Fiqry Darwansyah - Boyle1970 Geochemical Prospecting

Earth-Science Reviews - Elsevier Publishing Company - Printed in The Netherlands
G E O C H E M I C A L P R O S P E C T I N G - - A R E V I E W OF ITS STATUS A N D
FUTURE
R. W. BOYLE AND R. G. GARRETT
Geological Survey o f Canada, Ottawa, Ont. (Canada)
The problem of prospecting for mineral resources

is essentially a geochemical one.
A. E. FERSMAN
SUMMARY
A brief review of the history of geochemical prospecting is given and the

various methods are described and discussed. The present and future applications
are mentioned, with discussion of the advantages and drawbacks. Emphasis is
laid on the ever-increasing future possibilities for the utilization of chemical
methods. An extensive review of the relevant literature is given.
INTRODUCTION
Geochemical prospecting is the practical application of geochemical and

biological principles and data in the search for mineral deposits and accumulations
of hydrocarbons. The methods are direct and have generally proved most successful
when applied in conj unction with geological and geophysical exploration techniques.
In the past, prospecting has largely been confined to areas of outcrop in the
mineralized belts of the world, and most discoveries of orebodies have resulted
where their surface expressions were visible. This is also generally true of the
great oil and gas fields since these too have usually been indicated by oil seeps,
gas jets, and other visual evidence. Today the visual phase of prospecting is rapidly
passing, and most new orebodies and oil fields will be found under surficial
deposits or deeply buried in the rocks.
Geochemical prospecting will play an ever increasing role in the discovery
of hidden ore deposits and accumulations of hydrocarbons. The methods need no
longer be "sold" since it has now been generally recognized that they are the on13
direct approach to the problems of mineral, oil, and natural gas exploration.
Regardless of how geophysical methods may develop they will always remain
indirect since they are based on secondary or induced properties of the elements
or their minerals. Geological exploration methods, likewise, while of inestimable
value, will always lack focus. This focus can only be given by the application of
chemical methods, particularly analyses. It is nearly axiomatic to say that chemical
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

52 R. W. BOYLE AND R. G. GARRETT
methods used in a variety of ways will continually assist in locating buried deposits
of ores and hydrocarbons and will also point out those bodies, both rocks and
waters, containing low concentrations of the elements, that will become the
orebodies of the future.
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING
It is difficult to pinpoint the actual beginning of geochemical prospecting

methods since these have grown rather irregularly with advances in the chemical
and geological knowledge of the earth. Both chemistry and geology have long
histories that stretch far back into antiquity, and as might be expected, suggestions
a~ to how chemistry can be applied in the search for concentrations of the elements
have been advanced since early times. Georgius Agricola in his De Re Metallica
published in Basel in 1546 makes frequent reference to the use of springs, natural
waters, float trains, and various other natural chemical phenomena in prospecting
for veins. One can also read many interesting references in the writings of the early
Chinese and the medieval and later European writers about the early lore of
geochemical prospecting, especially those concerning float trains and the ability of
certain plants to indicate mineral deposits. These and other references to early
geochemical prospecting are discussed briefly by BOYLE (1967) and BOYLE and
SMITH (1968). The idea of using dissolved substances in natural waters (hydro-
geochemical methods), float and mineralized particles in soils and other surficial
deposits (pedogeochemical methods), and plants (biogeochemical methods) to
trace and locate mineral deposits is an ancient one. Present day geochemical
prospecting methods simply employ modern chemical and biological techniques
to accomplish what prospectors have been doing for five hundred years or more.
The techniques of modern geochemical prospecting had their origin mainly
in the U.S.S.R. and Scandinavian countries where extensive research on methods
was carried out in the late thirties of the present century. After the second world
war the various methods were introduced into U.S.A., Canada, Great Britain, and
other countries, where they have since been used extensively in mineral and petro-
leum exploration programs both by mining and government agencies.
The modern methods of geochemical prospecting owe their rapid develop-
ment in the 20th century to the following:
(1) Recognition of the nature of primary and secondary dispersion halos
and trains that are associated with all mineral deposits. Halos and trains have been
known to be associated with mineral deposits for centuries, but the data on their
precise nature were scattered and not systematized. Detailed work on halos and
trains was carried out in U.S.S.R. and Scandinavian countries in the late nineteen-
thirties and early forties by numerous investigators. The extensive early work done
in the U.S.S.R. was collated by FERSMAN (1939) in his Geochemical and Minera-
logical Methods of Prospecting for Mineral Resources. Most of the Swedish work,
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING 53
carried out by S. Palmquist and N. Brundin for the Swedish Prospecting Company,
was done mainly for private companies and has not been published. The Nor-
wegian work, much of which was carried out by Thorolf Vogt and his colleagues
in the Roros district, has been published in a series of papers (see the references
in HARBAUGH, 1953). Early Finnish investigations were described by RANKAMA
(1940). Work done on halos and trains in recent years is discussed in the publica-
tions referred to in later sections.
(2) Development of accurate and rapid analytical methods utilizing the
spectrograph and the various specific sensitive colorimetric reagents, especially
dithizone (diphenylthiocarbazone). Kirchhoff and Bunsen founded the science of
optical spectroscopic analysis in 1859, and Assar Hadding first employed X-ray
spectrography in chemical analysis in 1922. Both methods have given immeasurable
service in geochemical prospecting. Dithizone was first prepared in 1878 by Emil
Fischer, who noted that its reactions with heavy metals gave brilliantly coloured
products. No analytical use, however, was made of it until 1925, when Hellmut
Fischer demonstrated its particular use in estimating the amounts of various trace
metals in substances. Since then, dithizone and many other similar organic com-
pounds have been widely used in geochemical analyses and geochemical prospecting.
Actually, dithizone methods approach the limits obtainable by spectrography,
and in some cases they surpass them.
(3) Development of resins and polyethylene laboratory ware of all types.
Polyethylene and similar laboratory ware permits greater freedom in field analyses
and reduces the incidence of contamination. The introduction of resins for the
production of metal-free water for use in trace analysis requires no comment.
(4) Development of atomic absorption spectroscopy. This method was
developed largely by A. Walsh in Australia. Because of its speed, sensitivity, and
relative freedom from interferences, the method permits the rapid analysis of
rocks, soils, waters, and biological materials in both field and established labora-
tories for a great variety of elements present at low concentrations. It has super-
ceded many colorimetric techniques.
(5) Development of gas chromatography. This is probably the most signifi-
cant development as regards the rapid analysis of traces of hydrocarbons in
petroleum prospecting, using rocks, soils, and waters. The method permits the
determination of various hydrocarbons in the parts per billion range. Early work
on geochemical prospecting for petroleum using soils and other materials began
simultaneously in Germany and U.S.S.R. in the early thirties. This work utilized
bulky fractionating and condensation apparatus with low sensitivity. The intro-
duction of gas chromatography in recent years has speeded the analytical work
many fold and has permitted greater latitude in analysis, particularly in the use
of field units.
(6) Assessment of geochemical prospecting data by statistical and computer
methods. This has permitted a better evaluation of the background and threshold
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

values for the elements determined in the surveys and has facilitated the analysis
and portrayal of elemental patterns on an areal and three dimensional basis.
LITERATURE OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING
Despite its relatively short existence, geochemical prospecting has a large

literature that is scattered through many publications in most languages. Summaries
of most of these papers appear in the sections of Chemical Abstracts dealing with
mineralogical and geological chemistry, petroleum, and water and in the Mineral
Exploration Section of Referativnyi Zhurnal Geologiya. Abstracts of most geo-
chemical papers up to June 1957 can also be found in U.S. Geological Survey
Bulletins 1000-A, 1000-G, and 1098-B.
Several symposia on geochemical prospecting have been held and the papers
published. Of interest are the reports and abstracts for the Symposia on Applied
Geochemistry at the XX, XXI, and XXIII sessions of the International Geological
Congress published for the meetings in Mexico City, Copenhagen, and Prague
r e s p e c t i v e l y (LOVERING et al., 1958; MARMO and PURANEN, 1960; and TUGARINOV
and GRIGORIAN, 1968). The Transactions of the All-Union Conference on Geo-
chemical Methods of Prospecting for Ore Deposits, Moscow, edited by KRASNIKOV
(1957), the Transactions of the Conference on Geochemical Methods of Prospecting
for Oil and Gas Deposits by the Academy of Sciences U.S.S.R. (SoKoLOV, 1959),
the proceedings of the seminar on geochemical prospecting methods and techniques
held by the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East at
Bangkok, Thailand (UNITED NATIONS, 1963), the papers given on geochemical
prospecting at the Ottawa symposium edited by CAMERON(1967), and those given
at the Denver Symposium (CANNEY, 1968) contain a variety of information on
methods and the results of various types of surveys. Regional geochemical surveys
are discussed in a recent symposium volume edited by NOAKES (1962) for the
British Commonwealth and by WENNERVIRTA(1968) for Finland.
A number of textbooks and summary articles on geochemical prospecting
have appeared in recent years. Those of particular interest are by HAWKES(1957);
GINZBURG (1960); HAWKESand WEBB (1962); SAUKOV (1963); MAEYUGA(1964);
and KVALHEIM(1967). The principal book on geochemical prospecting for petro-
leum and natural gas is by KARTSEVet al. (1959).
Previous reviews on geochemical prospecting include those by HAWKES
(1950, 1959); BOYLE(1967); CLEWS (1968) and BOYLE and SMITH (1968). Good
reviews on geobotany and plant indicators of mineral deposits are those by CAR-
LISLE and CLEVELAND(1958); SYKORA (1959); TKALICH(1959); COLE (1965) and
DOUGLAS (1968).
Earth-Sei. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

REVIEW OF ADVANCES IN GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING METHODS
Geochemical prospecting surveys can be based on any of the materials of

the five spheres of the earth, viz. lithosphere (rocks), pedosphere (soils, till, and
other surficial materials), hydrosphere (natural waters), atmosphere (gases), and
biosphere (living organisms and their fossil equivalents). The methods fall under
the names - - lithogeochemical, pedogeochemical, hydrogeochemical, atmogeo-
chemical, and biogeochemical. Each of these are discussed briefly in turn.
Lithogeochemical methods
These methods are based mainly on the analysis of rocks or on particular
minerals in rocks. They may be carried out on a reconnaissance or detailed local
basis. The aim of reconnaissance work of this type is to outline geochemical
provinces whose country rocks contain higher than normal amounts of particular
elements. The general thought behind this type of work is that these geochemical
provinces may contain concentrations of the particular elements or hydrocarbons
in belts or zones which are familiarly called metallogenetic provinces. The detailed
local work aims to outline primary dispersion halos which are associated with most
types of mineral deposits and accumulations of hydrocarbons.
The effectiveness of rock analyses carried out over considerable stretches
of terrain to outline geochemical provinces appears to depend on several factors,
particularly the frequency of the rock outcrops and the types of deposits in the
terrane. To be effective the rock types must be clearly distinguished, and geochemi-
cal maps for each of the rock types must be prepared.
Few large scale lithogeochemical surveys over extensive terranes have been
done in any country with perhaps the exception of the U.S.S.R., and in general
the results of such surveys have not yet been published. One survey done by the
Geological Survey of Canada over an area of 25,000 sq. miles in northwestern
Ontario and published by HOLMAN (1963) dealt with the copper content of bed-
rocks. He found a strong lithological control that tended to obscure smaller and
more subtle variations in the distribution of copper induced by other causes such
as mineralization. Another regional survey of mineralized Cambrian rocks, carried
out by the Geological Survey of South Australia, in the eastern Mount Lofty
Ranges in South Australia (NoAKES, 1962) was based on twelve hundred composite
rock samples analysed spectrochemically for Ag, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn.
Rocks were chosen in the survey as the sampling media because there was a
shortage of drainage channels in the area, and rock sampling was preferred to soils
to avoid the concentrating and leaching effects of weathering. The results show
that there is a marked association of Cu, Pb, and Zn with the sedimentary facies.
Superimposed on this pattern there are regional variations in the trace element
content which probably indicate a primary sedimentary environmental control.
From other surveys carried out by private companies alluded to in the
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

literature, or with which the writers are familiar, it is apparent that geochemical
provinces are important in prospecting. Thus, certain clusters of granitic intrusives
exceed the norm in their contents of tin and have associated tin and tungsten
deposits. Others have higher than normal amounts of molybdenum and copper
and have associated molybdenum and copper deposits. Still other granitic and
gneissic terranes are relatively high in uranium and contain segregations, pegmatites,
and other bodies that are greatly enriched in uranium. Likewise, certain basic
intrusives with higher than average contents of nickel, platinum metals, and
chromium may have associated nickel-platinum and chromite deposits. These
relationships also extend to certain sediments enriched in copper, such as the
Kupferschiefer, the copper shales of Zambia, and those in Michigan at White Pine.
Certainly, carbonate rocks with abnormal amounts of lead and zinc may also
contain deposits of these two metals. The relationship of geochemical provinces
and associated deposits can also probably be extended to various types of rocks
such as copper-bearing amygdaloidal basalts, gold- and uranium-bearing quartz-
pyrite conglomerates, etc.
For a variety of other metals and non-metals, particularly those occurring
in veins and massive sulphide deposits, such as silver, lead, zinc, gold, and copper,
the relationship between the type and content of metals in the deposits and those
in their enclosing country rocks is obscure to say the least. Judging from the trace
element surveys done by one of the writers in Canada at Yellowknife, Northwest
Territories (BOYLE, 1961), Keno Hill, Yukon (BOYLE, 1965), Walton, Nova Scotia
(BOYLE, in press), and in the Bathurst-Newcastle district of New Brunswick, there
are no definite elemental patterns in the country rocks that suggest the presence
of metal-bearing deposits in these areas. The contents of metals in the country
rocks do not reflect the types of deposits present - - there are neither above-normal
amounts of the metals in the rocks, such as should occur if the metals were intro-
duced from outside, nor below-normal depletions of the metals such as might
obtain if the metals were secreted from the rocks. This is an enigma which only
further geochemical research will resolve. Perhaps the metal content of rocks
containing certain types of epigenetic deposits differs only by infinitesimally
smaller or larger amounts from those that are barren, and these differences may
appear only after sophisticated statistical treatment of the analytical results. In
passing, it should be noted that many terranes in which epigenetic deposits occur
contain black schist or shale belts that are generally considerably enriched in most
of the chalcophile elements. These can be readily outlined in broad scale litho-
geochemical surveys. Such rocks may be the source of many of the elements in the
epigenetic deposits. Other rocks such as quartzites, acid and basic volcanics, or
limestones in the same environment appear in many cases to be the receptacle
rocks which contain fractures or are chemically susceptible to replacement. A
knowledge of the distribution of these two types of rocks, one the source of
elements and the other a receptacle for deposition of minerals, may be useful
Earth-Sei. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

in prospecting, particularly in planning other types of geochemical surveys.

Detailed lithogeochemical surveys have not as yet received the attention
that they deserve in prospecting for mineral deposits or accumulations of hydro-
carbons. Most surveys of this type seek to outline primary halos, which when found
are examined in greater and greater detail with the object of zeroing in on the
mineral deposits or accumulations of hydrocarbons which give rise to the halos.
Primary halos are of great importance in discovering deeply buried deposits,
particularly those that lie in well defined structural settings, porous zones, or
structural and stratigraphic traps. These deposits frequently manifest themselves
by up-dip leakage halos that can be outlined by surface rock sampling or by
sampling of diamond drill cores.
Some detailed work has been done on primary halos in the past and has
proven most effective. According to the writers' information several companies
in the United States and Canada have become more interested in such surveys,
and the results reported verbally have been most encouraging. Recent surveys
carried out at Cobalt, Ontario (BOYLE et al., 1969) show conclusively that the
native silver veins in this area can be located by carefully following the primary
halos. In most cases in the Cobalt sediments the elements As, Mo, Co, Ni, Ag, Cu,
Pb, Zn, and Hg increase consistently as one approaches the vein clusters. This
increase can in many cases be ob_~erved at distances of 50 to 100 ft. from the vein
clusters. In diabase, however, the primary halo is restricted and can only be
observed at distances of 10 ft. or so from the veins. Research in U.S.S.R. and other
countries on primary halos associated with massive sulphide and other types of
deposits indicates that geochemists are now directing their attention to these
halos in prospecting (TUGARINOV and GRIGORIAN, 1968). It is of interest to note
that some of the primary halos associated with massive pyritic deposits in the
Urals, Caucasus, and Altai of the U.S.S.R. are quite extensive both laterally and
vertically - - they project above the orebodies for distances up to a kilometer in
steeply dipping structures and are hundreds of meters to several kilometers in
lateral extent.
Considerable research on primary halos is desirable to place the methods
on a good footing for practical geochemical prospecting. We require detailed
information on the nature and extent, particularly the up-dip characteristics, of
primary halos associated with all types of mineral deposits and accumulations of
hydrocarbons. Such research can effectively be done for thesis requirements at
universities, but companies and exploration syndicates have an obligation here
as well to develop techniques for discovering deeply buried deposits in all types of
geological terranes.
Pedogeochemical methods
These methods are based on analyses of soils, till and other glacial materials,
and on weathered residuum of all types. They may be carried out on a reconnais-
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

sance or detailed local basis. The aim of reconnaissance pedogeochemical surveys

is to outline belts or zones containing mineral deposits or accumulations of
hydrocarbons. Once these are discovered the detailed methods are used, often in
conjunction with geological and geophysical work, to pinpoint individual mineral
deposits or oil and gas pools.
Both reconnaissance and detailed local pedogeochemical surveys have found
wide usage in practically all geological terranes of the world under the most varied
of climatic conditions. Numerous mineral belts have been defined and new deposits
have been located both in entirely new mineral belts and in those that have been
known for many years.
The techniques of pedogeochemical surveys are so well known that they
need no comment here. In general the B horizon of the soil has been used extensive-
ly, but deep drilling and sampling near bedrock has been employed in many areas
of transported overburden. In permafrost areas covered by glacial overburden
deep drilling methods are most effective and have resulted in the discovery of
new orebodies in the Galena Hill area of Yukon, Canada (Van Tassel, in CANNEY,
1969). The use of the A horizon (Ao or humic horizon) has found wider usage in
many parts of Canada and is recommended after preliminary work in ascertaining
which horizons give the best response (BOYLE and DAss, 1967). The humic horizon,
if well developed, represents the total of many biochemical and geochemical events
that lead to a major enrichment of the metals in many cases, especially in the
vicinity of veins and other types of deposits. A sample of the humic horizon is,
therefore, much more representative of the total environment than one from
other horizons of the soil or overburden.
Hydrogeochemical methods
These methods are based on analyses of natural waters and their precipitates
and on stream sediments. The methods are particularly adapted to reconnaissance
surveys and have proved invaluable in localizing mineral belts in many parts of
the world under a variety of climatic conditions. Analyses of stream sediments in
particular have resulted in the discovery of numerous types of deposits in eastern
and western Canada, United States, Ireland, Australia, East, Central, and West
Africa, and U.S.S.R. The methods for stream sediments are inexpensive and have
now reached a routine status in mineral exploration.
Water analyses have not been employed as extensively as stream sediment
analyses mainly because of difficulty in analysing for metals other than zinc in
the field and also because waters tend to exhibit fluctuations with rainfall and
season. Nevertheless, recent reconnaissance surveys over large areas in Yukon,
Canada, by GLEESON (1965) and in New Brunswick, Canada, by BOYLE et al. (1966)
have shown that water surveys are almost as effective for outlining mineralized
zones as are stream sediment surveys. With the introduction of atomic absorption
methods for numerous elements in water analyses and better ways of collecting
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51 75

and transporting water samples, we should expect to see this medium used much
more extensively in geochemical surveys than formerly. When this is done it would
seem that the scope for the use of many of the more mobile elements will broaden.
In this respect it is interesting to note that cobalt, one of the elements thought to be
relatively immobile will probably become quite useful in detecting various deposits
containing the element (CANNEY and WING, 1966; BOYLE et al., 1969).
Surveys of the underground water systems in overburden and rock have not
yet been employed to any extent mainly because a considerable amount of drilling
on a grid system is generally involved. Such methods, however, offer promise in
searching for deeply buried deposits, as suggested by Goleva (in TUGARINOV and
GRIGORIAN, 1968), since the water halos in overburden and rocks generally reflect
such deposits. We require much more research in these methods, especially as
regards sampling techniques and ways of ascertaining the direction of flow of
waters far below the surface. Sampling of underground waters deep within the
rocks also offers a method, relatively unexplored, for prospecting for accumulations
of hydrocarbons. In these methods the oil and gas pools may be reflected by the
content of hydrocarbons in the water, by isotopic variations of sulphate, by their
salinity, or by the presence of constituents such as nickel, cobalt, and other elements.
Natural precipitates at the orifices of springs offer a unique media for analysis,
since they invariably reflect the elements that are concentrated in a geological
terrane. Surveys with which the writers are familiar or have carried out show
beyond a doubt that natural spring precipitates reflect the presence of particular
deposits in a geological terrane. Examples have now been clearly differentiated
for deposits of gold, silver, cobalt, nickel, copper, manganese, iron, lead, and
zinc. The best indicator precipitates are those containing manganese because of its
high adsorptive power for cations, but precipitates of limonite, carbonates, and
silica are, likewise, of considerable value. Geochemical prospectors should pay
particular attention to all types of natural precipitates and should have them
analysed wherever they are found. Plotted on drainage maps or on maps of the
underground water system of an area, these analyses often clearly mark zones or
belts of mineralization where other types of geochemical surveys can be utilized
to pinpoint the orebodies.
E h - p H measurements in natural waters have been carried out on a research
basis for many years, but the data have not yet been extensively applied to geo-
chemical prospecting, pH measurements seem best adapted to geochemical work
and should reflect acid zones of oxidation of sulphide deposits under the appropriate
conditions where neutralizing rocks such as limestones are absent. The trouble
with trying to apply Eh and pH measurements is that they are influenced by
so many factors that are generally unknown without a large amount of investigative
work. HANSULD (1967) has given an excellent review of Eh and pH in mineral
exploration, especially as these parameters influence the mobility of various
elements in natural waters, soils, and other media.
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

60 R. W. BOYLEAND R. G. GARRETT
Sulphate and other anionic constituents in natural waters have received

some attention in recent years, but in general, correlation of the results both on
the basis of individual constituents and on ratios of two or more constituents have
been somewhat disappointing as regards geochemical prospecting. It would seem,
however, that further research is advisable, especially as regards the sulphate
content of waters since oxidizing sulphide deposits yield vast quantities of sulphate
to underground and surface waters. Much more research is also required on the
relationship of various anionic constituents and their ratios in oil field waters to
oil and gas deposits.
Biogeochemical methods
These methods employ several bases for their effective utilization. One
method uses the trace element content of trees and other vegetation in outlining
secondary dispersion halos in soil and overburden. Another method utilizes the
deleterious or toxic effect of an overabundance of trace elements in the soil which
cause visible physiological effects in vegetation or diminish or inhibit the growth
of various species of plants. Still another method uses the fact that certain plants,
known as indicator plants, grow in zones where trace elements such as zinc,
copper, etc. are present in superabundance. Other biogeochemical methods are
based on the fact that bacteria and other organisms grow profusely where hydro-
carbons and other substances are concentrated in the rocks, soil, or overburden.
Biogeochemical methods based on the trace element content of vegetation
have received much attention mainly from a research viewpoint, but they have
not received the attention they deserve by exploration geologists. The reason for
this is probably the fact that soils and stream sediment methods have proven so
effective that there has been little inclination to try other methods. That plant
analyses will prove to be of considerable importance in geochemical prospecting
is amply shown by recent papers on the subject by FoRTzscuz and HORNBROO~:
(1967) and WARREN et al. (1968). The latter authors have shown that Douglas Fir
is capable of absorbing and holding, in its ash, more arsenic in terms of p p m
than the soil in which it grows. This fact should prove valuable in geochemical
prospecting for deposits containing arsenic minerals, particularly those of copper,
lead, zinc, gold and silver.
Surveys based on indicator plants seem to give the best results in unglaciated
areas. Much work on indicator plants and on those species tolerant to excesses of
certain elements has been done by Helen Cannon and her colleagues in the United
States Geological Survey (CANNON, 1957) during the uranium boom of the early
1950's. While Cannon found no specific uranophile species of plants in the
Colorado Plateau she noted that certain selenium-indicator and sulphur-indicator
plants, and those encouraged by high contents of available calcium and phosphate
may, however, indicate the presence of certain types of u r a n i u m - v a n a d i u m -
selenium deposits. In glaciated terrains the use of indicator plants has so far not
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51 75

GEOCHEMICALPROSPECTING 6l
proven encouraging. USlK (in press), after studying the distribution and mor-
phological features of 165 plant species, could find no plants indicative of miner-
alization at two copper prospects and one molybdenum prospect in central
British Columbia.
Relatively little research on microbiological techniques has been carried
out on soils and rocks with the express intention of utilizing microflora and fauna
in the search for mineral deposits. We know, however, from various studies
(KuZNETSOV, 1962; and KUZNETSOV et al., 1963) that various specific types of
bacteria flourish in sites where sulphides and sulphates are abundant, and it
would seem that this fact could be utilized in prospecting for sulphide deposits.
Research on population counts of sulphur and other types of bacteria in waters,
soils, and rocks in the vicinity of mineral deposits, in conjunction with hydro-
geochemical, pedogeochemical, lithogeochemical, and isotopic studies could prove
rewarding.
A tmogeochemical methods
These methods in the strict sense utilize gases as the medium of analysis.
More generally they comprise analyses of the more volatile of the elements in
nature such as mercury, arsenic, antimony, iodine, etc. Since the natural gases and
more volatile elements and compounds in nature migrate considerable distances
from their focus of accumulation, the halos which they produce are generally
broad and extensive.
Analyses of gases have found considerable application in petroleum pros-
pecting, a feature that is discussed in more detail in a later section. Analyses of
gases in the search for mineral deposits have been suggested for many years, but
only recently has the method caught the attention of the practical geochemist.
It appears that hydrocarbons are associated with a variety of mineral deposits,
including massive sulphide ores, lead-zinc ores in carbonate rocks, copper ores,
nickel ores, and diamond-bearing kimberlites, and that analyses of these hydro-
carbons in soils and rocks may aid in the discovery of deposits (McCLusKY, 1968).
Sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and other gases may be liberated during
the oxidation of sulphide orebodies, a feature that perhaps could be utilized in
soil and overburden analyses. As far as the writers are aware this aspect of atmo-
geochemistry has not yet been adequately tested. The method requires research
and development.
Radon (Rn-222) has been effectively used in geochemical prospecting for
uranium deposits utilizing soils and waters for a number of years in Europe
(SHCHERBAKOV, 1958; MAKKAVEEV, 1960; WENNERVIRTA and KAURANEN, 1960;
TURAIN, 1961; GRIMBERT and LORIOD, 1967). Recently the method has been
introduced into Canada by DYCK and SMITH (1968). They found that streams and
creeks were generally higher in radon than lakes, and that the gas generally out-
lined prospective uranium areas on a reconnaissance basis.
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

62 R.W. BOYLEAND R. G. GARRETT
Halos produced in rocks, soil, and overburden by the more volatile elements
such as mercury, arsenic, antimony, and iodine have been intensively investigated
in recent years in a number of countries. Surveys based on the dispersion of mer-
cury are particularly good for locating various deeply buried types of sulphide
deposits and other deposits containing barite, cinnabar, etc. (BERet, 1965; SUTHER-
LAND BROWN, 1967; FRIEDRICH, 1968). Arsenic and antimony have found wide
usage in soil, stream sediment, and biogeochemical surveys as indicator elements
for gold, silver, and various sulphide deposits in many parts of the world. Iodine
is mentioned by A. I. Tugarinov (in TUGAR~NOV and GRIGORIAN, 1968) as being
a suitable indicator for certain copper deposits since it forms extensive halos.
In concluding this section it should perhaps be emphasized that analyses of
the more volatile components of the earth offer a great vista in future methods of
geochemical prospecting. Methods based on gas chromatography are as yet only
at the introductory stage of development. They promise a great future.
Other geochemical methods for mineral deposits

Heavy mineral surveys have long been used in prospecting and in the past
have led to discoveries of gold, tin, tungsten, platinum, lead-zinc-silver, and other
types of deposits. Modern techniques still use panning methods but are followed
by detailed mineralogic, spectrographic, or other analyses of the elemental con-
stituents of the heavy residues. Numerous surveys and research projects based on
analyses of heavy minerals and ore boulders in soils, overburden, and stream
sediments have been described in the literature. Those described by DREIMANIS
(1958); McCARTNEY and McLEoD (1965); BRUNDIN (1967) and LEE (1963, 1965,
1968) are particularly applicable to glaciated areas. A recent survey carried out
by BOYLE et al. (1968) on the minor and trace element distribution in the heavy
minerals of rivers and streams in northern New Brunswick, Canada, shows that
the elemental anomalies in the heavy mineral fraction are mainly coincident with
those in the stream sediments and water.
In recent years there has been considerable discussion and some research
on airborne methods to detect concentrations of the elements. Examples are
airborne gamma-ray spectrometry to detect areas containing uranium and thorium,
correlation spectroscopy to determine sulphur dioxide and other gases associated
with oxidizing orebodies, airborne neutron activation methods for a variety of
elements, laser techniques combined with spectrographic methods, and infra-red
photography to detect changes in vegetation induced by abnormal concentrations
of elements in the soils, overburden, and waters. At our present state of knowledge
nearly all of the methods, especially those based on spectrometry, lack focus and
are beset with so many imponderables that they cannot yet be said to be effective
methods of detailed prospecting. They may, however, prove to be useful in out-
lining broad geochemical provinces in which more conventional methods of geo-
chemical prospecting can be used to pinpoint orebodies.
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51 75

GEOCHEMICALPROSPECTING 63
Isotopic methods based on the distribution of lead, sulphur, and other

isotopes may be of interest in geochemical prospecting. As noted by BOYLE(1968),
in a recent publication on silver, the distribution of the silver isotopes in all types
of deposits appears to be rather uniform, and there does not seem to be any way
of using silver isotopic data in prospecting at the present time. Lead isotopic data
may, however, be useful in some areas in the search for lead-silver deposits. For
instance, certain large silver-bearing deposits such as the Sullivan and Broken
Hill are characterized by relatively uniform lead isotopic ratios indicating Pre-
cambrian (or somewhat younger) ages, whereas satellitic deposits in the general
area have variable isotopic ratios that are usually anomalous. The reasons for
these differences are unresolved at our present state of knowledge, but they may
be due to different modes of concentration and precipitation of the lead minerals.
Whatever the causes, if anomalous lead isotopic ratios are found in lead veins in
an area, consideration should be given to the possibility of the occurrence of large
massive lead sulphide deposits with uniform ratios in the same mineralized belt.
The reverse relationship may also be true in places. Admittedly these considerations
are highly speculative, but they are worthy of some thought.
Another possibility exists in differentiating sulphides and sulphates that are
present in or related to orebodies. Boyle and his colleagues, in a publication to
appear in the near future, have found that the sulphur isotopes in the lead-zinc-
silver deposits of the Keno Hill-Galena Hill area, Yukon, differ markedly from
those in adjacent country rocks. The sulphur in the ore is much lighter (enriched
in S-32) than that in the country rocks. The sulphur in the supergene sulphates
and in the underground and spring waters leaching orebodies, also reflects this
difference. If one analyzes the waters isotopically for sulphur it is possible to
differentiate those which are in contact with orebodies from those that are not.
Sulphur isotopes may also be used to differentiate gold-bearing areas from
those that are barren at Goldfield, Nevada, according to J~NSEN et al. (1968).
Areas barren of gold at Goldfield exhibit secondary alunite while primary alunite
is associated with auriferous zones. The primary alunite is greatly enriched in S-34,
whereas the secondary alunite by comparison is enriched in S-32.
Finally, man's best friend, the dog has recently been pressed into service
to locate mineral deposits by sniffing out boulders of ore occurring in the dispersion
trains and fans of sulphide deposits. These living "scentillometers" can apparently
be trained to become quite sensitive to sulphur dioxide and other gases associated
with oxidizing sulphides and are said to be quite effective in Finland. One Canadian
company has recently been experimenting with dogs, but the results of their work
have not yet been released.
Geochemical prospecting for petroleum

Modern geochemical prospecting methods using gases collected from soils
to locate accumulations of petroleum were employed in 1929 by LAUBMEYER(1933)
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

64 R . W . BOYLE AND R. G. GARRETT
in Germany and Rumania and simultaneously in U.S.S.R. by SOKOEOV (1933).

Slightly later ROSAmE (1940) and others in the United States introduced new
practices by analyzing soil samples rather than the gases collected from the soil
air. Since these initial efforts, methods based on the gas, bitumen, and other
hydrocarbon content of soils, glacial overburden, rocks, ground waters, and oil
field waters and on the distribution of the microflora and microfauna that utilize
hydrocarbons in their metabolic processes have been developed, principally in the
U.S.S.R. Early gas and other hydrocarbon analyses were largely carried out by
bulky fractionating and condensation apparatus with low sensitivity. Today most
hydrocarbon analyses are accomplished with gas chromatographs or mass spectro-
graphs having very high sensitivities in the parts per billion range.
Geochemical methods for locating petroleum and natural gas accumulations
have generally met with considerable scepticism in the United States and elsewhere,
despite the fact that some oil fields have been found by the methods. Because of
this, research has lagged in the methods, and they have not been widely used in
U.S.A. and Canada. In the U.S.S.R. they appear to be employed with considerable
success.
More detailed accounts of the history of the development of geochemical
prospecting methods for hydrocarbons are contained in the papers by HORVITZ
(1939); PmSON (1940); ROSAIRE (1940) and in the monograph by KARTSEV et al.
(1959).
There is a great paucity of information in the literature on the application,
success, or failure of geochemical methods in petroleum and natural gas prospecting.
A recent reviewer (MEYER, 1965) commenting on the methods said "Geochemical
methods have long and usefully been applied to the search for various metallic
deposits, but these methods are of questionable value m petroleum exploration. At
present they are little used in the United States, and there is no conclusive evidence
that they have ever been applied successfully. However, geologists of the Soviet
Union have claimed many successes by the use of geochemical methods. These
successes may possibly result from better methodology, but it appears that many
of the deposits were first found by other methods and were then shown to be
associated with geochemical anomalies".
The senior author recalls similar pessimistic statements about geochemical
methods for mineral deposits when they were first being introduced into the U.S.A.
and Canada in the late forties. Fortunately, certain geologists in mining exploration
companies took an interest in the methods for which they have been amply repaid.
Petroleum geologists appear to be a sceptical and ultra-conservative group - - it is
high time that they took a closer look at what geochemistry has to offer in the
way of prospecting for hydrocarbons. Judging by the hit and miss manner in
which petroleum prospecting is carried out it would seem that geochemical
methods could give a better focus for drilling in many places if the proper types of
geochemical surveys were conducted in conjunction with geological and geophysi-
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6(1970) 51-75

cal work. Survey methods and extremely sensitive apparatus are now available
for the use and analysis of hydrocarbons in every type of geological media. Inter-
pretation of the results of hydrocarbon surveys lag, however, for the want of
appropriate research. Even bacteriological surveys may assist in petroleum
prospecting, since certain strains of bacteria that oxidize hydrocarbons, particu-
larly propane, grow profusely in zones where micro seeps mark accumulations of
petroleum and natural gas at depth. Maps of the population counts of such
bacteria show anomalies which may mark the outlines of pools or oil-bearing
structures. By drilling such anomalies the Russians claim to have had some
success in locating petroleum deposits.
Recent researches of interest on geochemical prospecting for petroleum are
those by SIKKA (1959); NYSSEN et al. (1966) and DEBNAM (1969). Sikka found
that radon gave a partially developed "halo effect" on the flanks of the Redwater
oil pool in Alberta that appeared to be related to fracture systems. He used the
results of the Redwater survey to interpret data from the Ten Section Oilfield in
California and the L'Assumption Prospect in Quebec. NVSSEN et al. (1966) used
mobile laboratories equipped with gas desorbers and chromatographs for the
determination of hydrocarbons in alluvial material and rock in the Colomb-
Bechar concession in the Sahara of Africa. They found that propane anomalies
reflect major structures rather than accumulations of petroleum. Debnam chose
various oil and gas fields in Ontario and Alberta, Canada, for study and found
characteristic anomalies in the overburden in both areas in the concentrations of
ethane, propane, butanes, and pentanes. Each of the "halo" (doughnut shaped
halos centered on the hydrocarbon accumulations) and "solid" (concentrations
of hydrocarbons directly over the accumulations) types of anomalies were rec-
ognized. He concluded that the geochemical method can be a valuable addition
to the usual geological and geophysical exploration methods if used under favour-
able circumstances.
Analytical methods
The foremost advances in analytical methods in geochemical prospecting
are the introduction of atomic absorption spectrometry and gas chromatography.
Methods in atomic absorption are described in detail by ROBINSON (1966) and
ANGINO and BILLINGS(1967), and a review of the subject is given by LEWIS (1968).
Valuable papers on atomic absorption and other spectrographic methods can also
be found in the volume of papers given at the XIII Colloquium Spectroscopicum
lnternationale, Ottawa, published by Adam Hilger Ltd., London. Methods in gas
chromatography are discussed in many publications and books. A good reference
is by JEFFERY and KIPPING (1964). Reviews of theory and techniques are given by
NOGARE and JUVEV (1966) and PURNELL (1967).
The most definitive books to appear on rapid methods of trace analysis are
by WARD et al. (1963) and STANTON(1966). Methods and reviews or comparisons
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

66 R.W. BOYLEAND R. G. GARRETT
of methods for molybdenum, copper, nickel, barium, silver, gold, uranium,

mercury, thorium, platinum, palladium, bismuth, tellurium, and cesium have been
given by PERRY (1960); HUFV et al. (1961); BLOOM (1962, 1966); HAWKES (1963);
CRUFT (1964); MARSHALL(1964); WARD and McHUGH (1964); BROBST and WARD
(1965); LAKIN and NAKAGAWA (1965); MAY and JENKINS (1965); NAKAGAWA and
LAKIN (1965); DINNIN and WORTHING (1966); HINKLE et al. (1966); HUFFMAN
et al. (1966); BARAKSO (1967); BEEVERS (1967); GRIMALDI and SCHNEPFE (1967,
1968); THOMPSON (1967); WARD and NAKAGAWA (1967); BARNETT et al. (1968);
JENNE et al. (! 968); MOUNTJOY and WAHLBERG(1968); NAKAGAWA and THOMPSON
(1968); PLAMONDON (1968) and THOMPSON et al. (1968). In addition to these the
Geological Survey of Canada has published a number of methods for zinc, lead,
copper, arsenic, antimony, uranium, hydrocarbons, and tin in its paper series
"Field and laboratory methods used by the Geological Survey of Canada in geo-
chemical surveys".
The possibility of applying neutron activation analysis of rock or soil in situ
for the exploration of silver deposits is outlined by HOVTE et al. (1967). They
describe two types of mobile units suitable for silver exploration. Laboratory and
preliminary field tests both indicate that a sensitivity of less than 1 ounce of silver
per ton of ore can be achieved with the field units.
The application of statistical methods to data interpretation

The data of geochemistry are inherently numerical, and it is the task of the
geochemist to relate these data to features of the environment from which the
samples analysed were drawn. This task is far from simple as the samples are in
many cases mixtures of material from a number of sources. This problem is least
severe in the case of lithogeochemical data and most severe in the cases of hydro-
geochemical and atmogeochemical data.
For a particular element, radical, or compound each feature of the environ-
ment is characterised by a population of data having a discrete mean and variance.
The task of interpretation is either to isolate data drawn from a certain population
associated solely with an economic concentration of some mineral or to isolate
data drawn from a larger population of which only part is related to an economic
mineral concentration.
For many years this interpretative process has been carried out more or less
empirically with little recourse to the statistical analysis of data. Histograms and
cumulative frequency plots were, and still are, used in the first stages of inter-
pretation to determine if the data are multimodal or unimodal and to aid in the
selection of contour intervals for the plotting of single element geochemical maps.
These same histograms and cumulative frequency plots also lead at a very
early stage to the recognition that in many cases the data are log-normally
distributed. It may be speculated, however, that this log normal distribution
is not a real feature of the data but is due in some cases to errors in
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

some of the analytical techniques employed, especially spectrometric methods.

Thus in the early history of geochemical prospecting the interpretation of
data was largely empirical, subjective, and an art only acquired through experience.
Since 1963 statistical analysis of a more rigorous nature, coupled with other
mathematical methods, has been investigated by numerous workers. The advent
of the high speed digital computer had much to do with the introduction of these
techniques to exploration geochemistry. The early work, and much of the present
research, is being carried out in universities and by government agencies. Herein
lies a contrast with the petroleum exploration industry which has pioneered much
of the research in the applications of numerical techniques in the broad field of
geology and geophysics. Unlike the petroleum industry, the mining industry, with
a few notable exceptions, has been very slow to realise the potential of these
techniques as an aid to exploration.
The methods of statistical analysis may be divided into two groups. Firstly,
univariate methods, which are applicable to a single element or radical, and
secondly, multivariate methods which are applicable to two or more elements or
radicals.
Before sophisticated statistical analysis techniques can be used it is necessary
to assess the quality of the data (MIEsCH, 1964, 1967). In particular one must
know whether the sampling and analytical errors associated with an investigation
are significantly small in terms of the overall data variance. The sampling and
analytical variances may be estimated by various forms of replicate sampling and
analysis, and the variances can then be used in an analysis of variance to determine
if they are significantly smaller than the overall data variance. The methods are
described in geological terms by GRIrFITHS (1957); MILLE~ and KAHN (1962) and
KRUMBEIN and GRAYBILL (1965), and in general statistical terms by numerous
writers including ANDERSON and BANCROFT (1952); SNEDECOR (1956); COCHRAN
and Cox (1957) and DIXON and MASSEY (1957).
The univariate forms of data analysis fall into two groups - - firstly, methods
which investigate the areal distribution of data, and secondly, those methods which
investigate the data from the viewpoint of causal influences on the observed
population.
The areal distribution of data may be studied in a number of different ways.
The data may be smoothed by a moving average technique, called a rolling mean
by some workers. This method has a number of advantages and disadvantages
when compared with various surface fitting techniques based on least square fits
of mathematical functions. The two most common functions are the Fourier and the
polynomial. The advantage of the moving average is that it is not based on any
a priori mathematical assumptions as to the form of the underlying trends in the
data. A severe disadvantage is that autocorrelation is introduced, and the moving
average distorts the magnitude and position of the natural maxima and minima
of the data. Two further paths are open - - firstly, to only contour the data thus
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

68 R . W . BOYLE AND R. G. GARRETT
preserving the natural maxima and minima by the use of an interpolating function,
and secondly, to write equations for curve fitting on geological grounds. These
geologically-oriented functions are finite, and each term is present for a discrete
geological reason. However, this procedure often leads to non-linear models,
but is nevertheless the most realistic form of surface fitting. Once a model is
established the data are used to test it, and if the fit is not sufficiently good, extra
terms may be added and the model then retested. This procedure continues until a
satisfactory fit is obtained, and the areal variability is explained.
Some of these techniques have, and are being used, by exploration geo-
chemists. Polynomial surface fitting has been used by CONNOR and MIESCH (1964);
NORDENG (1965); NICHOL et al. (1966) and NACKOWSKI et al. (1967) to determine
trends in exploration analytical data. Good reviews and bibliographies of the
applications of polynomial surface fitting to geological data have been published
by KRUMBEIN and GRAYBILL (1965) and AGTERBERG (1967). Moving averages
have been used by CONNOR and MIESCH (1964) and NICHOL et al. (1966, 1969).
Interpolation methods were used by BAYROCK and PAWLUK 0967); the methods
being described by NEWTON (1968) and SMITH 0968).
Surface fitting, using a Fourier series or a geologically oriented function,
has to the authors' knowledge not yet been carried out by exploration geochemists.
However, the application of geologically-oriented functions to the problems of
glacial dispersion of metals in till is presently being investigated by one of the
authors. A further technique presently unused in exploration geochemistry is the
autocovariance function. This method attempts to determine the direction of the
areal trends in the data by ascertaining the direction of maximum correlation, and
thus minimum variance, in the data across a map-area. A review of the literature
on this subject has been published by AGTERBERG(1967). A major drawback in
this method of data analysis is that sample points have to be regularly spaced on a
grid, a feature that in practice is often difficult to achieve.
To the authors' knowledge only one paper has been published on the problem
of relating univariate data to causal effects. The method described by DAHLBERG
(1968) uses a Monte Carlo technique for simulating results on the basis of a number
of geochemical populations each related to distinct processes active in the environ-
ment. Thus, the method requires a priori knowledge of the processes, a feature
which makes it distinctive amongst those univariate methods used to date.
Multivariate statistical analysis is one of the most powerful tools available
for the processing of data. Three forms of analysis have been used to the authors'
knowledge, cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, and factor analysis.
Cluster analysis can be used to group samples or variables together which
show either considerable affinity in their elemental content or in their response
to causal stimuli. Except for a paper by H o w o (1964) on jasperoids, no other
examples of the application of this work to exploration have been published. The
authors, however, know of several workers who have investigated the technique
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

with varying degrees of success. The method is described by KRUMBEINand GRAY-

BILL (1965).
Discriminant analysis can be used to test whether data belongs to one of
two or more populations. A priori knowledge is required to employ this technique
because the data must be divided into groups in order to set up the discriminant
function. Once this function has been established further data may be classified
into one of the groups. As an example we may take a series of rocks from barren
areas and a series from areas with economic mineral potential. Analyses of the
rocks of these two series could constitute the two groups used to establish a
discriminant function. Further samples from an exploration area can then be
analysed and classified by the use of decision theory into either the barren or
potentially mineralized group (CAMERON, 1969). A few examples of the use of
discriminant functions in exploration have been published. Notable among these
are those by EMERY and GRIFFITHS (1954); GRIFFITHS (1957) and CAMERON (1969).
A general description of the method with geological examples is given by KRUM-
BEIN and GRAYBILL (1965).
Factor analysis is a technique by which the interrelations within a set of
data can be studied and used to divide the data into a number of groups. Two
modes of factor analysis have been used in the interpretation of exploration geo-
chemical data - - the Q-mode which studies the interrelations between samples
and attempts to establish a set of end members by which the data variability may
be described, and the R-mode in which the intercorrelations of the variables are
studied and used to establish a new set of parameters with which to describe the
data variability. These new parameters are more closely related to the geochemical
processes active in the environment than the original measured variables. The latter
form of factor analysis would appear from the junior author's experience to have
the greater potential. A number of examples of factor analysis of geochemical
data have been published. Q-mode analysis of stream sediment reconnaissance
data is described by NICHOL et al. (1966). The R-mode analysis of data from a
variety of sources is described by McCAMMON (1966); KLOVAN(1968) and GARRETT
and NICHOL (1969).
In summary, one can say that generally the univariate methods commonly
used are aimed at elucidating areal trends in the data either by extracting a trend
mathematically or by objectively contouring the data and then extracting any
trends by eye. The multivariate techniques can be divided into two groups, those
which require a priori information and those which do not. Discriminant analysis
falls into the former group, whereas cluster and factor analysis falls into the
latter. However, all the multivariate techniques attempt to divide the data into
groups which can then be related by the geochemist to features of the natural
environment. In addition, both discriminant and factor analysis lead to results
that can be treated by the univariate methods for studying areal trends. In the
junior author's experience it has been these last two techniques which have aided
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

most in increasing the efficiency and objectivity of the interpretation of multi-

element geochemical data by manipulating the raw data into a form more closely
related to the natural processes dominant in the environment.
The statistical techniques described are not new to the field of science;
some are over 50 years old. The geologist, however, has only become aware of
these powerful tools within the last decade. The introduction of statistical analysis
to the broad field of geology is forcing the investigator to become more critical
of his sampling and analytical procedures and to raise his work from the level of a
sophisticated art to that of a real science. This increase in self-criticism at all stages
of the data acquisition process, i.e., sampling, analysis, and interpretation, coupled
with the greater degree of objectivity offered by the statistical method, can only
improve the standard of our work and quality of our interpretation.
CONCLUSIONS
We have traced the brief history and the modern developments in geo-
chemical prospecting up to 1968. Methods for using all types of geological media
are available for use in geochemical surveying, and these have been used extensively
in mineral exploration programs. They have resulted directly and indirectly in the
discovery of many types of ore deposits in varied climates and geological terranes.
Methods for geochemical prospecting for petroleum have been developed, but
these have not reached the potential they promise. It is to be hoped that petroleum
geologists will take greater interest in geochemistry in the future. We feel the
results which will accrue will amply repay their efforts.
REFERENCES
AGTERBERG,F. P., 1967. Computer techniques in geology. Earth-Sci. Rev., 3(1): 47-77.
ANDERSON, R. L. and BANCROFT, T. A., 1952. Statistical Theory in Research. McGraw-Hill,
New York, N.Y., 399 pp.
ANGINO, E. E. and BILLINGS, G. K., 1967. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry in Geology.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 372 pp.
BARAKSO, J. J., 1967. Geochemical field kit for the determination of trace amounts of molybdenum.
Econ. Geol., 62: 732-736.
BARNETT,P. R., SKINNER,D. L. and HUFFMAN,C., 1968. Determination of gold, platinum, and
palladium by a combined fire-assay, ion exchange, and spectrochemicaltechnique. U.S.,
Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 600-C: 161-163.
BAYROCK, L. A. and PAWLUK, S., 1967. Trace elements in tills of Alberta. Can. J. Earth Sci.,
4(4): 597-607.
BEEVERS, J. R., 1967. A method for the determination of the gold content of samples by solvent
extraction and atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Econ. Geol., 62: 426428.
BERCI~, B., 1965. The use of mercury in geochemical prospecting for mercury. Econ. Geol., 60:
1516-1528.
BLOOM, H., 1962. Field methods for the determination of nickel using dimethylglyoxime. Econ.
Geol., 57: 595-604.
BLOOM, H., 1966. A field method for the determination of silver in soils and rocks using dithizone.
Econ. Geol., 61: 189-197.
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

BOYLE, R. W., 196l. The geology, geochemistry, and origin of the gold deposits of the Yellow-
knife District. Can., Dep. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Mem., 310:193 pp.
BOYLE, R. W., 1965. Geology, geochemistry, and origin of the lead-zinc-silver deposits of the
Keno Hill-Galena Hill area, Yukon Territory. Can., Dep. Mines Teeh. Surv., Geol.
Surv. Can., Geol. Surv. Bull., 111 : 302 pp.
BOYLE, R. W., 1967. Geochemical prospecting--retrospect and prospect. Trans. Can. Inst. Mining
Met., 70: 1-6.
BOYLE, R. W., 1968. The geochemistry of silver and its deposits. Can., Dep. Mines Tech. Surv.,
Geol. Surv. Can., Geol. Surv. Bull., 160:264 pp.
BOYLE, R. W., 1969. The geology, geochemistry, and origin of the barite, manganese, and
lead-zinc-copper silver deposits of the Walton-Cheverie area, Nova Scotia. Can., Dept.
Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Geol. Surv. Bull., in press.
BOYLE, R. W. and DASS, A. S., 1967. Geochemical prospecting--use of the A horizon in soil
surveys. Econ. Geol., 62: 274-276.
BOYLE, R. W., DASS, A. S., CHURCH, D., MIHAILOV, G., DURHAM, C., LYNCH, J. and DYCK, W.,
Research in geochemical prospecting methods for native silver deposits, Cobalt area,
Ontario, 1966. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Paper, 67-35.
BOYLE, R. W., SHAFIQULLAH, M., DURHAM, C. C., TUPPER, W. M., ERIEDRICH, G., ZIAUDDIN, M.,
CARTER, M. and BYGRAVE, K., 1968. Minor and trace element distribution in the heavy
minerals of the rivers and streams of the Bathurst-Jacquet River district, New Brunswick.
Can. Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Paper, 67-45:9 pp.
BOYLE, R. W. and SMITH, A. Y., 1968. The evolution of techniques and concepts in geochemical
prospecting. In: E. R. W. NEALE (Editor), The Earth Sciences in Canada. University of
Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont., pp.117-128.
BOYLE, R. W., TUPPER, W. M., LYNCH, J., FRIEDRICH, G., ZIAUDDIN, M., SHAFIQUALLAH, M.,
CARTER, M. and BYGRAVE,K., 1966. Geochemistry o f P b , Zn, Cu, As, Sb, Mo, Sn, W, Ag,
Ni, Co, Cr, Ba, and Mu in the waters and stream sediments of the Bathurst-Jacquet
River District, New Brunswick. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., GeoL Surv. Can., Paper,
65-42:50 pp.
BROSST, D. A. and WARD, F. N., 1965. A turbidimetric test for barium and its geologic application
in Arkansas. Econ. Geol., 60: 1020-1040.
BRUNDIN, N. H., 1967. Study of heavy minerals in glacial soils. In: E. M. CAMERON (Editor),
Proceedings, Symposium on Geochemical Prospecting, Ottawa, April 1966. Can., Dept.
Mines Tech. Surv., GeoL Surv. Can., Paper, 66-54: 267.
CAMERON, E. M. (Editor), 1967. Proceedings, symposium on geochemical prospecting, Ottawa,
April, 1966. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Paper, 66-54:282 pp.
CAMERON, E. M., 1969. Regional geochemical study of the Slave Point carbonates, western
Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci., 6(2): 247-268.
CANNEY, F. C. (Editor), 1969. International Geochemical Exploration Symposium; Colo. School
Mines Quart., 64(I): 520 p.
CANNEY, F. C. and WING, L. A., 1966. Cobalt: useful but neglected in geochemical prospecting.
Econ. GeoL, 61: 198-203.
CANNON, H. L., 1957. Description of indicator plants and methods of botanical prospecting for
uranium deposits on the Colorado Plateau. U.S., Geol. Surv., Bull., 1030-M: 399-516.
CARLISLE,D. and CLEVELAND,G. B., 1958. Plants as a guide to mineralization. Cali[i Div. Mines,
Spec. Rept., 50:31 pp.
CLEWS, D. R., 1968. Geochemistry--present and future. Mining Can., April: 46.
COCHRAN, W. G. and Cox, G. M., 1957. Experimental Designs. Wiley, New York, N.Y.,
618 pp.
COLE, M. M., 1965. The use of vegetation in mineral exploration in Australia. Proc. Gen., Common-
wealth Mining Met. Congr., 8th, Australia New Zealand, 6: 1429-1458.
CONNOR,J. J. and M1ESCH, A. T., 1964. Analysis of geochemical prospecting data from the Rocky
Range, Beaver County, Utah. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 475-D: D79-D83.
CRUFT, E. F., 1964. Trace element determinations in soils and stream sediments by an internal
standard spectrographic procedure. Econ. Geol., 59: 458-464.
DAHLBERG, E. C., 1968. Application of a selective simulation and sampling technique to the
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

interpretation of stream sediment copper anomalies near Slough Mountain, Pennsylvania.

Econ. Geol., 63(4): 409-417.
DEBNAM, A. H., 1969. Geochemical prospecting for petroleum and natural gas in Canada. Can.,
Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Geol. Surv. Bull., 177:26 pp.
DINNIN, J. I. and WORTrtING, H. W., 1966. Determination of microquantities of mercury in
sulfide ores by Penfield tube--dithizone and semiquantitative spectrographic methods.
U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 550: C220-C223.
DIXON, W. J. and MASSEV, F. J., 1957. Introduction to Statistical Analysis. McGraw-Hill, New
York, N.Y., 488 pp.
DOUGLAS, J. S., 1968. Geobotany: a valuable aid in prospecting and mining. Mining Mag.,
118(2): 93-95.
DREIMANIS, A., 1958. Tracing ore boulders as a prospecting method in Canada. Bull. Can. Inst.
Mining Met., 51: 73-80.
DvcK, W. and SMXTrt, A. Y., 1968. Use of radon-222 in surface waters for uranium geochemical
prospecting. Can. Mining J., April: 100-103.
EMERY, J. R. and GRIFFITHS, J. C., 1954. Differentiation of oil bearing from barren sediments by
quantitative petrographic analysis. Producers Monthly, 19(2): 33-37.
ERmSON, J. E., 1957. Geochemical prospecting abstracts, July 1952-December 1954. U.S., Geol.
Surv., Bull., 1000-G: 357-395.
FERSMAN, A. E., 1939. Mineralogical Methods of Prospecting for Mineral Resources. Acad. Sci.
U.S.S.R., Moscow, 446 pp.
FOR'rESCUE, J. A. C. and HORNBROOK, E. H. W., 1967. Progress report on biogeochemical research
at the Geological Survey of Canada, 1963-1966. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol.
Surv. Can., Papers, 67-23. (Part I): 143 pp. (Part II, in press).
FRIEDRICH, G., 1968. Mercury as an ore guide for deeply buried mineral deposits. In: A. I.
TtJGARINOV and S. V. GRIGORIAN (Editors), Geochemical and Geophysical Prospecting
for Deep Seated Deposits-- Intern. Geol. Congr., 23rd, Prague (see Tugarinov and
Grigorian below), pp. 27-28.
GARRETT, R. G. and NICHOL, I., 1969. Factor analysis as an aid in the interpretation of regional
geochemical stream sediment data. In: F. C. CANNEr (Editor), International Geochemical
Exploration Symposium. Colo. School Mines Quart., 64(1): 245-264.
GINZBURG, I. I., 1960. Principles of Geochemical Prospecting. Pergamon, London, 311 pp.
GLEESON, C. F., 1965. Heavy metal content of stream and spring waters, Keno Hill-Galena Hill
area, Yukon. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Geol. Surv. Maps, 18-1964,
20-1964, 22-1964, 24-1964, 26-1964, 28-1964, 30-1964.
GRIFFITHS, J. C., 1957. Petrographical investigation of the Salt Wash sediments. U.S. At. Energy
Comm., RME-3151:37 pp.
GRIMALDI, F. S. and SCHNEPFE, M. M., 1967. Determination of palladium in the parts-per-billion
range in rocks. U.S., GeoL, Surv., Profess. Papers, 575C: 141-144.
GmMALDI, F. S. and SCHNEI'FE, M. M., 1968. Determination of palladium and platinum in rocks.
U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 600-B: 99-103.
GRIMBERT, A. et LORIOD, R., 1967. La prospection g6ochimique d6taill6e de l'uranium. In: E. M.
CAMERON (Editor), Proceedings, Symposium on Geochemical Prospecting, Ottawa, April,
1966. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Paper 66-54: 167-171.
HANSULO, J. A., 1967. Eh and pH in geochemical prospecting. In: E. M. CAMERON (Editor),
Proceedings, Symposium on Geochemical Prospecting, Ottawa, April, 1966. Can., Dept.
Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Paper, 66-54: 172-187.
HARBAUGH, J. W., 1953. Geochemical prospecting abstracts through June 1952. U.S., Geol.
Surv., Bull., 1000-A: 1-50.
HAWKES, H. E., 1950. Geochemical prospecting for ores. In: P. D. TRASK (Editor), Applied
Sedimentation. Wiley, New York, N.Y., pp.537-555.
HAWKES, H. E., 1957. Principles of geochemical prospecting. U.S., Geol. Surv., Bull., 1000-F:
225-353.
HAWI':ES, H. E., 1959. Geochemical prospecting. In: P. H. ABELSON (Editor), Researches in
Geochemistry. Wiley, New York, N.Y., pp.62-78.
HAWKES, H. E., 1963. Dithizone field tests. Econ. Geol., 58: 579-586.
Earth-Sol. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

LIAWKES,H. E. and WEBB, J. S., 1962. Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration. Harper and Row,
New York, N.Y., 415 pp.
HINKLE, M., LEONG, K. W. and WARD, F. N., 1966. Field determination of nanogram quantities
of mercury in soils and rocks. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 550-B: 135-137.
HOLMAN, R. H. C., 1963. Copper in bedrock. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can.,
Geol. Surv. Maps, 50-1963-56-1963.
HORVITZ, L., 1939. On geochemical prospecting. Geophysics, 4: 210-228.
HowD, F. H., 1964. The taxonomy p r o g r a m - - a computer technique for classifying geologic
data. In: Computers in the Mineral Industries, Part A. Colo. School Mines Quart., 59(4):
207-222.
HOYTE, A. F., MARTINEZ,P. and SENFTLE,F. E., 1967. Neutron activation method for silver
exploration. Trans. AIME., 238: 94-101.
HUFF, L. C., LOVERING, T. G., LAKIN, H. W. and MYERS, A. Z., 1961. A comparison of analytical
methods used in geochemical prospecting for copper. Econ. Geol., 56: 855-872.
HUFFMAN, C., MENSIK, J. D. and RADER, L. F., 1966. Determination of silver in mineralized rocks
by atomic-absorption spectrophotometry. U.S., Geol. Surv.,Profess.Papers, 550-B: 189-191.
JEFFERY, P. G. and KIPPING, P. J., 1964. Gas Analysis by Gas Chromatography. MacMillan, New
York, N.Y., 216 pp.
JENNE, E. A., CHAO, T. T. and HEPPTING, L. M., 1968. Use of mercurous chloride to recover
trace amounts of gold from waters. Econ. Geol., 63: 420~21.
JENSEN, M. L., MAUGER, R. L., ALBERS, J. and ASHLEY, R. P. 1968. Primary and secondary
sulfates as ore guides at Goldfield, Nevada. Lab. Isotope Geol., Dept. GeoL Geophys.
Sci., Univ. of Utah Ann. Rept., pp.56-64.
KARTSEV, A. A., TABASARANSKII, Z. A., SUaBOTA, M. I. and MOGILEVSKII, G. A., 1959. Geo-
chemical Methods of Prospecting and Exploration for Petroleum and Natural Gas. Univ.
California Press, Berkeley, Calif., 349 pp. (translation from Russian).
KLOVAN, J. E., 1968. Selection of target areas by factor analysis. Western Miner, 41 (2): 44-54.
KRASNIKOV, V. I. (Editor), 1957. Geochemical Prospecting Jbr Ore Deposits. Gosgeoltekhizdat,
Moscow, 467 pp. (in Russian).
KRUMBEIN, W. C. and GRAYBILL, F. A., 1965. An Introduction to Statistical Methods in Geology.
McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 475 pp.
KUZNETSOV, S. I. (Editor), 1962. Geologic activity of microorganisms. Trans. Inst. MicrobioL,
9 : 1 1 2 pp.
KUZNETSOV, S. I., IVANOV, M. V. and LYALIKOVA, N. N., 1963. Introduction to Geological Micro-
biology. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 252 pp.
KVALHEIM, A. (Editor), 1967. Geochemical Prospecting in Fennoscandia. Interscience, New York,
N.Y., 350 pp.
LAKIN, H. W. and NAKAGAWA, H. M., 1965. A spectrophotometric method for the determination
of traces of gold in geologic materials. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 525-C: 168-171.
LAUBMEYER, G., 1933. Eine neue geophysikalische Schurfmethode insbesondere fiir Kohlen-
wasserstoff-Lagerstatten. Petroleum, 29(18): 1~,.
LEE, H. A., 1963. Glacial fans in till from the Kirkland Lake fault: a method of gold exploration.
Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can,, Paper, 63-45:36 pp.
LEE, H. A., 1965. Investigation of eskers for mineral exploration. Can., Dept, Mines Tech. Surv.,
Geol. Surv. Can., Paper, 65-14:20 pp.
LEE, H. A., 1968. An Ontario kimberlite occurrence discovered by application of the glaciofocus
method to a study of the Munro esker. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., GeoL Surv. Can.,
Paper, 68-7:3 pp.
LEWIS, L. L., 1968. Atomic absorption spectrometry--applications and problems. Anal. Chem.,
40(12): 28A-47A.
LOVER1NG, T. S. (Coordinator), 1958. Symposium de exploracion geoquimica. Intern. Geol.
Congr., 20th, Mexico, 1956, 725 pp.
MAKKAVEEV, A. A., 1960. Problems and methods of radiohydrogeological exploration--radon
from ores and rocks. Tr. Inst. GeoL Nauk, Akad. Nauk Belgorussk. S.S.R., 2: 209-215.
MALYUGA, O. P., 1964. Biogeochemical Methods of Prospecting. Consultants Bureau, New York,
N.Y., 205 pp. (translation from Russian).
Earth-Sei. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

MARK'vVARD, E. L., 1961. Geochemical prospecting abstracts, January 1955-June 1957. U.S.,
Geol. Surv., Bull., 1098-B: 57-160.
MARMO, V. and PURANEN, M. (Editors), 1960. Geological results of applied geochemistry and
geophysics. Intern. Geol. Congr., 21st, Copenhagen, 1960, Rept. Session Norden, 2(2):
215 pp.
MARSHALL, N. J., 1964. Rapid determination of molybdenum in geochemical samples using
dithiol. Econ. Geol., 59: 142-148; 63: 291.
MAY, I. and JENKINS, L. B., 1965. Use of arsenazo Ill in determination of thorium in rocks and
minerals. U.S., Geol. Surv., Papers, 525-D: 192 195.
MCCAMMON, R. B., 1966. Principal component analysis and its application in large scale correla-
tion studies. J. Geol., 74(5): 721-733.
MCCARTNEY, W. D. and McLEOD, C. R., 1965. Preliminary application of heavy mineral analyses
to metallogeny of Carboniferous areas, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Can., Dept.
Mines Tech. Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Papers, 64-29:9 pp.
McCLusKY, J. B., 1968. Gases and exploration. Mining Can., April: 45.
MEYER, R. F., 1965. New methods for oil exploration. Anal. Chem., 37(7): 27A-37A.
MIESCH, A. T., 1964. Effects of sampling and analytical error in geochemical prospecting. In:
Computers in the Mineral Industries, 1. Stanford Univ. Pabl., Geol. Sci. 9(1): 156-170.
MIESCH, A. T., 1967. Theory of error in geochemical data. U.S., Geol. Surv.,Profess. Papers,
574-A: 17 pp.
MILLER, R. L. and KAHN, J. S., 1962. Statistical Analysis in Geological Sciences. Wiley, New
York, N.Y., 483 pp.
MOUNTJOY, W. and WAHLBERG, J. S., 1968. Determination of micro amounts of cesium in
geologic materials. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 600-B: 119-122.
NACKOWSKI, M. P., MARDIROSIAN, C. A. and Bo'rBOL, J. M., 1967. Trend surface analysis of
trace chemical data, Park City District, Utah. Econ. Geol., 62(8): 1072 1087.
NAKAGAWA, H. M. and LAKIN, H. W., 1965. A field method for the determination of silver in
soils and rocks. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 525-C: 172-175.
NAKAGAWA,H. M. and THOMPSON, C. E., 1968. Atomic absorption determination of tellurium.
U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 600-B: 123-125.
NEWTON, R., 1968. Deriving contour maps from geological data. Can. J. Earth Sci., 5(1): 165-166.
NICHOL, 1., GARRETT, R. G. and WEBB, J. S., 1966. Automatic data plotting and mathematical
and statistical interpretation of geochemical data. In: E. M. CAMERON(Editor), Proceedings,
Symposium on Geochemical Prospecting, Ottawa, April, 1966. Can., Dept. Mines Tech.
Surv., Geol. Surv. Can., Paper, 66-54: 195-210.
NICHOL, |., GARRETT, R. G. and WEBB, J. S., 1969. The role of some statistical and mathematical
methods in the interpretation of regional geochemical data. Econ. Geol., 64: 204-220.
NOAKES, L. C., 1962. Liaison Symposium on Regional Geochemistry in the British Commonwealth
1962, by Commonwealth Geological Surveys. British Commonwealth Geological Liaison
Office, London, 82 pp.
NOGARE, S. D. and JUVET, R. S., 1966. Gas chromatography. Anal. Chem., 38(5): 61R-79R.
NORDENG, S. C., 1965. Application of trend surface analysis to semi-quantitative geochemical
data. In: J. C. DOTSON and W. C. PETER (Editors), Computers in the Mineral Industries, 1.
College of Mines, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., pp. 1-36.
NYSSEN, R., VAN EGGELPOEL, A. et GODARD, J. M., 1966. Contribution ft. la g6ochimie de surface
sur le permis de Colomb-B6char (Sahara). In: G. D. HOBSON and M. C. Louis (Editors),
Advances in Organic Geochemistry, 1964. Pergamon, Oxford, pp. 303 315.
PERRY, J. K., 1960. A new geochemical method for the determination of molybdenum in soil and
rock. Econ. Geol., 55: 1232-1243.
PIRSON, S. J., 1940. Critical survey of recent developments in geochemical prospecting. Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petrol Geologists, 24(8): 1464-1474.
PLAMONDON, J., 1968. Rapid determination of uranium in geochemical samples by paper chro-
matography. Econ. Geol., 63: 76-79.
PURNELL, J. H., 1967. Gas chromatography. Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem., 18: 81-98.
RANKAMA, K., 1940. On the use of the trace elements in some problems of practical geology.
Btdl. Comm. GOol. Finlande, 126: 90-106.
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51 75

ROBINSON, J. W., 1966. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Dekker, New York, N.Y., 203 pp.
ROSA1RE, E. E., 1940. Geochemical prospecting for petroleum. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geologists,
24(8): 1400-1433.
SAUKOV, A. A., 1963. Geochemical Methods of Prospecting for Useful Mineral Deposits. Moscow
State University, Moscow, 248 pp. (in Russian).
SHCHERBAKOV, A. V., 1958. Radon in prospecting for uranium. Ref. Zh. Geofiz., 7 : 2 6 28.
SIKKA, D. B., 1959. A Radiometrie Survey ofRedwater Oilfield, Alberta. Thesis, McGill University,
Montreal (abstract in Can. Mining J., 82(7): 100, 1961).
SMITH, F. G., 1968. Three computer programs for contouring map data. Can. J. Earth Sci.,
5(2): 324-327.
SNEDECOR, G. W., 1956. Statistical Methods. Iowa State Univ. Press., Ames, Iowa, 534 pp.
SOKOLOV, V. A., 1933a. The gas survey as a method of prospecting for oil and gas formations.
Inform., sb., NGR10NTI.
SOKOLOV, V. A., 1933b. New method of surveying oil and gas formations. Tekhn. Nefti, 16(163).
SOKOLOV, V. A., 1959. Geochemical Methods of Prospecting for Oil and Gas Deposits. U.S.S.R.
Acad. Sci., Moscow, 462 pp.
STANTON, R. E., 1966. Rapid Methods of Trace Analysis for Geochemical Applications. Arnold,
London, 96 pp.
SUTHERLAND BROWN, A., 1967. Investigation of mercury dispersion haloes around mineral
deposits in central British Columbia. In: E. M. CAMERON(Editor), Proceedings, Symposium
on Geochemical Prospecting, Ottawa, April, 1966. Can., Dept. Mines Tech. Surv., Geol.
Surv. Can., Papers, 66-54: 73-83.
SYKORA, L., 1959. Plants in Geological Research. Czechoslovak Acad. Sci., Prague, 322 pp.
THOMPSON, C. E., 1967. A spectrophotometric method for the determination of traces of platinum
and palladium in geologic materials. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers. 575D: 236-238.
THOMPSON, C. E., NAKA6AWA, H. M. and VAN S~CKLE, G. H., 1968. Rapid analyses for gold in
geologic materials. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 600-B: 130-132.
TKAL1CH, S. M., 1959. Practical Handbook of Biogeochemical Methods of Mineral Prospecting.
State Press of Scientific Technical Literature in Geology and Conservation of Natural
Resources, Moscow, 71 pp.
TU(IARINOV, A. I. and GRI6ORIAN, S. V. (Editors), 1968. Geochemical and geophysical prospecting
for deep seated deposits (abstracts). Intern. Geol. Congr., 23rd, Prague--Symp. Geochem.
Geophys. Prospecting Deep Seated Deposits, 54 pp.
TURAIN, G., 1961. Radon in soil and underground waters in prospecting for uranium ores.
Compt. Rend., 252: 3090-3092.
UNITED ]NATIONS, 1963. Proceedings of the seminar on geochemical prospecting methods and
techniques. Mineral Resources Develop. Ser., 21:202 pp.
USIK, L. Botanical investigations at three known mineral deposits. Can., Dept. Mines Tech.
Sarv., Geol. Surv. Can., Papers, in press.
VAUGHN, W. W. and McCaRTHY, J. H., 1964. An instrumental technique for the determination
of submicrogram concentrations of mercury in soils, rocks, and gas. U.S., Geol. Surv.,
Profess. Papers, 501-D: 123-127.
WARD, F. N., LaK|N, H. W. and CANNEY, F. C., 1963. Analytical methods used in geochemical
exploration by the U.S. Geological Survey. U.S., Geol. Surv., Bull., 1152:100 pp.
WARD, F. N. and McHUGH, J. B., 1964. Determination of mercury in vegetation with dithizone--
a single extraction procedure. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 501-D: 128 130.
WARD, F. N. and NAKAGAWA, H. M., 1967. Atomic absorption determination of bismuth in
altered rocks. U.S., Geol. Surv., Profess. Papers, 575-D: 239-241.
WARREN, H. V., DELAVAULT, R. E. and BARAKSO, J. J., 1968. The arsenic content of Douglas
Fir as a guide to some gold, silver, and base metal deposits. Bull. Can. Inst. Mining Met.,
61(675): 860-866.
WENNERVIRTA, H , 1968. Application of geochemical methods to regional prospecting in Finland.
Bull. Comm. G~ol. Finlande, 234:91 pp.
WENNERVlRTA, H. and KAURANEN, P., 1960. Radon measurement in uranium prospecting. Bull.
Comm. Gkol. Finlande, 188: 2 3 4 0 .
(Received March 25, 1969)
Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Fiqry Darwansyah - Boyle1970 Geochemical Prospecting

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fiqry Darwansyah - Boyle1970 Geochemical Prospecting

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Earth-Science Reviews - Elsevier Publishing Company - Printed in The Netherlands

R. W. BOYLE AND R. G. GARRETT

Geological Survey o f Canada, Ottawa, Ont. (Canada)

The problem of prospecting for mineral resources

A brief review of the history of geochemical prospecting is given and the

Geochemical prospecting is the practical application of geochemical and

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

It is difficult to pinpoint the actual beginning of geochemical prospecting

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

LITERATURE OF GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING

Despite its relatively short existence, geochemical prospecting has a large

Earth-Sei. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

REVIEW OF ADVANCES IN GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING METHODS

Geochemical prospecting surveys can be based on any of the materials of

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Earth-Sei. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

in prospecting, particularly in planning other types of geochemical surveys.

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

sance or detailed local basis. The aim of reconnaissance pedogeochemical surveys

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51 75

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Sulphate and other anionic constituents in natural waters have received

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51 75

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Other geochemical methods for mineral deposits

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51 75

Isotopic methods based on the distribution of lead, sulphur, and other

Geochemical prospecting for petroleum

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

in Germany and Rumania and simultaneously in U.S.S.R. by SOKOEOV (1933).

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6(1970) 51-75

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

of methods for molybdenum, copper, nickel, barium, silver, gold, uranium,

The application of statistical methods to data interpretation

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

some of the analytical techniques employed, especially spectrometric methods.

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

with varying degrees of success. The method is described by KRUMBEINand GRAY-

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

most in increasing the efficiency and objectivity of the interpretation of multi-

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

interpretation of stream sediment copper anomalies near Slough Mountain, Pennsylvania.

Earth-Sol. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Earth-Sei. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51 75

Earth-Sci. Rev., 6 (1970) 51-75

You might also like