
processes of convection and volatile fluxing
may have helped transform Mo-poor magma
(3 ppm) into Mo-rich magma ( > 1000 ppm),
an enrichment that otherwise would be
impossible by crystal fractionation alone.
Similar processes may have operated in the
parent magma chambers of many porphyry
Mo systems, although the evidence for these
processes often cannot be found in
mineralized cupolas alone. Geochemical data
reviewed here suggest that initially high
incompatible trace element abundances may be
much less a "cause" of mineralization than the
above processes. However, fluorine and water
may be important positive feedback
parameters; as their concentrations increase,
they reduce the viscosity of the magma and
allow more rapid convection and accumulation
of ore fluid components in the cupola.
Exploration criteria for a giant,
high-grade deposit include:
1 . a tectonic setting that indicates a
changeover from compressional to
extensional tectonics,
2. thick continental crust at the time of
deposit formation may encourage
extreme differentiation and crustal
contamination,
3 . an isotopically zoned magma
chamber indicative of a long-lived heat
source,
4. a large, sub-volcanic, central-vent
ash flow/dome system that erupted less
than 100 km3 of rhyolite, and
3 10
5 . high niobium concentrations ( > 75
ppm) in a subalkaline ,
magnetite-bearing rhyolite.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Reviews of this paper by J. F. H.
Thompson and A . H. Clark are gratefully
acknowledged. We appreciate the patience and
helpfulness of the editors - especially Ben
Whiting. This work was supported by NSF
grant EAR-8904774 to JDK.
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