Lombos Avenue, San Isidro, Parañaque City

www.patts.edu.ph

Department of Bachelor of Science in Aeronautical Engineering

AIRFRAME
CONSTRUCTION AND
REPAIR
Shop Manual

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 Table of Contents
WOOD ........................................................................................................................................................... 2

FABRIC AND DOPE......................................................................................................................................... 3

Activity No. 1: ............................................................................................................................................ 6

Composites ................................................................................................................................................... 8

Activity No. 2: .......................................................................................................................................... 10

AIRCRAFT FASTENERS ................................................................................................................................. 12

Activity No. 3: .......................................................................................................................................... 14

CONTROL CABLES AND TERMINALS ........................................................................................................... 16

Activity No. 4: .......................................................................................................................................... 18

Aircraft Plumbing ........................................................................................................................................ 20

Activity No. 5: .......................................................................................................................................... 22

WELDING ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

Activity No. 6: .......................................................................................................................................... 28

AIRCRAFT PART FABRICATION .................................................................................................................... 30

Activity No. 7: .......................................................................................................................................... 32

SAFETY AROUND MACHINE TOOLS............................................................................................................. 34

Activity No. 8: .......................................................................................................................................... 36

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL ....................................................................................................................... 38

Activity No. 9: .......................................................................................................................................... 42

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1
 WOOD
Wood and adhesive materials used in aircraft repair should meet aircraft (AN) quality standards and be
purchased from reputable distributors to ensure such quality. Strict adherence to the specifications in
the aircraft structural-repair manual will ensure that the structure will be as strong as the original.

Sitka spruce is the reference wood used for aircraft structures because of its uniformity, strength, and
excellent shock-resistance qualities. Reputable companies that sell wood for use in aircraft repairs,
stringently inspect and verify that the wood product meets the appropriate FAA specifications. To meet
the "Aircraft Sitka Spruce" grade specification, the lumber must be kiln-dried to a government
specification known as AN-W-2. This specification requires that the specific gravity shall not be less
than .36, the slope of the grain shall not be steeper than 1 to 15, the wood must be sawn vertical-grain
(sometimes called edge-grained), and shall have no fewer than six annular rings per inch.

PLYWOOD
Structural aircraft-grade plywood is more commonly manufactured from African mahogany or American
birch veneers that are bonded together in a hot press over hardwood cores of basswood or poplar.

Basswood plywood is another type of aviation-grade plywood that is lighter and more flexible than
mahogany and birch plywood but has slightly less structural strength. All aviation-grade plywood is
manufactured to specifications outlined in MIL-P-6070, which calls for shear testing after immersion in
boiling water for three hours to verify the adhesive qualities between the plies meets specifications.

LAMINATED WOOD
Laminated wood is constructed of two or more layers of solid wood that are bonded together. The
lamination process differs from the plywood process in that each layer of laminated wood is bonded with
the grain running parallel with each other. Plywood, on the other hand, is constructed of wood layers
that are bonded with the grain direction at a 90° angle to the previous layer.

Laminated wood is stronger but less flexible than a piece of solid wood of the same type and size.
However, laminated wood is much more resistant to warping than solid wood, making it a good substitute
for solid wood components such as laminated spars in place of solid spars. Laminated wood is most
commonly utilized for components that require curved shapes such as wing-tip bows and fuselage
formers.

2
 FABRIC AND DOPE

When early airplanes were constructed using organic fabrics, most builders did not use any special
processes to increase the strength of the material. These coverings were not airtight, and tended to loosen
and wrinkle with changes in humidity. In order to keep humid air from flowing through the fabric,
builders began applying a rubberized or varnished finish to the covering surface. Although such finishes
were effective, it was found that shrinking the fabric by brushing or spraying it with banana oil and
collodion and letting it dry provided better dimensional stability.

Later, an improved cellulose nitrate material consisting of cotton fibers dissolved in nitric acid was used
to form a clear dope that could be worked into the fabric to produce a stronger and more durable finish.
However, when an aircraft structure was covered with white cotton fabric and coated with the cellulose
nitrate dope, the covering became translucent, exposing the interior framework. Over time, it was found
that the translucency caused deterioration of the fabric and interior components due to the sun's
ultraviolet rays.

To improve durability, manufacturers applied colored enamel over doped fabric to block the sunlight.
Although this technique provided increased protection, the paint finish tended to crack and peel due to
the lack of adequate adhesion to the dope coating. Further improvements led manufacturers to blend
fine aluminum powder directly into the dope before it was applied to the fabric. This technique caused
the dope to take on a silver color that blocked the sunlight and also tended to reflect heat away from the
fabric.

The process of aluminum pigmenting proved effective, but there were still serious problems with the
early style dopes. Besides the problems of organic decay from sunlight, another major problem associated
with cellulose nitrate dope was its high flammability. In fact, the process of mixing cotton and nitric acid
was similar to a technique used to form guncotton, an explosive used for the manufacture of smokeless
gunpowder. To alleviate some of the fire hazard, the U.S. Navy developed a cellulose acetate dope for use
on their aircraft.

Cellulose acetate dope was later modified to cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) dope, which is still widely
used today. This dope is less flammable, but lacks some of the adhesive qualities of cellulose nitrate
dope. As a result, cellulose nitrate dope is still often used as a base coat before CAB dope is applied to
the fabric. This results in a tradeoff between the benefits of both materials, but is regarded to be one
of the best finishing methods for organic fabrics.

Regardless of the type of fabric-covering process, the application and maintenance practices for fabric
covering are reasonably easy, although they are time consuming. To obtain the greatest durability and best
appearance, it is important to closely follow the fabric manufacturer's procedures and to only use materials
that are specifically approved for use with their product. To maintain the quality and safety of a fabric-
covered aircraft, it is the responsibility of the technician to use FAA-approved products and procedures to
help maintain the highest safety standards.

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FABRIC ORIENTATION
It is important to understand the construction and orientation of fabric material because all design,
manufacturing, and repair work begins with the orientation of the fabric. Unlike metallic structures, the
fabric structure relies on the proper placement and use of the reinforcing fabric to produce a strong cov-
ering. Some of the terms used to describe fabric orientation are warp, weft, selvage edge and bias.

The Warp of threads in a section of fabric run the length of the fabric as it comes off the roll or bolt. Warp
direction is designated as 0°. There are typically more threads woven into the warp direction than the fill
direction, making it stronger in the warp direction. The warp is critical in creating or repairing fabric
coverings. The fabric must be applied with the warp parallel to the direction of flight.

The Weft/Fill threads of the fabric are those that run perpendicular (90°) to the warp fibers. The weft
threads interweave with the warp threads to create the reinforcing cloth.

The Selvage Edge of the fabric is the tightly woven edge parallel to the warp direction, which prevents
edges from unraveling. The selvage edge is removed before the fabric is utilized. The weave of the selvage
edge is different from the body of the fabric and does not have the same strength characteristics as the
rest of the fabric.

The Bias is the fiber orientation that runs at a 45° angle (diagonal) to the warp threads. The bias
allows for manipulation of the fabric to form contoured shapes. Fabrics can often be stretched along the
bias but seldom along the warp or fill.

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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 1:

TITLE: Wood, Dope and Fabric

INTRODUCTION:

Aircraft technicians who take on a wooden structural repair must be able to properly
assess the wood used. Familiarity with the quality and condition of the wood along with
the types of defects inherent to wood products is essential to competent wood
assessment. The technician must make certain that the quality of wood meets the
original specifications outlined in the aircraft's repair

The methods and materials needed to effectively cover aircraft structures with fabric have
improved dramatically since the early days of aviation. The first practical covering
materials included organic fabrics such as cotton, linen, and even silk. Although these
continue to be used today, organic fabrics are being replaced with more resilient
synthetic materials. Possessing increased strength and durability, these products have
made fabric covering a practical means of aircraft construction that will continue to be
used for many years.

OBJECTIVE:

To acquaint the students with the uses of wood, dope and fabric in Aircraft
Construction and Repair.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects on splicing of wood structures, repair of wood spars, ribs and
plywood skin, fabric covering practices, lacing of aircraft structures, and
application of aircraft dope.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - Airframe Handbook

By: Jeppesen

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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

MATERIALS & APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Carpentry tools (see list) 1 set

Spray gun w/ air hose 1 set
Air compressor 1 pc.
Paint brush 2 pcs.
Sewing machine 1 pc.
“T” pins 10 pcs.
Assorted hand sewing needles 2 sets
Steel rule 1 pc.
Pinking scissors 1 pc.
Scissors 1 pc.

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

7
 Composites

Composites are combinations of two or more materials that differ in composition or form. The
constituents or elements that make up the composite retain their individual identities. In other
words, the individual elements do not dissolve or otherwise merge into each other. Each can be
physically identified, and exhibits a boundary between each other.
Composite structures differ from metallic structures in several ways: excellent elastic properties,
ability to be customized in strength and stiffness, damage tolerance characteristics, and
sensitivity to environmental factors. Consequently, composites require a vastly different
approach from metals with regard to their design, fabrication and assembly, quality control, and
maintenance.
FIBERGLASS (GLASS CLOTH)
Fiberglass (or fibreglass) is the common name
for glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) or
alternatively glass-fiber reinforced plastic
(GFRP).

Fiberglass is made from small strands of molten

silica glass that are spun together and woven
into cloth. Many different weaves of fiberglass
are available, depending on a particular application.

One of the disadvantages of fiberglass is that it weighs more and has less strength than most
other composite fibers. In the past, fiberglass was limited to nonstructural applications. The
weave was heavy and polyester resins were used, which made the part brittle. However, with
newly developed matrix formulas, fiberglass is an excellent reinforcing fiber currently used in
advanced composite applications.

The two most common types of fiberglass are S-glass and E-glass. E-glass, otherwise known as
"electric glass" because of its high resistivity to current flow, is produced from borosilicate glass
and is the most common type of fiberglass used for reinforcement. S-glass is produced from
magnesia-alumina-silicate, and is used where a very high tensile strength fiberglass is needed.

FIBER SCIENCE
The strength of a reinforcing material within a composite is dependent upon the weave of the
material, the wetting process (how the matrix is applied), filament tensile strength, and the
design of the part. The tensile strength of fabrics as it is reported in many articles and books is
usually the strength of the raw fabric only. However, aircraft composites incorporate a resin
material. This decreases the overall strength, because resins tend to make the structure more

8
brittle and lessen the tensile strength. Arranging the fibers in various orientations helps to
ensure adequate component strength partially corrects this reduction in strength.

The strength and stiffness of a composite buildup depends upon the orientation of the plies
relative to the load direction while a sheet metal component will have the same strength no
matter in which direction it is tested. For example, a helicopter rotor blade has high stress along
its length because of the centripetal forces emanating from the rotating mass of the blade. If the
blade is made of metal, its strength is the same in all directions. In the case of a composite
blade, the majority of fibers run the length of the blade to give more strength in the direction
of the greatest stress.

COMPOSITE ELEMENTS
In aircraft construction, most currently produced composites consist of a reinforcing material to
provide the structural strength, joined with a matrix material to serve as the bonding substance.
In addition, adding core material saves overall weight and gives shape to the structure. The
three main parts of a fiber-reinforced composite are the fiber, matrix, and interface or
boundary between the individual elements of the composite.

REINFORCING FIBERS
Reinforcing fibers provide the primary structural strength to the composite structure when
combined with a matrix. Reinforcing fibers can be used in conjunction with one another
(hybrids), woven into specific patterns (fiber science), combined with other materials such as
rigid foams (sandwich structures), or simply used in combination with various matrix materials.
Each type of composite combination provides specific advantages. Following are the five most
common types of reinforcing fibers used in aircraft composites.

FIBERGLASS LAY-UP
In the case of fiberglass hand lay-up, flat laminated sheets are laid up by first spreading a heavy
coat of resin on a glass or aluminum plate. A sheet of fiberglass fabric is placed onto the resin and
a roller is used to work the fiberglass down into the resin. The roller also forces all of the air
bubbles out to ensure the complete encapsulation of every fiber. Another layer of resin is then
placed on top of the first layer of fiberglass followed by a second sheet of glass cloth. Again all of the
air is worked out and the process is continued until the assembly is built up to the desired number
of layers. A final coat of resin is then placed on the lay-up and the entire assembly is cured.

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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 2:

TITLE: Molding and Fabrication

INTRODUCTION:

The subject of composite manufacturing is addressed with the purpose of

familiarizing you with the more common manufacturing methods used today.
Being familiar with the composite manufacturing methods helps in subsequent
repairs of the composite structure.

OBJECTIVE:

To familiarize the students in molding and fabricating Glass-Reinforced Plastic

(GRP), its repair and procedures.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects on mold making, fabrication of GRP parts, and bonding.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - Airframe Handbook

By: Jeppesen

MATERIALS & APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Paint brush 2 pcs.

Glass-Reinforced Plastic chemicals 1 set
Carpentry tools (see list) 1 set
Portable grinder 1 pc.
Face shield 1 pc.

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

11
 AIRCRAFT FASTENERS

The term aircraft hardware describes the various types of fasteners and miscellaneous small
items used in the manufacture and repair of aircraft. The importance of aircraft hardware is
often overlooked because of its small size; however, the safe and efficient operation of all
aircraft depends on the correct selection and use of aircraft hardware. Today there are more
than 30,000 different fasteners available for aerospace applications.

RIVETS
While a number of methods are available
for joining metal parts, few are ideal for
joining aluminum sheets. The most
common technique of joining sheets of
aluminum is riveting. A rivet is a metal pin
with a formed head on one end. A rivet is
inserted into a drilled hole, and its shank is
then deformed by a hand or pneumatic
tool. Rivets create a union at least as
strong as the material being joined.

SPECIAL RIVETS
A rivet is any type of fastener that obtains its
clamping action by having one of its ends
mechanically upset. Conventional solid shank rivets require access to both ends to be
driven. However, special rivets, often called blind rivets are installed with access to only one
end of the rivet. While considerably more expensive than solid shank rivets, blind rivets find
many applications in today's aircraft industry.

MECHANICAL-LOCK RIVETS
Mechanical-lock rivets were designed to prevent the center stem of a rivet from falling out as a
result of the vibration encountered during aircraft operation. Unlike the center stem of a
friction-lock rivet, a mechanical-lock rivet permanently locks the stem into place and vibration
cannot shake it loose.

FRICTION-LOCK RIVETS
One early form of blind rivet that was the first to be widely used for aircraft construction and
repair was the Cherry friction-lock rivet. Originally, Cherry friction-locks were available in two
styles, hollow shank pull-through and self-plugging types. The pull-through type is no longer
common, however, the self-plugging Cherry friction-lock rivet is still used for repairing light
aircraft.

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OTHERS
In addition to the numerous permanent fasteners used on aircraft, there is a second type of
fastener that, unlike rivets, can be reused. These fasteners include threaded hardware such as
bolts and screws and the various types of nuts that secure them.

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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 3:

TITLE: Aircraft Fasteners

INTRODUCTION:

The solid shank rivet has been used since sheet metal was first utilized
in aircraft, and remains the single most commonly used aircraft fastener
today. Unlike other types of fasteners, rivets change in dimension to fit the
size of a hole.

OBJECTIVE:

To familiarize the students with the various types of aircraft fasteners and their
applications in Airframe Construction and Repair.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects on patching, splicing and reinforcing.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - General Handbook

By: Jeppesen

14
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

MATERIALS & APPARATUS REQUIRED

Scriber 1 pc.
Sheet Metal Shear 1 pc.
Riveting Gun 1 pc.
Riveting Set 1 set
Assorted Bucking Bars 1 set
Assorted Sheet Metal Clamps 1 set
Portable Drill 1 pc.
Drill Bits, 1/16” – 1/4” by 1/16” 1 set
Steel Divider /Compass 1 pc.
Files, metal 1 set
Steel Rule 1 pc.
Countersink tool 100⁰ 1 set
Cold chisel, 6” long & 1/2” wide 1 pc.
Hammer, Ball pen 1 pc.
Air Compressor (LP 100 psi) 1 pc.
Hacksaw 1 pc.

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

15
 CONTROL CABLES AND TERMINALS

While a number of different systems are used to actuate flight and engine controls from the
cockpit, flexible control cables are by far the most commonly used method. Multiple-strand
control cables are simple, strong, and reliable.

Cable has several advantages over other types of linkages. It is strong and light in weight, and its
flexibility makes it easy to route. In addition to primary flight controls, cable is used on engine
controls, emergency landing gear extension controls, trim tab systems, and various other
applications.

One disadvantage of a cable system for control movement relates to thermal contraction. As an
aircraft climbs to a high altitude, its temperature drops and its structure contracts.
Furthermore, the aluminum structure contracts much more than the small mass of steel in a
control cable, and as a result, cables lose their tension. Large aircraft have a rather complex
automatic tensioning system to keep control cable tension relatively constant as the aircraft
contracts and expands. However, small aircraft must have their cable tension adjusted as a
compromise so they are not too tight when the airplane is hot nor too loose when it is cold.

ATTACHING CABLES
The cable fittings used most in large aircraft manufacture are MS-type swaged cable terminals.
To install these terminals, cut the cable and insert it into the end of a terminal. Then, use either
a hand or power swaging tool to force the metal of the terminal down into the cable. This forms
a joint that is at least as strong as the cable itself.

TURMBUCKLES
Turnbuckles are a type of cable fastener that allows cable tension to be adjusted. A complete
turnbuckle assembly consists of two ends, one with right-hand threads and the other having left-
hand threads, with a brass barrel joining them. Minor cable adjustment is made by rotating the
turnbuckle which effectively lengthens or shortens the cable's length.

To ensure that a turnbuckle develops full cable strength, there must be no more than three
threads of either end sticking out of the barrel. After cable tension is adjusted, the turnbuckle
barrel is safetied to the two cable ends so that it cannot turn.

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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 4:

TITLE: Aircraft Cable Assemblies and Rigging

INTRODUCTION:

Aircraft rigging involves the adjustment and travel of movable flight controls
which are attached to aircraft major surfaces, such as wings and vertical and
horizontal stabilizers. Ailerons are attached to the wings, elevators are attached to
the horizontal stabilizer, and the rudder is attached to the vertical stabilizer.
Rigging involves setting cable tension, adjusting travel limits of flight controls,
and setting travel stops.

OBJECTIVE:

To familiarize the students with aircraft cable assemblies and control cable
rigging.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects on cable swaging, installation and aligning of pulleys and

related accessories, tensioning of cables, and safety wire and cotter pin
installation.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - General Handbook

By: Jeppesen

Aviation Maintenance Technician-Airframe Handbook - Volume 1

By: FAA

MATERIALS & APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Wire twister 1 pc.

Swaging tool 1 pc.
Cable Cutter 1 pc.
Tensiometer 1 pc.
Mechanic’s tools (see list) 1 set
Electric soldering iron 1 set
Diagonal cutter 1 pc.
Vise grip 1 pc.
Splicing tool 1 pc.
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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

19
 Aircraft Plumbing

RIGID FLUID LINES

A single aircraft typically contains several different types of rigid fluid lines. Each type of line has a
specific application. However, as a rule, rigid tubing is used in stationary applications and where
long, relatively straight runs are possible. Systems that typically utilize rigid tubing include fuel,
oil, oxygen, and instrument systems.

MATERIALS
Many fluid lines used in early aircraft were made of copper tubing. However, copper tubing
proved troublesome because it became hard and brittle from the vibration encountered
during flight, and eventually failed. To help prevent failures and extend the life of copper
tubing, it must be periodically annealed to restore it to a soft condition. Annealing is
accomplished by heating the tube until it is red hot and then quenching in cold water. When
working on an aircraft that has copper tubing, the tubing should be annealed each time it is
removed. Furthermore, copper lines must be regularly inspected for cracks, hardness, and
general condition.

Today, aluminum-alloy and corrosion-resistant steel lines have replaced copper in most
applications. Aluminum tubing comes in a variety of alloys. Occasionally, 2024-T aluminum
alloy is used for fluid lines because of its higher strength. However, it is not as flexible and,
therefore, is more difficult to bend and flare without cracking.

FABRICATING RIGID TUBING

When it is necessary to replace a rigid fluid line, you may obtain a replacement tube assembly
from the aircraft manufacturer or fabricate a replacement in the shop. Most shops have the
necessary tools to fabricate replacement lines, and as a technician you must be familiar with
their operation and limitations.

TUBE CUTTING
When cutting a new piece of tubing, you should always cut it approximately 10 percent longer
than the tube being replaced. This provides a margin of safety for minor variations in bending.
After determining the correct length, cut the tubing with either a fine-tooth hacksaw or a
roller-type tube cutter. A tube cutter is most often used on soft metal tubing such as copper,
aluminum, or aluminum alloy. However, they are not suitable for stainless-steel tubing
because they tend to work harden the tube.

TUBE BENDING
Some applications require rigid lines with complex bends and curves. When duplicating these
lines, you must be able to produce bends that are 75 percent of the original tube diameter and
free of kinks. Any deformation in a bend affects the flow of fluid.
20
 Tubing under 1/4 inch made of soft metal and
having a thin wall can usually be bent by hand.
This is accomplished by using a tightly wound
steel coil spring that fits snugly around the
tubing to keep it from collapsing. In an
emergency, a tube can be bent by first packing
it full of clean, dry sand, sealing the ends, and
then making the bends. However, when using
this method, it is extremely important that
every particle of sand be removed from the
tube before it is installed.
Tubing larger than 1/4 inch in diameter
typically requires bending tools to minimize
flattening and distortion. Small diameter
tubing of between 1/4 inch and 1/2 inch can
be bent with a hand bending tool. When using
a hand bender, the tube is inserted between
the radius block and the slide bar and held in
place by a clip. The slide bar handle is then
moved down to bend the tubing to the angle
needed. The number of degrees the tube is
bent is read on the scale of the radius block,
opposite the incidence mark on the slide bar.

Figure. Use a hand-held tubing bender to

form tubing 1/2 inch or smaller in diameter.

TUBE FLARING
Much of the rigid tubing used in modern aircraft is connected to components by flaring the tube
ends and using flare-type fittings. A flared-tube fitting consists of a sleeve and a B-nut. Using this
type connector eliminates damage to the flare caused by the wiping or ironing action as the nut
is tightened. The sleeve provides added strength and supports the tube so that vibration does
not concentrate at the flare. The nut fits over the sleeve and, when tightened, draws the sleeve
and flare tightly against a male fitting to form a seal. The close fit between the inside of the
flared tube and the flare cone of the male fitting provides the actual seal. Therefore, these
two surfaces must be absolutely clean and free of cracks, nicks, and scratches. Aircraft fittings
have a flare angle of 37 degrees and are not interchangeable with automotive-type fittings,
which have a flare angle of 45 degrees.
There are two types of flares used in aircraft
plumbing systems, the single flare and the double
flare. As discussed, the flare provides the sealing
surface and is subject to extremely high
pressures. Because of this, flares must be properly
formed to prevent leaks or failures.

Figure. Single- and double-flared ends are used

on rigid tubing.

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NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 5:

TITLE: Aircraft Plumbing

INTRODUCTION:

All aircraft, from the smallest trainers to the largest transports, have systems to direct the
flow of fluids from their source to the units requiring them. These systems consist of
hoses, tubing, fittings, and connectors and are often referred to as an aircraft's "plumbing."
Therefore, it is very important that you, as a maintenance technician, understand the
different types of fluid lines used, their applications, and the inspection and maintenance
requirements of each.

OBJECTIVE:

To familiarize the students with the classification, fabrication and installation of

aircraft plumbing.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects on tube bending, flaring and plumbing installation.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - General Handbook

By: Jeppesen

MATERIALS & APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Hand tube bender 1 set

Tube cutter 1 pc.
Flaring tool 1 pc.
Files, metal 1 set
Mechanic’s tools (see list) 1 set

22
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

23
 WELDING

The two most prominent methods of welding aircraft structures and components are fusion and
non-fusion. Fusion welding is the blending of compatible molten metals into one common part or
joint. Fusing of metals is accomplished by producing sufficient heat for the metals to melt, flow
together and mix. The heat is then removed to allow the fused joint to solidify. Non-fusion
welding is the joining of metals by adhesion of one metal to another. The most prominent non-
fusion welding processes used on aircraft are brazing and soldering, which are covered in detail
later in this section.

FUSION WELDING PROCESSES

The three principal methods of fusion welding are gas, electric arc, and electrical resistance.
Fusion welding has, for some time, been the method of choice for constructing the structural
framework of aircraft. It still is used extensively on the framework of many modern small
airplanes, particularly in aerobatic, agricultural and homebuilt machines, but is used to some
degree in virtually all aircraft. Fusion welding results in superior strength joints because the
metal parts are melted together into a single solid object. Since fusion-welded joints are used
extensively in high-stress applications, their failure is likely to have catastrophic consequences.
To fully appreciate the level of detail that must be exercised when inspecting welded
components, you must be aware of the characteristics that define a quality fusion-welded joint.

Oxyacetylene welding, often referred to as gas welding, gets its name from the two gases, oxygen
and acetylene, that are used to produce a flame. Acetylene is the fuel for the flame and
oxygen supports combustion and makes the flame hotter. The combination of these two gases
results in sufficient heat to produce molten metal. The temperature of the oxyacetylene flame
ranges from 5,600°F to 6,300 °F.

Most aircraft gas welding is done on thin-gauge steel that ranges from 16- to 20-gauge, or about
.027- to .050-inch thick. Welding thicker metals requires larger equipment; however, welding
techniques remain much the same. Aircraft structures of steel tubing are usually fabricated by
welding the tubes together into a strong, lightweight structure.

24
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
Electric arc welding includes shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding, and tungsten
inert gas [TIG] arc welding.

Figure. Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding can be

used in most fabrications that can be done by
oxyacetylene welding.

When electricity has sufficient voltage to arc

across the space between an electrode to an
area of different electrical potential, heat is
produced from the movement of electrons. The
amount of heat is predominantly determined by
the amount of current (amperage) flowing
across the gap. For all types of arc welding, a
transformer/rectifier (TR) unit is used to
produce and control electrical power. An additional feature is that the TR unit has the
capability of changing the polarity of electricity that flows out of its terminals.
Electric arc welding produces a blinding light, with infrared and ultraviolet rays, which can burn
both skin and eyes. Before being exposed to a welding arc, you must wear an arc-welding
helmet, gloves and proper clothing. Anyone observing electric arc welding also needs
appropriate protective gear. Heavy clothing or leather aprons should be worn to cover as much
skin as practical. The use of lightweight fabric materials does not provide adequate protection
to prevent burns to the skin.

Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) is the form of electric arc welding that is used most in aircraft
maintenance. It also is known as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) Unlike SMAW and GMAW,
which use consumable electrodes, TIG welding uses a tungsten electrode that does not act as
filler rod. The electrode is connected to an AC or DC electrical power supply to form an arc with
the metal being welded. The arc is concentrated on a small area of the metal, raising its
temperature to as high as 11,000 F, without excessively heating the surrounding metal. The
base metal melts in the area of the arc and forms a puddle into which the filler rod is added.

25
There are two methods of TIG welding using DC: straight polarity and reverse polarity. The most
common method is straight-polarity DC where the metal to be welded is connected to the
positive side of the power supply, and the electrode is connected to the negative side. This
produces most of the heat in the metal where it is most needed.

With reverse-polarity DC, the metal to be welded is connected to the negative side of the power
supply, and the electrode is connected to the positive side. While this method does not generate
enough heat in the metal to be used for welding heavy work, it does have an important
advantage. Reverse polarity breaks up the surface oxides from the material.

This is especially important with aluminum, because the surface oxides have a much higher
melting point than the base metal, and these oxides must be loosened from the surface before
you can satisfactorily complete a weld. Without loosening the oxides, the temperature control of
the weld is difficult to maintain, resulting in insufficient penetration of the weld or excessively
burning away the base metal.
AC electricity is a reasonable compromise. Half the time the arc is putting most of its heat in the
metal, and the other half it is blasting the oxides away from the surface. A disadvantage is that 60
Hz AC does not alternate rapidly enough to result in a stable arc. This can be overcome by
superimposing on the welding current, a high-voltage, low-current signal operating at a high
frequency.

26
TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS
The result of a weld is a joint. To evaluate the quality of an aircraft welding repair, it is essential
to understand the various types of joints and be able to recognize whether proper techniques
were used to create these joints. The five
basic types of weld joints are shown in figure.

BUTT JOINTS
Butt joints are used to join metal forms such
as sheet, bar, plate, tube and pipe. In aircraft
applications, butt joints generally are not used
for joining tubing because they are too weak
for aircraft structures. In uses other than
tubing, butt joints are suitable for most load
stresses if the welds are made with full
penetration, adequate fusion and proper
reinforcement.

TEE JOINTS
Tee joints are quite common in aircraft work,
particularly in tubular structures. The plain tee
joint is suitable for most aircraft metal thickness. Thicker metals require the vertical member to
be either single or double beveled to permit the heat to penetrate deeply enough.

LAP JOINTS
A lap joint is seldom used in aircraft structures when welding with gas, but is commonly
used when spot welding. The single lap joint has very little resistance to bending and will not
withstand shearing stresses. The double lap joint is stronger, but requires twice the welding of
the simpler, more efficient, butt weld.

CORNER JOINTS
A corner joint results when two pieces of metal are brought together so that their edges form a
corner of a box or rectangle. This joint can only be used where load stresses are not
significant.

EDGE JOINTS
Again where load stresses are not significant, edge joints may be used to join two pieces of sheet
metal. To form an edge joint, bend the edges of one or both parts upward and place the two
ends parallel to each other. Weld along the outside of the seam formed by the two edges. In
some situations, the bent-up edges may provide enough material to form the bead so that a filler
rod is not required.

27
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 6:

TITLE: Metal Joining Processes

INTRODUCTION:

Metallic aircraft structures are composed of many individual pieces that must be
securely fastened together to form a complete structural unit. Fusion welding,
non-fusion welding, hardware fasteners, and adhesives are the principal methods
used in the construction and repair of metal aircraft joints.

OBJECTIVE:

To familiarize the students with various metal joining processes and their
application in Aircraft Construction and Repair.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects and various metal joining processes on welding (gas and
electric), spot welding, brazing and soldering.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - Airframe Handbook

By: Jeppesen

MATERIALS & APPARATUS REQUIRED

Electric welding equipment 1 set

Oxy-acetylene welding equipment 1 set
Soldering set 1 set
Goggles 1 pc.
Apron 1 pc.
Gloves 1 set
Steel square 1 pc.
C-clamp 6” opening 1 pc.
Steel brush 1 pc.
Welder’s hammer 1 pc.
Welding mask 1 set
Files, metal 1 set

28
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

29
 AIRCRAFT PART FABRICATION

Aircraft constructed from sheet metal require many specialized tools for fabricating the metal
and for installing special fasteners. Due to the number of manufacturers of sheet metal
equipment and fastener hardware, only a select few items are covered in this section.
Continuous work as an aircraft technician, requires learning how to operate additional tools and
how to install more types of fasteners. In all cases, refer and adhere to the appropriate
manufacturer's instructions regarding the proper use of equipment and hardware that is used
for aircraft maintenance.

The fabrication of sheet metal parts for an aircraft requires the technician to have a
fundamental knowledge of the physical characteristics of the metal being used, and a working
knowledge of applied geometry. In many cases, parts are fabricated from blueprint drawings
or are constructed from templates created from pre-existing components. In other cases, the
technician must use industry acceptable practices and information from publications such as
Advisory Circular 43.13-lB and 2A, Acceptable Methods and Techniques for Aircraft
Alterations and Repairs, for conducting minor repairs to sheet metal structures. In these
situations, the technician must consider the physical characteristics of the metal and perform
computations to fabricate parts to the desired dimensions.

FABRICATION TERMINOLOGY
Fabrication processes require an understanding of the wrought physical characteristics of
metals as well as the characteristics of metals when they are shaped or bent. For example, when
sheet metal is bent, it must be formed around a radius to allow the metal to gradually change
direction. If sheet metal is bent around a sharp corner, the stresses developed will cause
fractures during fabrication or while the part is in service. However, when metal is formed
around a radius, the amount of material required in the bend will be less than the amount
required to form around a sharp corner. Also, since a bend begins and ends at different
locations depending on the radius size, it is necessary to compute and layout the location of the
bend's starting and ending points to properly position the metal in the forming machine. To
understand the methods used in developing sheet metal layouts, it is necessary to consider the
physical characteristics of the metal as well as
knowing the meaning of various terms used in
the fabrication process.
Figure 2-126. When bending sheet metal, a
number of factors must be considered. For
example, depending on the radius size, the
point where the bend begins and ends will
vary and must be determined to obtain a
desired overall dimension on the flats of the
metal.

30
When an aircraft is manufactured, fabrication engineers compute all of the bends and cutting
dimensions and create dies that can be used in forming machines to speed the manufacturing
process. The objective is to allow the metal to be cut to size in one department and formed in
another, and yet when the parts are assembled, they all fit properly. However, in field repairs
and alterations, it is the technician's responsibility to perform the computations to produce a
layout on the sheet metal. A layout is simply the process of placing lines on the metal to
distinguish the locations of cuts and bends.

FORMING BENDS
To form bends using a Cornice or finger brake, begin by verifying that the proper size radius blocks
are installed in the upper jaw. For most brakes, the blocks are stamped with the size.
However, if the block is not marked, it may be necessary to use a radius gauge to determine the
size.

Once the radius has been verified, adjust the nose of the blocks so they are back from the edge
of the bending leaf by a distance equal to the
thickness of the metal. Once adjusted, open
the jaws of the brake and slip the metal in
place, lining it up so that looking straight down
reveals that the sight line is even with the nose
of the radius block. Clamp the jaws of the brake
and raise the leaf to the desired angle. Since
all sheet metal has some spring-back, the leaf
will need to be brought through the desired
angle by a few degrees to achieve the properly
finished dimension.
Figure 2-134. The sheet metal being bent
should be placed in the brake so that the
sight line, which is one radius from the
bend tangent line in the brake, is directly
beneath the nose of the bend radius blocks.

When making more than one bend, consider the possibility of the upper jaw of the brake
interfering with flats that have already been made. In some cases, the radius blocks may need
to be spaced apart so that bent flats can come up along the sides of the blocks. However, if the
bend cannot be completely formed because of interference, bumping the metal down with a
plastic or rubber mallet over a hardwood block can do the finished shaping.

31
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 7:

TITLE: Fabrication of Aircraft Parts

INTRODUCTION:

Materials used in aircraft construction have changed significantly since the Wright
brothers built the first practical airplane. Most early aircraft was constructed from
wood and fabric. Later, to increase strength and durability, manufacturers replaced
wood substructures with welded steel tubing. However, metallic materials such as
aluminum and stainless steel were eventually used not only in the substructure,
but also as the outer covering.

Today, most aircraft are primarily fabricated from metallic components, although
advanced composite materials are being widely used mostly on control surfaces
and nonstructural components. In the future, composite materials will constitute a
greater percentage of an aircraft's structure, but metallic materials will certainly
continue to be used for many years. This activity serves as an introduction to the
design, construction, inspection, and repair of basic airframe .

OBJECTIVE:

To acquaint the students with the accepted methods and techniques in the
fabrication of aircraft parts.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects on cutting of sheet metal, forming machine, bending-angles,

channels & assorted shapes, and assembly of aircraft parts.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - Airframe Handbook

By: Jeppesen

MATERIALS & APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Metal shear 1 pc.

Sheet metal bender 1 pc.
Mallet (rubber, plastic, wood or rawhide) 1 pc.
Portable power drill (pneumatic/electric) 1 set
Drill bits, assorted 1 set
Metal files, assorted 1 set
32
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Bucking bars, assorted 1 set

Riveting gun 1 pc.
Hacksaw 1 pc.

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

33
 SAFETY AROUND MACHINE TOOLS

Many kinds of high-speed cutting tools are commonly found in aviation maintenance shops
and can be dangerous if misused. However, these tools pose little threat when used for their
intended purpose and reasonable safety precautions are observed. For example, do not
use any machine tools with which you are not familiar, or any tool whose safety features you
are unfamiliar with.

The guards and safety covers found on many tools have been put there to protect the operator.
Some of these guards may appear to interfere with the operation of the equipment. However,
they must never be removed or disabled. The slight inconvenience they cause is more then
compensated for by the added safety they provide.

Dull cutting tools present a greater threat of injury than sharp tools since a dull or improperly
sharpened tool requires excessive forces to do its job. As a result, the work can be grabbed or
thrown out of the machine. Therefore, always make sure a cutting tool is sharp and serviceable
before you use it.

When using a drill press be sure that the material being worked is securely clamped to the
drill press table before you begin drilling a hole. If this is not done, it is possible for the drill or
the cutter to grab the metal and spin it around, effectively slicing anything in its way.
Furthermore, never leave a chuck key in a drill motor or a drill press. If the switch is
accidentally turned on, the key will be thrown out with considerable force.

The use of eye protection can not be overstressed. Chips

coming off metalworking tools can easily penetrate deeply
into your eyes. In addition, if someone working near you is
using compressed air, a blast of air can easily pick up dirt
or dust and spray into your face. To prevent eye injuries,
always wear eye protection when using power tools, or
when you must enter areas where they are being used.

Figure. Face shields or goggles should be used when

drilling^ grinding, or sawing.

In addition to eye protection, you should always wear the

appropriate clothing when in the shop. For example, you should never wear ties or other
clothing that could get caught in a spinning tool. Furthermore, if you wear your hair long, tie it
back to keep it out of the way.
34
When adjusting or changing the blade or bit on a power tool, disconnect the tool from its
power source. When maintenance is performed on a power tool that cannot be disconnected
from its power source, the electrical junction box for that tool should be turned off and "locked
out," to prevent someone from accidentally turning the power back on.

Power tools are one of the greatest timesavers found in a maintenance shop, but you must not
allow their convenience to cause you to misuse the tool. In other words, never be in a hurry
around a power tool and never use a tool for a purpose for which it is not intended. Most
important of all, think before using any tool.

WELDING
Welded repairs are common in aircraft maintenance and shops should provide a means of safely
accomplishing the task. Welding should be performed only in areas that are designated for
the purpose. If a part needs to be welded, remove it and take it to the welding area. Welding
areas should be equipped with proper tables, ventilation, tool storage, and fire extinguishing
equipment. If welding is to be accomplished in a hangar, no other aircraft should be within 35
feet of the hanger, and the area should be roped off and clearly marked.

FIRE SAFETY
Aviation maintenance shops harbor all of the requirements for fires, so fire prevention is a vital
concern. All combustible materials should be stored in proper containers in areas where
spontaneous combustion cannot occur. Since dope and paint solvents are so volatile, they
should be stored in a cool, ventilated area outside of the shop.

Spilled gasoline, sanding dust, and dried paint overspray should never be swept with a dry
broom, since static electricity can cause a spark and ignite them. Always flush these
combustible products with water before sweeping them.

Always be aware of the possibility of fire and provide for exits when putting aircraft in the hangar.
Be sure that fire extinguishers are properly serviced, clearly marked and never obstructed. The
key to fire safety is knowledge of what causes fire, how to prevent them, and how to put them
out.

35
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 8:

TITLE: Machine Shop Practice

INTRODUCTION:

Tools are indispensable for the inspection, maintenance, and repair of aircraft
structures and components. Therefore, as a maintenance technician, you must be
familiar with the tooling used in the industry and its correct use and care. When
working with any tool or measuring device, remember that safety should always be
your primary consideration.

OBJECTIVE:

To familiarize the students with the use of machine shop equipment in the
fabrication of aircraft parts, tools and laboratory equipment.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects on fabrication of fittings, fabrication of ball peen hammer,

fabrication of inside and outside callipers, fabrication of selected laboratory
equipment/tools.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - General Handbook

By: Jeppesen

MATERIALOS & APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Student lathe 10” swing 1unit

Hacksaw 1 pc.
Drill press, 1/2” chuck 1 pc.
Drill bits, assorted 1 set
Table vise 5 pcs.
Files, metal (assorted) 1 set
Bench grinder 1 pc.
Milling machine (optional) 1 pc.
Vernier calliper 6” opening 1 pc.
Taps and dies 1 set
Outside caliper 1 pc.
Inside caliper 1 pc.
Ball peen hammer, 8 oz. 12” handle 1 pc.
36
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

37
 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

There are two basic forms of steel that you should be aware of when it comes to heat
treatment. They are ferrite and austenite. Ferrite is an alpha solid solution of iron containing
some carbon and exists at temperatures below the lower critical temperature. Above this lower
critical temperature, the steel begins to turn into austenite, which consists of gamma iron
containing carbon. As the temperature increases, the transformation of ferrite into austenite
continues until the upper critical temperature is reached. Above the upper critical
temperature, the entire structure consists of austenite.

ANNEALING
Annealing softens steel and relieves internal stress. To anneal steel, it is heated to about 50 °F
above its critical temperature, soaked for a specified time, then cooled. The soaking time is
typically around one hour per inch of material thickness.

The processes of forging, welding, or machining usually leave stresses within steel that could
lead to failure. These stresses are relieved in ferrous metals by a process known as normalizing.
To normalize steel, it is heated to about 100 °F above its upper critical temperature and held
there until the metal is uniformly heat soaked. The steel is then removed from the furnace and
allowed to cool in still air. Although this process does allow particles of carbon to precipitate out,
the particles are not as large as those formed when steel is annealed.

HARDENING
Pure iron, wrought iron, and extremely low-carbon steels cannot be hardened by heat
treatment since they contain no hardening element. Cast iron, on the other hand, can be
hardened, but the amount and type of heat treatment used is limited. For example, when
cast iron is cooled rapidly, it forms white iron, which is hard and brittle. However, when
cooled slowly, gray iron forms, which is soft but brittle under impact.

Carbon steel can be hardened readily. The maximum hardness obtained by carbon steel
depends almost entirely on the amount of carbon content. For example, as the carbon
content increases, the ability of a steel to be hardened increases. However, this increase
continues only to a certain point. In practice, that point is 0.85 percent carbon content.

To harden steel, it is heated above its critical temperature so carbon can disperse uniformly in
the iron matrix. Once this occurs, the alloy is cooled rapidly by quenching it in water, oil, or
brine. The speed of the quench is determined by the quenching medium. Oil provides the
slowest quench, and brine the most rapid.

38
CASE HARDENING
Certain components in aircraft engines and landing gear systems require metal with hard,
durable bearing surfaces and core material that remains tough. This is accomplished through a
process called case hardening. The steels best suited for case-hardening are the low-carbon and
low-alloy steels. If high-carbon steel is case-hardened, the hardness penetrates the core and
causes brittleness. The two methods presently used to case harden steel are carburizing and
nitriding.

CARBURIZING
Carburizing forms a thin layer of high-carbon steel on the exterior of low-carbon steel. This form of
case-hardening is accomplished through one of three methods: pack carburizing, gas carburizing,
and liquid carburizing. Pack carburizing is done by enclosing the metal in a fire-clay container and
packing it with a carbon-rich material such as charcoal. The container is then sealed, placed in a
furnace, and heated to l,700 °F. As the charcoal heats up, carbon monoxide gas forms and
combines with the gamma iron in the metal's surface. The depth to which the carbon
penetrates depends upon the soaking time.

Gas carburizing is similar to pack carburizing, except the carbon monoxide is produced by a gas
rather than a solid material. In this process, carbon from carbon monoxide gas combines with
gamma iron and forms a high-carbon surface.

Liquid carburizing produces a high-carbon surface when a part is heated in a molten bath of
sodium cyanide or barium cyanide. Either of the components supplies the carbon needed to
harden the metal's surface.

At times, only a portion of a part must be carburized. Since carbon does not infuse into a
copper-plated surface, any portion of a part that you do not want case-hardened should be
copper-plated.

39
HARDNESS TEST

Two systems of measuring the hardness of steel are

commonly used in shops where steel is heat-treated. They
are the Brinell and Rockwell systems.

THE BRINELL HARDNESS SYSTEM

The Brinell hardness tester uses a hydraulic force to impress
a spherical penetrator into the surface of a sample. The
amount of force used is approximately 3,000 kilograms for
steel, and 500 kilograms for nonferrous metals. This force
is hydraulically applied by a hand pump and read on a
pressure gauge. When the sample is removed from the
tester, the diameter of the impression is measured with a
special calibrated microscope. This diameter is converted
into a Brinell number by using a chart furnished with the
tester.

Figure. A Brinell hardness tester determines hardness by

forcing a penetrator into a sample and measuring the diam-
eter of the resulting impression.

40
THE ROCKWELL HARDNESS SYSTEM
The Rockwell hardness tester gives the same information the Brinell tester gives, except that it
measures the depth to which the penetrator sinks into the material rather than the diameter of
the impression. [

To use a Rockwell hardness tester, a sample is thoroughly cleaned, the two opposite surfaces
are ground flat and parallel, and all scratches
are polished out. The sample is then placed on
the anvil of the tester and raised up against the
penetrator. A 10-kilogram load, called the
minor load, is applied and the machine is
zeroed. A major load is then applied and the
dial on the tester indicates the depth the
penetrator sinks into the metal. Instead of
indicating the depth of penetration in
thousandths of an inch, it indicates in Rockwell
numbers on either a red or a black scale.

Figure. A Rockwell hardness tester produces

the same information as a Brinell tester by
measuring the depth of the impression in a
sample.

Rockwell testers use three types of

penetrators: a conical diamond, a 1/16 inch
ball, and a 1/8 inch ball. There are also three
major loads: 60 kilograms, 100 kilograms, and
150 kilograms. The two most commonly used
Rockwell scales are the B-scale for soft metals, which uses a 1/16 ball penetrator and a 100 kg
major load, and the C-scale for hard metals, which uses the conical diamond penetrator and a 150 kg
major load.

41
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

Activity No. 9:

TITLE: Heat Treatment Processes

INTRODUCTION:

Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in
their solid state. Its purpose is to make the metal more useful, serviceable, and safe for
a definite purpose. By heat-treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and more
resistant to impact.
Heat-treating can also make a metal softer and more ductile. However, one heat-
treating operation cannot produce all these characteristics. In fact, some properties are
often improved at the expense of others. In being hardened, for example, a metal may
become brittle.

All heat-treating processes are similar in that they involve the heating and cooling of
metals. They differ, however, in the temperatures to which the metal is heated and the
rate at which it is cooled.

There are two types of heat-treatments used on aluminum alloys. One is called solution
heat-treatment, and the other is known as precipitation heat-treatment. Some alloys,
such as 2017 and 2024, develop their full properties as a result of solution heat-
treatment, followed by about four days of cooling, or aging, at room temperature.
However, other alloys, such as 2014 and 7075, require both heat-treatments.

OBJECTIVE:

To familiarize the students with the various heat treatment processes and their
effects.

PROCEDURE:

Individual projects on tempering, annealing, normalizing, case hardening,

hardness - tests.

REFERENCES:

A&P Technician - General Handbook

By: Jeppesen

42
NAME: _______________________________ DATE: _______________________________
YR. & SEC.: ___________________________ RATING: _____________________________
GROUP NO.: __________________________ INSTRUCTOR: ________________________

MATERIALS & APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Oxy-acetylene set 1 set

Furnace-electric or gas w/ temperature 1 pc.
control
Hardness tester 1 pc.
Quenching bath 1 pc.
Tongs 1 pc.

CONCLUSION:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

43