Theory of Flight PDF

11.
THEORY OF
FLIGHT
November 23, 2017

LEARNING OUTCOMES
On comple?on of this topic you should be able to:
•  Describe about theory of flight.
1.  Rela?onship between liO, weight, thrust and
drag.
2.  Glide ra?o.
3.  Steady state flights, performance.
Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

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11.1 RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN LIFT,
WEIGHT, THRUST
AND DRAG

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FORCES ACTING ON AIRCARFT

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THRUST
•  The aircraG’s propelling force LIFT
•  Arranged symmetrically to the Acts at right angle to the line of
centre line flight & through the Centre of
•  Act parallel to the line of flight Pressure of the wings
DRAG
WEIGHT@ GRAVITY •  Opposes the forward moKon
Acts verKcally downwards •  Regarded as a rearward
through acKng force
the Centre of Gravity
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•  An aircraG flying at constant height and speed

LIFT = WEIGHT
THRUST = DRAG
•  Under these condiKon
i.  Angle of aQack altered to adjust the producKon of liO
exactly equals the weight which it must support
ii.  Engine thrust set to exactly equal the aircraG drag
generated at that parKcular speed

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ARRANGEMENT OF FORCES
•  LiG = Weight and Thrust = Drag
§  AircraG tend to rotate nose up or nose down if the forces line
of acKon not correctly arranged
§  Proper arrangement of the forces (depends on aircraG design)
i.  Centre of pressure aG of centre of gravity à nose
down
ii.  Thrust line below drag line à nose up

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The ideal arrangement of the
four forces
1.  The ideal arrangement is where
the centre of gravity is forward of
the centre of pressure (centre of
liO) – which produces a nose
down couple.
2.  The thrust line is lower than the
centre of drag, which produces a
nose up couple.
3.  Each couple opposing the other
and cancelling each other out.
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LIFT
WEIGHT
LIFT and WEIGHT = nose down couple

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THRUST and DRAG = nose up couple
DRAG THRUST

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THRUST and DRAG = nose up couple
LIFT
DRAG THRUST
WEIGHT
LIFT and WEIGHT = nose down couple

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FOUR FORCES OF FLIGHT
•  For aircraO to be flying in a Straight, Level and at
Constant Speed.
Weight Forces = LiO
Drag = Thrust

LiO act through the centre of pressure (CP) while
weight through the centre of gravity (CG).
Thrust and drag act in opposite direc?ons parallel
to the direc?on of flight.
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11.2 GLIDE RATIO

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GLIDE RATIO
•  CondiKon aircraG with no thrust from engine.
•  Glide ra?o distance covered to high lost.
•  Highest LiG/Drag raKo give maximun distance by flying with
minimum drag.

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Glide
Ra?os
(Example)
AIRCRAFT GLIDE
•  It is rare for powered aircraO need to glide, but it
is possible to happens.
•  During a glide, only 3 forces involved instead of 4.
•  The forces are:
1. Weight
2. LiO
3. Drag
•  One important thing for an aircraO to glide is
aircraO C of G must be in front of C of P.
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THEORY OF TURN
•  When the pilot wants to turn the aircraO, the
first thing he needs to do is to roll the aircraO
(banking).
•  The liOing forces are now can be divided into 2
components.
1. Ver?cal Component
2. Horizontal Component
•  The horizontal component will cause the aircraO
to turn.

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FORCES DURING NORMAL
COORDINATED TURN

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•  When aircraO is banking, there are few effects
that need to be consider:
1.  Adverse Yaw
2.  The liO produce by the wing has been divided
into 2 therefore the liO to counteract the
weight must be increase to prevent the aircraO
from falling.
3.  Load Factor

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ADVERSE YAW
•  Adverse yaw is the natural and undesirable
tendency for an aircraO to yaw in the opposite
direc?on of a roll.
•  It is caused by the difference in profile drag
between the upward and downward deflected
ailerons, the difference in liO and thus induced
drag between leO and right wings, as well as an
opposite rota?on of each wing's liO vector
about the pitch axis due to the rolling trajectory
of the aircraO.

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ADVERSE YAW
•  To roll the aircraO 1 aileron must comes down
(increased liO) and the other must comes up
(decrease liO).
•  This will create an

adverse yaw, and
must be corrected by
applying rudder.

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MINIMIZING THE ADVERSE YAW
•  THERE ARE A NUMBER OF DESIGN
CHARACTERISTICS WHICH CAN BE
USED TO REDUCED ADVERSE YAW:
v AILERON TO RUDDER MIXING
v LIFT COEFFICIENT
v YAW STABILITY
v DIFFERENTIAL AILERON DEFLECTION
v FRISE AILERONS
v ROLL SPOILERS

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LOAD FACTOR

•  The amount of stress (load factor) that an aircraG can
withstand before structural damage or failure occurs is
expressed as the aircraO’s limi?ng load factor.
•  Primarily a funcKon of aircraG design, an individual
aircraG’s limiKng load factor is published in the aircraO
flight manual (or: pilot opera?ng handbook) in terms
of maximum posiKve or negaKve g.
•  LimiKng load factors of +3.5g to +3.8g and -‐1.5g to
-‐1.8g are quite common for various general aviaKon
and transport category aircraG.
LOAD FACTOR
1.  Load factor is the raKo of the maximum load an aircraG can
sustain to the gross weight of the aircraG. With the a/c flying
straight and level the Load Factor is one. With the aircraG in a
banked turn the load factor is increased.
Angle of Bank G Loading Load Factor

60o X2 X2
70o X3 X3
2.  For an average 200 ton ( = 200 metric tonnes) airliner these
figures are respecKvely 400 tons/tonnes and 600 tons/tonnes.

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LOAD FACTOR

q With the structural design of aircraG planned to
withstand only a certain amount of overload, a
knowledge of load factors has become essenKal for all
pilots. Load factors are important for two reasons:

Ø It is possible for a pilot to impose a dangerous
overload on the aircraG structures.
Ø An increased load factor increases the stalling speed
and makes stalls possible at seemingly safe flight
speeds.
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Source : hgp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_factor_(aeronau?cs)
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LOAD FACTOR IN AIRCARFT DESIGN
q AircraG designed under the category system are readily

idenKfied by a placard in the flight deck, which states the
operaKonal category (or categories) in which the aircraG is
cerKficated.
q The maximum safe load factors (limit load factors) specified for
aircraG in the various categories are:
1 For aircraG with gross weight of more than 4,000 pounds, the limit
load factor is reduced. To the limit loads given above, a safety factor
of 50 percent is added.
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Category Limit Load Factor
Normal1 3.8 to – 1.52
UKlity (mild 4.4 to – 1.76
acrobaKcs, including
spins)
AcrobaKc 6.0 to – 3.00
Note: 1For aircraG with gross weight of more

than 4,000 pounds, the limit load factor is
reduced. To the limit loads given above, a
safety factor of 50 percent is added.

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LOAD
FACTOR
STALL SPEED
the liO generated
•  Stall is a condi?on where
by the aircraO’s wings no longer supports its
weight.
•  The higher load factor in constant-‐al?tude
turns caused by the centrifugal force will also
increase the stall speed. An increased stall
speed means that the aircraO stalls earlier,
i.e. at a higher speed.
•  Stalls that occur with g-‐forces on an aircraO
are called ’accelerated stalls’.
STALL SPEED
•  In fact, the stall speed increases in propor?on to
the square root of the load factor.
•  To counteract the increase in aircraO load you need
to increase the liO produce by wing.
•  To increase liO you can do 2 things:
1.  Increase Angle of Agack
2.  Increase AircraO Speed
•  Example: If an aircraO has a stalling speed of 55
knots at 1g, then it will stall at twice that speed (i.e.
at 110 knots) when the load factor becomes 4g,
which corresponds to a bank angle of 77°.
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•  There is a limit to increase Angle of Agack
normally around 15 degrees.
•  To increase the liO further is by increasing
aircraO speed.
•  The minimum speed needed to create enough
liO to counteract the aircraO load at maximum
angle of agack is called STALL SPEED.
•  Therefore an increase in aircraO load will
increase its Stall Speed.

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•  Source : hQp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_factor_(aeronauKcs)
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FLIGHT ENVELOPE
•  Flight envelope describe aerodynamic and
structural limitaKon of aircraG.
•  Pilot fly the aircraG based on the envelope.

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FLIGHT ENVOLOPE AND STRUCTURAL
LIMITATION
•  It will describe the boundaries of al?tude and
airspeed within which normal flight manoeuvring
can be safely conducted.
•  Normally aircraO Flight Envelope can be found in
the AircraO Flight Manual.

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PIEL EMERAUDE FLIGHT ENVELOPE

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FLIGHT ENVELOPE
•  The aircraG’s flight is limited to a regime of airspeeds and
load factor which do not exceed the limit (redline) speed
(225 mph), do not exceed the limit load factor (4.4 G), and
cannot exceed the maximum liG capability.

•  The aircraG must be operated within this “envelope” to
prevent structural damage and ensure the anKcipated
service liG of the aircraG is obtained.

•  Any maneuver and/or gust outside the structural envelope
can cause structural damage and effecKvely shorten the
service life of the aircraG.
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11.3 STEADY
STATE FLIGHTS,
PERFORMANCE

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Airplane controls,
movement, axes of rota?on,
and type of stability

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737 CONTROL SURFACES

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THE BANKED TURN
1.  For the a/c to carry out a turn it must produce a force towards the centre of
the turn (centripetal force).
2.  When the a/c banks the liO force is placed at an angle (when viewed from the
front or rear) by the pilot moving the control column to one side moving the
ailerons.
3.  The force of a banking turn manoeuvre can be divided into its component:
a)  LiO Component – Must be equal and opposite to weight if the aircraO is
to not lose or gain height.
b)  Centripetal Component – to be equal and opposite to the centrifugal
force created by the aircraO, and to provide the force required to “pull”
the aircraO around the corner.
4.  If the centripetal force is larger than the aircraO will go into a ?ghter turn, if
is smaller the radius of turn will get greater.

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THE BANKED TURN
What are the control

surfaces involved in a
banking turn maneuver?

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THE CLIMB
When the a/c climbs all the force vectors move with the a/c.

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CHANGE IN LIFT DURING CLIMB
ENTRY
•  During the transiKon from straight-‐and-‐level
flight to a climb, a change in liG occurs when back
elevator pressure is first applied.
•  Raising the aircraG’s nose increases the AOA and
momentarily increases the liG. LiG at this
moment is now greater than weight and starts
the aircraG climbing.
•  AGer the flight path is stabilized on the upward
incline, the AOA and liG again revert to about the
level flight values.

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FORCE ACTING DURING THE CLIMB
CHANGE IN LIFT DURING CLIMB
ENTRY

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CHANGE IN SPEED DURING CLIMB
ENTRY
•  If the climb is entered with no change in power semng, the
airspeed gradually diminishes because the thrust required to
maintain a given airspeed in level flight is insufficient to maintain
the same airspeed in a climb.
•  When the flight path is inclined upward, a component of the
aircraG’s weight acts in the same direcKon as, and parallel to, the
total drag of the aircraG, thereby increasing the total effecKve drag.
•  Consequently, the total drag is greater than the power, and the
airspeed decreases. The reducKon in airspeed gradually results in a
corresponding decrease in drag unKl the total drag (including the
component of weight acKng in the same direcKon) equals the
thrust.
•  Due to momentum, the change in airspeed is gradual, varying
considerably with differences in aircraG size, weight, total drag, and
other factors. Consequently, the total drag is greater than the
thrust, and the airspeed decreases.

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CHANGE IN SPEED DURING CLIMB
ENTRY

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LIFT AND DRAG
AUGMENTATION
DEVICES
Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan Abdul Razak 51

LIFT AUGMENTATION
Ø During aircraO take off and landing, the liO
produce by the wing is less, due to the aircraO
low speed.
Ø Normally liO is increased for landing and take-‐
off by the use of:
•  Leading edge devices
•  Trailing edge devices.

LEADING EDGE DEVICES
•  The basis for leading edge devices is to cause an
increase in velocity of the airflow over the top
surface of the aerofoil.
•  This increase in velocity results in the transi?on
to turbulence being delayed and the transi?on
point is caused to move back towards the
trailing edge.
•  The result is that an increase in angle of agack
and hence an increase of liO coefficient.

SLOTS
•  A leading edge slot is a fixed (non-‐closing) gap
behind the wing’s leading edge.

•  Air from below the wing can accelerate through the
slot towards the low pressure region above the
wing, and exit from the slot moving parallel to the
upper wing surface.

•  This high-‐speed flow then mixes with the
boundary layer agached to the upper surface
and delays boundary layer turbulance from the
upper surface.

SLATS
•  Slats are aerodynamics surfaces on the leading
edge of the wings of fixed wing aircraO which,
when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a
higher angle of agack.
•  Two types of slats
1.  Fixed Slats
2.  Movable Slats

FIXED SLATS

MOVEABLE SLATS
•  They are usually used while landing or
performing manoeuvres which take the aircraO
close to the stall, but are usually retracted in
normal flight to
minimize drag.

LEADING EDGE FLAPS
•  Another methods to increase the liO of a wing at
low speeds is by using leading edge flaps.
•  When the leading edge flaps are lowered, it
increases the camber.
1.  Krueger Flaps

2.  Variable Camber Leading Edge Flaps
3.  Droop Leading Edge Flaps

KRUEGER FLAP
It is hinged forward to increase the camber of the
wing, and also increases the wing area

Variable Camber Leading Edge Flaps

•  A modified Krueger Flap is called Variable
Camber Leading Edge Flap.
•  It is made from flexible composite material.
•  When extended, the actua?ng linkage causes
the flaps to change its curve ( contour ).
•  A slot is also formed so that it also can func?ons
as a slat.

DROOP LEADING EDGE

TRAILING EDGE DEVICES
•  Normally the trailing edge devices used are the
flaps.
•  Flaps are designed to increase the liO of the
wing and decrease the stall speed, therefore the
aircraO can fly at reduced speed.
•  This is possible by changing the shape of the
wing.

TYPE OF FLAPS
Also known as Camber Flap

Simplest flap design
Normally used on small aircraO
Can increase liO up to 50%
Only the bogom camber is changed, the upper
camber does not change.
Even more drag than plain flap.
When the flap is lowered, a slot is formed.
Delayed Stall.
Increases camber and wing area.
Complicated mechanism.
Can increase liO up to 90%.
One disadvantages is that, when deployed it will
cause large rearward movement of C of P
Double Sloged Fowler Flap
Best flaps for liO.

Complicated mechanism

DRAG AUGMENTATION
•  Some?mes there is a need for aircraO to slow
down quickly and reduce liO.
•  Few methods to do this are by using
1.  Spoilers
2.  LiO Dumpers
3.  Speed Brake

SPOILERS
•  They are normally situated on top of the wing
forward of the flaps.
•  It is a flat panels hinged at the forward edge.
•  When the spoilers are deployed, they rise up,
reduce liO and increase drag.

•  They may carry out more than one func?on but
are generally classified as:
1.  Flight Spoilers/Differen?al Spoilers
2.  Speed Brake
3.  Ground Spoilers/LiO Dumpers
4.  Gust Allevia?on Spoilers
* For correct terms please refer aircraO
manufacturer

Flight Spoilers
•  Also known as Roll Spoilers, Differen?al
Spoilers.
•  It used to help the up going aileron by reducing
liO and increase drag.
•  When the up going aileron raise to a certain
degree, the roll spoiler will start to go up.

Speed Brakes
•  When the spoiler is used as speed-‐brakes, the
spoilers on both wing are raised together.
•  It is controlled by the pilot using the speed-‐
brake lever in the cockpit.

Ground Spoilers

•  Also known as liO dumpers.
•  During aircraO touchdown, both the flight
spoilers and ground spoilers on both wing will
rise up to its maximum angle to reduce the liO
on the wing and to ensure the aircraO weight is
on the landing gear.
•  The drag created by the spoilers also helps to
slow down the aircraO.

Tail Cone Brake
•  Tail cone brake is also used to slow down the
aircraO during landing.

END OF LESSON

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11.

November 23, 2017

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

• An aircraG ﬂying at constant height and speed

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

ii. Thrust line below drag line à nose up

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LIFT and WEIGHT = nose down couple

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LIFT and WEIGHT = nose down couple

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• This will create an

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Angle of Bank G Loading Load Factor

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q AircraG designed under the category system are readily

Note: 1For aircraG with gross weight of more

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What are the control

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1. Krueger Flaps

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Also known as Camber Flap

Best ﬂaps for liO.

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•  An aircraG ﬂying at constant height and speed

ii.  Thrust line below drag line à nose up

•  This will create an

q AircraG designed under the category system are readily

1.  Krueger Flaps