METALS

Metal is a solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with
good electrical and thermal conductivity. Due to their intrinsic properties, metals are widely
used in the building and construction sector. They are a first choice material for structures,
reinforcements, cladding, roofing, window frames, plumbing, heating equipment and many
other applications. Metals can be found in old and historic buildings as well as in new.

TYPES OF METALS

1. Aluminum
Similar in appearance to stainless steel, aluminum is lighter and less strong than steel. It can
be a low-cost replacement to steel. Aluminum also doesn't rust, though it does oxidize,
creating a chalky white residue. Aluminum is often used in outdoor furniture.
2. Brass
A yellowish, gold-like alloy of copper and zinc, brass is commonly found on lighting and
fixtures like curtain rods, knobs, and sink faucets. Though brass has an upscale appearance,
the maintenance is low. Simple cleaning with mild soap and water shall be enough.
3. Copper
Much like bronze, copper is reddish-brown in color and is found on all types of décor like
lighting and sinks. Look for copper on high-quality cookware because of its superior heat
conductivity. Copper can patina to a greenish-blue over time due to oxidation. To prevent
this from occurring (especially if copper is used outdoors), coat the metal with beeswax or
carnauba wax and lacquer.
5. Stainless Steel
An alloy of carbon, iron, chromium, and other metals, stainless steel is found in furniture
and fixtures throughout the home, from accent tables to kitchen sinks. Because of the
chromium it doesn't rust, oxidize, or corrode and is a low maintenance material. It's much
stronger than its lookalike aluminum.
6. Wrought Iron
Wrought iron refers to metal that has been hammered or bent into shape, as opposed to
being cast or poured. Therefore, it has a roughed up surface. Wrought iron is commonly
used to make fireplace accessories, pot racks, rustic beds, lighting, and more.
PROPERTIES OF METALS

1. Hardness
Hardness refers to the ability of a metal to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting action, or
permanent distortion. Hardness may be increased by working the metal and, in the case of
steel and certain titanium and aluminum alloys, by heat treatment and cold-working.
2. Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a metal that allows little bending or deformation without
shattering. In other words, a brittle metal is apt to break or crack without change of shape.
Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a very
desirable property. Cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are brittle metals.
3. Malleability
A metal that can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various shapes without cracking or
breaking or other detrimental effects is said to be malleable. Copper is one example of a
malleable metal.
4. Ductility
Ductility is the property of a metal that permits it to be permanently drawn, bent, or twisted
into various shapes without breaking. This property is essential for metals used in making
wire and tubing.
5. Elasticity
Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original shape when the force
that causes the change of shape is removed. Each metal has a point known as the elastic
limit, beyond which it cannot be loaded without causing permanent distortion. When metal
is loaded beyond its elastic limit and permanent distortion does result, it is referred to as
strained.
6. Toughness
A material that possesses toughness will withstand tearing or shearing and may be stretched
or otherwise deformed without breaking.
7. Density
Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material.
8. Fusibility
Fusibility is defined as the ability of a metal to become liquid by the application of heat.
Metals are fused in welding. Steels fuse at approximately 2,500°F, and aluminum alloys at
approximately 1, 110°F.
9. Conductivity
Conductivity is the property that enables a metal to carry heat or electricity. The heat
conductivity of a metal is especially important in welding, because it governs the amount of
heat that will be required for proper fusion. Conductivity of the metal, to a certain extent,
determines the type of jig to be used to control expansion and contraction.
10. Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is the maximum load in compression a material will withstand before
a predetermined amount of deformation, or the ability of a material to withstand pressures
acting in a given plane
11. Fatigue Strength
Fatigue strength is the maximum load a material can withstand without failure during a
large number of reversals of load.
12. Shear Strength
Shear strength is the ability of a material to resist being fractured by opposing forces acting
of a straight line but not in the same plane, or the ability of a metal to resist being fractured
by opposing forces not acting in a straight line
13. Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is defined as the maximum load in tension a material will withstand before
fracturing, or the ability of a material to resist being pulled apart by opposing forces. Also
known as ultimate strength, it is the maximum strength developed in a metal in a tension
test.
14. Stress-Strain
Metal stress and strain are one of the primary mechanical properties of metals. Another way
to think about the concept is load/area. The deformation of metal can be measured directly,
although stress cannot.
COMMONLY USED METAL PRODUCTS

1. Iron:
Iron is the most commonly used metal in the world, and probably one the most
abundant in the earth’s crust. One main reason behind its wide industrial use is its
usage in the making of steel, which is one of the strongest and stainless materials.
The iron is well known for its even-heating property.
2. Aluminum:
The most abundant element in the earth’s crust is also one of the most commonly
used in the world. One particular reason behind this is the metal’s low density and
corrosion resistivity. Its uses vary from every day household usage, such as tin cans
and aluminum foils, to heavy industrial and manufacturing applications, such as
automobiles and aircraft industry. It is also used in solid rocket fuel and thermite.
3. Copper:
Being known as one of the earliest metals discovered by man, copper still is among
one of the widely used metals in the word. Copper is mostly used in the form of
alloys because it is too soft to be used in its pure form. It is a good conductor of
heat and electricity. Therefore, it is mostly used in wirings and piping.
4. Titanium:
Already known as the space age metal, titanium is expected to replace most of the
metals used around the industries today. However, its expensive and difficult mining
process is keeping it from being used so commonly as aluminum or steel. Titanium is
found to be stronger, durable and corrosion resistive in comparison to steel. It has
the highest strength to weight ratio of all the metals.
5. Zinc:
Unlike other commonly used metals, zinc is hard and brittle. It is anti-corrosive, and
therefore it is primarily used in galvanization, for example coating of iron and steel. It
is also used in batteries along with lead.
TESTING FOR METALS

1. Chemical composition analysis

Chemical composition analysis is conducted for a wide range of purposes from material
identification and characterization to quality control monitoring. Composition Analysis can
be applied to evaluate of raw materials, detect impurities, and identify the alloys

2. Corrosion resistance analysis

Corrosion resistance refers to the resistance a material offers against a reaction with adverse
elements that can corrode the material.

3. Dimension measurements

Dimensional measurement is how we know and quantify the size and shape of things. It
involves lengths and angles as well as geometrical properties.

4. Mechanical properties testing

Mechanical properties testing provides information on strength, ductility impact resistance,

hardness and fracture toughness.

5. Metallurgic examination

Metallurgical testing identifies the condition and makeup of materials, ensuring the product
or component is fit for purpose. Metallurgical testing can verify that the metal you have
received is in fact the metal you were promised by your supplier.

6. Macro-etching

This form of destructive testing is an excellent method of determining the soundness of

weld metal and the metallurgical structure produced by the weld.
 7. Micro-structure analysis

Microstructural analysis testing is used widely throughout industry to evaluate products and
materials. Metals have a preferred microstructure obtained by a specified processing or heat
treatment to achieve desired material properties.

8. Weather resistance testing

Weather resistance is the ability of a material to prevent corrosion, loss of material or any
sort of deterioration due to prolonged exposure to harsh environmental and weather
conditions.

9. Tension test

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science and
engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.

10. Bend test

The bend test is a simple and inexpensive qualitative test that can be used to evaluate both
the ductility and soundness of a material. It is often used as a quality control test for butt-
welded joints, having the advantage of simplicity of both test piece and equipment.

11. Radiation inspection

Industrial radiography is a method of non-destructive testing where many types of

manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and integrity of
the specimen.

12. Transverse test

Transverse tensile test is performed on the test specimen, which is extracted in the
transverse direction or across the sample of item such as plate or pipe. This test is
performed to measure transverse tensile strength, yield strength, proof stress, elongation
and reduction of area.
 13. Coating mass test

Coating mass test or passivation is the process by which a stainless steel will spontaneously
form a chemically inactive oxide film on the surface when exposed to air or other oxygen-
containing environments provided that the surface has been thoroughly cleaned or
descaled.

14. Salt spray test

The salt spray (or salt fog) test is a standardized and popular corrosion test method, used to
check corrosion resistance of materials and surface coatings.

15. Pencil hardness test

The result may either be the value of the pressure required to scratch through the test
material if a scratching tool of constant hardness is used, or the hardness of the scratching
tool is varied while constant pressure is applied. Twenty pencils (grade 9B to 9H) are used
with a standard.

16. Flattening test

Flattening tests are commonly made on specimens cut from tubular products and is
conducted by subjecting rings from the tube or pipe to a prescribed degree of flattening
between two parallel platens.

17. Flaring resistance

The flaring test serves to establish the forming behaviour of tubes or pipes which is
expanded to a specific degree. This flaring test is carried out in conformity with the code
requirements. The specimen to be tested is expanded in a press to the degree specified.