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Photosynthesis
Definition
Aquatic vascular plants, attached algae (periphytes), and free-floating algae (phytoplankton) produce oxygen
through photosynthesis, which contributes to DO concentrations in the water. The simplified chemical reaction
that produces oxygen through photosynthesis (Tchobanoglous and Schroeder 1985) is:
CO2 + H2O + Nutrients (in the presence of light) —> CH 2O [new algal cells] + O2
This equation suggests that for each gram of algal biomass produced, about 2.67 grams of O 2 will be produced.
However, algal biomass is about 40% carbon, so 1 gram of biomass will be associated with about 1 gram of
oxygen. Therefore, for each 1 mg/L of DO produced during the day in the San Joaquin River at Mossdale or near
the surface of the DWSC, an equivalent algal biomass must have been produced during photosynthesis.
Interactions with Other Primary Drivers
Photosynthesis interacts with the following primary drivers: reaeration and residence time.
Secondary Drivers That Affect Photosynthesis
The following secondary drivers affect photosynthesis: algal biomass, turbidity, water temperature, and
nutrients.
The amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis is determined by diurnal and seasonal variations in light
intensity and by weather-related factors, such as the presence and density of cloud cover. In some cases,
vegetative cover from river banks also affects the amount of sunlight reaching the water surface. The amount of
sunlight available for photosynthesis is governed by factors that are not controllable (except for shading from
riparian trees) and, therefore, this secondary driver is not discussed in the reach-specific sections.
Maximum rates of algal photosynthesis occur at 25–45% of the light intensity available at the DWSC water
surface (Lehman et al. 2001).
Residence Time
Definition
Residence time is the amount of time that water remains in a water body. Generally, increasing flow volume
decreases residence time by increasing flow velocity in the channel. Channel geometry (i.e., width, depth)
determines residence time by affecting the velocity with which a given volume of water passes through a
channel segment. In the DWSC, residence time is controlled by its geometry (depth and width), and inflows
from the San Joaquin River. Tidal flows increase the movement of water in the DWSC but do not change the
average residence time. Particulate materials that settle to the channel bottom have a longer residence time
than those in the water (i.e., dissolved substances).
Measuring Residence Time
Residence time can be calculated from the flow and volume:
time (days) = 0.5 • volume (af) / river flow (cfs)
Interactions with Other Primary Drivers
Residence time interacts with the following primary drivers: BOD, SOD, reaeration, and photosynthesis.
Secondary Drivers That Affect Residence Time
The following secondary drivers affect BOD: flow and channel geometry.
Stratification (i.e., surface heating) can produce a shallow surface layer and limit reaeration of water below the
surface layer. Stratification is more likely to occur during the afternoon of warm days (i.e., high solar radiation)
in the DWSC.
Water Temperature Effects on Photosynthesis and Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Water temperature affects photosynthesis (via algal biomass) and BOD concentrations in several ways. Water
temperature affects the rate that oxygen is generated through photosynthesis by affecting the growth rate of
algae and other aquatic plants. As water temperatures in the San Joaquin River rise, algal growth rates increase,
as do the rates of DO-depleting reactions (i.e., decay and respiration) (Lee and Jones-Lee 2003). The assumed
effect of temperature on algal growth and decay is:
growth/decay rate = (growth/decay rate at 20°C) • 1.05T-20
where T is temperature in degrees Celsius.
The seasonal effect of temperature on the rates is strong, but the magnitude of the effect is uncertain because
no direct measurements have been made of these process rates at varying temperatures. One author has found
that first-order decay constants (measured at 20 ºC) for BOD at Mossdale in the San Joaquin River and in the
DWSC are approximately 0.11 per day (Litton 2001a). Some of the year-to-year variations in DO depletion in the
DWSC may be related to temperature differences, which influence algal growth in the San Joaquin River
watershed and oxygen depletion in the DWSC (Lee and Jones-Lee 2003, Lehman et al. 2001).
Water Temperature Effects on Sediment Oxygen Demand
Water temperature affects the quantity and significance of SOD by affecting the rate of oxygen consumption in
the sediments. The first-order reaction of SOD decay (which is similar to the BOD decay equation) is:
SODt = Lo[1-e-kt]
where
SODt is the SOD calculated at time, t, in mg/L, k is the first-order decay rate constant, and
Lo is the ultimate SOD (Litton 2001a).
The decay rate constant, k, is a function of temperature and would be expected to increase as temperatures
increase (Chapra 1997 cited in Jassby 2005). Generally, a 10°C increase in temperature results in a doubling of
the decay rate (Chapra 1997 cited in Jassby 2005). Thus, SOD would increase as water temperatures in the
DWSC or San Joaquin River increased. The temperature effect on decay rates is generally assumed to be:
kT = k20 • 1.05T-20
where T is temperature in degrees Celsius.
Therefore, the seasonal variation in SOD is generally strong but uncertain because there are no direct
measurements.
Nitrification rates are less during the winter and may cease altogether at temperatures less than 10°C (Brown
2002).
Flow Velocity
Flow velocity affects the following primary drivers: reaeration and residence time.
Flow Velocity Effects on Reaeration and Residence Time
Increased flow generally increases the flow velocity and turbulent mixing and thereby increases the reaeration
rate. The increased flow velocity caused by increased flow also decreases residence time. Although reaeration
and residence time are separate secondary drivers, they are closely related and therefore are discussed
together in this section.
Sources of flow include upstream releases from reservoirs, flow from tributaries , groundwater discharge into
the San Joaquin River, agricultural and other water returns, stormwater runoff, and discharges from wastewater
treatment plants and other urban and industrial sources.
Diversions of water include agricultural, wetland, urban, and industrial water supply diversions; groundwater
aquifer recharge; and evaporation. Diversions of water from the San Joaquin River, particularly at the head of
Old River, can remove a significant amount of San Joaquin River flow from the DWSC, especially in years with
high Central Valley Project and State Water Project pumping (Quinn and Tulloch 2002, Ralston and Hayes 2002).
Sources of flow and flow losses are described for each river reach .
Channel Geometry
Channel geometry affects the following primary drivers: reaeration and residence time.
Channel Geometry Effects on Reaeration
More reaeration is possible when the river channel is wide and shallow. A wider channel has more surface area
for reaeration, and a shallow depth allows a larger change in DO concentration with a given rate of reaeration.
Another aspect of channel geometry can effect reaeration rates: water dropping over weirs or through riffles
can greatly increase the reaeration rate by increasing turbulence. This effect is more likely on the tributary
streams with a substantial gradient.
Channel Geometry Effects on Residence Time
Channel geometry affects residence time by affecting the flow velocity. Residence time can be calculated from
the flow and volume:
time (days) = 0.5 • volume (af) / river flow (cfs)
The channel geometry describes the biological "reactor" in which the DO dynamics of the river occur. For a
given length of river, the width determines the surface area for sunlight to grow algae, macrophytes (i.e.,
aquatic plants), and benthic algae, and the sediment area (slightly greater than surface area). For a 1-mile
segment of river, each 10 feet of width represents 1.2 acres of surface and sediment area per mile. The average
depth of the river, together with the width, determines the volume of water per mile. The depth controls the
effectiveness of surface reaeration in oxygenating the water column, influences the amount of photosynthesis
(expressed as DO [g/m2/day]) that can take place (because of limitations on light penetration of water), and
influences the extent to which SOD changes DO concentrations in the entire water column. In addition, The
depth and width govern the cross-sectional area, which determines the velocity and travel time of water
flowing in the reach.
The channel geometry of Reaches 1 and 2 is determined primarily by natural fluvial geomorphic processes, but
Reach 3 (i.e., the DWSC) was artificially created and its channel geometry is determined by channel dredging.
The geometry of the DWSC controls the flow of water it and the tidal exchange and mixing in it ( Jones & Stokes
2002c). The San Joaquin River channel immediately above the DWSC is 10–15 feet deep, and the channel in the
DWSC is maintained to a depth of 35–40 feet (Lee and Jones-Lee 2003). As described in Residence Time [link to
heading in this file], residence time and tidal mixing influence the DO decline from BOD and SOD. Therefore, its
geometry is an important factor affecting the DWSC DO concentrations because it affects the residence time of
oxygen-demanding materials and tidal exchange and mixing (Jones & Stokes 2002c).
Algal Biomass
Algal biomass affects the following primary driver: photosynthesis.
Algal Biomass Effects on Photosynthesis
Algae (phytoplankton) are the primary source of photosynthetically generated DO in the study area ( Lee and
Jones-Lee 2003). As algal biomass increases, the amount of oxygen produced by algae through photosynthesis
also increases. Studies conducted in the DWSC have shown that algal photosynthesis can add considerable
amounts of oxygen to the near-surface portion of the water column. As a result, DO concentrations can be high
during the day (when photosynthesis is occurring) in the near surface waters of the DWSC but low near the
channel bottom where light cannot penetrate sufficiently to support it (Lehman and Ralston 2001; Jones &
Stokes 2002a; Van Nieuwenhuyse 2002).
Although algal biomass in the San Joaquin River can increase DO concentrations through photosynthesis, it can
also decrease DO concentrations through respiration and, where slow flow rates cause algae to sink and die,
through decomposition. This section discusses photosynthesis; decomposition of algae is discussed under the
primary driver BOD.
Algal biomass in the study area is derived from algae that enter the study area from upstream sources
(imported BOD) and algae that are produced in each reach. In the study area, algal growth is primarily a
function of the temperature of water, the amount of available light, and the amount of available algal nutrients
(Thuman et al. 2004). In addition, algal biomass is also affected by the time available for algae to grow in the
study area. For example, increased algal biomass in the DWSC will generally occur during periods of increased
residence times (Quinn and Tulloch 2002).
Imported algal biomass is the algal biomass that is contributed to the San Joaquin River in water from
tributaries, return flows, and other flow sources. The imported algae provide the “seed” for algal growth and
generally increasing concentrations in the river.
Turbidity
Turbidity affects the following primary driver: photosynthesis.
Turbidity Effects on Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis and the subsequent production of oxygen require the presence of sunlight (Tchobanoglous and
Schroeder 1985). Once sunlight reaches the water surface, the clarity of the water determines the depth to
which light travels into the water column. The euphotic zone is the portion of the water column receiving
sufficient light for photosynthesis. Suspended particles in the water column can reduce the clarity of the water,
decreasing the depth of the euphotic zone and decreasing the amount of sunlight reaching that zone.
The sources of the suspended sediment in the San Joaquin River are not well documented. However, potential
sources include scour of mud from the channel bottom, erosion of soil, and input of other particulate matter
from stormwater runoff, tributaries, and other flow sources.
In addition to turbidity, colored water released from managed wetlands in the Mud and Salt Slough watershed
has been shown, at times, to contribute sufficient color to the San Joaquin River and DWSC to reduce light
penetration sufficiently to affect the rate of algal photosynthesis (Lee and Jones-Lee 2003). Although algae in
the San Joaquin River are mixed and grow at the average light level in the river, in the DWSC, the algae are not
in the surface lighted layer (euphotic zone) for enough of the day to increase in the net biomass or DO
production. Reductions in the availability of light associated with increasing turbidity can also reduce the
lifespan of algae established in the affected water column (Lee and Jones-Lee 2000).
Periods of the highest turbidity in the study area are likely experienced during February through May, when
flows are highest and particulate materials are eroded and flushed downstream. One study found that in 2001,
turbidity values in the DWSC declined from June to October (Jones & Stokes 2002a). Turbidity values in the San
Joaquin River from Vernalis to Channel Point were similar to those measured in the DWSC and experienced a
similar decline during the summer (Jones & Stokes 2002a).
Nutrients
Nutrients affect the following primary driver: photosynthesis.
Nutrient Effects on Photosynthesis
Algae use nutrients during photosynthesis. Nitrogen and phosphorus are the primary nutrients required for
algal growth, as well as carbon obtained from dissolved CO 2 in the water column. Conversely, a surplus of
nutrients can lead to eutrophication and excessive algae growth, which can reduce DO concentrations.
Nutrients are contributed to the San Joaquin River by upstream sources, as well as local stormwater runoff and
wastewater discharges (Lee and Jones-Lee 2003). Nutrients in the study area are derived from soil, fertilizers,
animal waste from dairies and other livestock-related operations, and discharges to the river from wastewater
treatment facilities (Leland et al. 2001). Ammonia inputs to the San Joaquin River from the Stockton RWCF have
generally been lowest during the summer (i.e., less than 10 mg/L) and highest (i.e., 25 mg/L ammonia-N) during
the winter (Jones & Stokes 2002a). One indication that human activities may substantially contribute nutrients
to the San Joaquin River is that nitrogen isotopes in the river (upstream of Vernalis) appear to be derived from
animal waste and sewage discharges (Kratzer et al. 2004). This nitrogen isotope analysis also indicated that soil
nitrogen and/or fertilizer are the most important nitrogen sources in tributaries to the San Joaquin River
(Kratzer et al. 2004).