Intensive and extensive properties

Physical properties of materials and systems can often be mains true regardless of quantity.
categorized as being either intensive or extensive quanti- The distinction between intensive and extensive proper-
ties, according to how the property changes when the size
ties has some theoretical uses. For example, in thermo-
(or extent) of the system changes. According to IUPAC, dynamics, according to the state postulate, a sufficiently
an intensive property is one whose magnitude is indepen-
simple system consisting of a single substance requires
dent of the size of the system. An extensive property is only two independent intensive variables to fully specify
one whose magnitude is additive for subsystems.[1]
the system’s entire state. Other intensive properties are
An intensive property is a bulk property, meaning that derived from those two variables.
it is a physical property of a system that does not depend
on the system size or the amount of material in the system.
Examples of intensive properties include temperature, T, 1.1 Examples
refractive index, n, density, ρ, and hardness of an object,
η (IUPAC symbols[1] are used throughout this article). Examples of intensive properties include:[2][4][5]
When a diamond is cut, the pieces maintain their intrinsic
hardness (until their size reaches a few atoms thick), so • chemical potential, μ
hardness is independent of the size of the system.
• color[6]
By contrast, an extensive property is additive for
subsystems.[2] This means the system could be divided • concentration, c
into any number of subsystems, and the extensive prop-
erty measured for each subsystem; the value of the prop- • density, ρ (or specific gravity)
erty for the system would be the sum of the property for
each subsystem. For example, both the mass, m, and the • magnetic permeability, μ
volume, V, of a diamond are directly proportional to the
• melting point and boiling point[7]
amount that is left after cutting it from the raw mineral.
Mass and volume are extensive properties, but hardness • molality, m or b
is intensive.
The ratio of two extensive properties of the same object • pressure, p
or system is an intensive property. For example, the ratio • specific heat capacity, cp
of an object’s mass and volume, which are two extensive
properties, is density, which is an intensive property.[3] • specific volume, v
The terms intensive and extensive quantities were intro-
• standard reduction potential,[7] E°
duced by Richard C. Tolman in 1917.[4]
• temperature, T

1 Intensive properties
An intensive property is a physical quantity whose value
does not depend on the amount of the substance for which
it is measured. For example, the temperature of a system
in thermal equilibrium is the same as the temperature of
any part of it. If the system is divided the temperature
of each subsystem is identical. The same applies to the
density of a homogeneous system; if the system is divided
in half, the mass and the volume change in the identical
ratio and the density remains unchanged. Additionally,
the boiling point of a substance is another example of an
intensive property. For example, the boiling point of wa-
ter is 100 °C at a pressure of one atmosphere, which re-
2 Extensive properties
The IUPAC Gold Book defines an extensive property
as a physical quantity whose magnitude is additive for
subsystems.[1] The value of such an additive property is
proportional to the size of the system it describes, or to
the quantity of matter in the system. For example, the
amount of heat required to melt ice at constant tempera-
ture and pressure is an extensive property, known as the
enthalpy of fusion. The amount of heat required to melt
one ice cube would be much less than the amount of heat
required to melt an iceberg, so it is dependent on the
quantity.

1
2 4 “SPECIFIC” PROPERTIES

Extensive properties are not just dependent on the amount (This is equivalent to saying that intensive composite
of material in a system; the relation must be additive. If, properties are homogeneous functions of degree 0 with
say, a property depended on the square of the mass, it respect to {Aj } .)
would not be an extensive property. (Consider a system It follows, for example, that the ratio of two extensive
consisting of two 1 gram weights. The total mass is 2 properties is an intensive property. To illustrate, con-
g, squaring that gives 4 g2 . Squaring and summing the sider a system having a certain mass, m , and volume,
individual masses gives 2 g2 . This property is not additive
V . The density, ρ is equal to mass (extensive) divided
for the two subsystems.) by volume (extensive): ρ = m V . If the system is scaled
Dividing one extensive property by another extensive by the factor α , then the mass and volume become αm
property generally gives an intensive value—for exam- and αV , and the density becomes ρ = αm αV ; the two
ple: mass (extensive) divided by volume (extensive) gives α s cancel, so this could be written mathematically as
density (intensive). ρ(αm, αV ) = ρ(m, V ) , which is analogous to the equa-
tion for F above.
The property F is an extensive property if for all α ,
2.1 Examples
Examples of extensive properties include:[2][4][5]
F ({ai }, {αAj }) = αF ({ai }, {Aj }).
• amount of substance, mol (This is equivalent to saying that extensive composite
properties are homogeneous functions of degree 1 with
• energy, E
respect to {Aj } .) It follows from Euler’s homogeneous
• enthalpy, H function theorem that

• entropy, S
∑ ( )
∂F
• Gibbs energy, G F ({ai }, {Aj }) = Aj ,
j
∂Aj
• heat capacity, Cp
where the partial derivative is taken with all parameters
• Helmholtz energy, A or F constant except Aj .[8] This last equation can be used to
derive thermodynamic relations.
• internal energy, U

• mass, m
4 “Specific” properties
• volume, V
See also: List of thermodynamic properties

3 Composite properties A specific property is obtained by dividing an extensive

property of a system by the mass of the system. For ex-
Properties can be combined to give new properties, which ample, heat capacity is an extensive property of a system.
may be called derived,[1] or composite properties. For Dividing heat capacity, Cp, by the mass of the system
example, mass and volume can be combined to give den- gives the specific heat capacity, cp, which is an intensive
sity. These composite properties can also be classified as property. When the extensive property is represented by
intensive or extensive. Suppose a composite property, F an upper-case letter, the symbol for the corresponding in-
, is a function of a set of intensive properties, {ai } , and tensive property is usually represented by a lower-case let-
a set of extensive properties, {Aj } , which can be shown ter. Common examples are given in the table below.[2]
as F ({ai }, {Aj }) . If the size of the system is changed
by some scaling factor, α , only the extensive properties
*Specific volume is the reciprocal of density.
will change, since intensive properties are independent of
the size of the system. The scaled system, then, can be
represented as F ({ai }, {αAj }) . If the amount of substance in moles can be determined,
then each of these thermodynamic properties may be ex-
Intensive properties are independent of the size of the sys- pressed on a molar basis, and their name may be qualified
tem, so the property F is an intensive property if for all with the adjective molar, yielding terms such as molar
values of the scaling factor, α , volume, molar internal energy, molar enthalpy, and mo-
lar entropy. The symbol for molar quantities may be indi-
cated by adding a subscript “m” to the corresponding ex-
F ({ai }, {αAj }) = F ({ai }, {Aj }). tensive property. For example, molar enthalpy is Hm.[2]
 3

A well known molar volume, Vm, is that of an ideal gas [4] Tolman, Richard C. (1917). “The Measurable Quantities
at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, with of Physics”. Phys. Rev. 9 (3): 237–253.
the value 22.41L/mol. Molar Gibbs free energy is com-
[5] Redlich, O. (1970). “Intensive and Exten-
monly referred to as chemical potential, symbolized by sive Properties”. J. Chem. Educ. 47 (2):
μ, particularly when discussing a partial molar Gibbs free 154–156. Bibcode:1970JChEd..47..154R.
energy μᵢ for a component i in a mixture. doi:10.1021/ed047p154.2.

[6] Chang, R.; Goldsby, K. (2015). Chemistry (12 ed.).

McGraw-Hill Education. p. 312. ISBN 978-
5 Limitations 0078021510.

The general validity of the division of physical proper- [7] Brown, T. E.; LeMay, H. E.; Bursten, B. E.; Murphy,
C.; Woodward; P.; Stoltzfus, M. E. (2014). Chemistry:
ties into extensive and intensive kinds has been addressed
The Central Science (13th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-
in the course of science.[9] Redlich noted that, although 0321910417.
physical properties and especially thermodynamic prop-
erties are most conveniently defined as either intensive or [8] Alberty, R. A. (2001). “Use of Legendre transforms in
extensive, these two categories are not all-inclusive and chemical thermodynamics” (PDF). Pure Appl.Chem. 73
some well-defined physical properties conform to neither (8): 1349–1380. doi:10.1351/pac200173081349.
definition.[5] Redlich also provides examples of mathe- [9] George N. Hatsopoulos, G. N.; Keenan, J. H. (1965).
matical functions that alter the strict additivity relation- Principles of General Thermodynamics. John Wiley and
ship for extensive system, such as the square or square Sons. pp. 19–20. ISBN 9780471359999.
root of volume, which may occur in some contexts, albeit
rarely used.[5]
Other systems, for which standard definitions do not pro-
vide a simple answer, are systems in which the subsys-
tems interact when combined. Redlich pointed out that
the assignment of some properties as intensive or exten-
sive may depend on the way subsystems are arranged. For
example, if two identical galvanic cells are connected in
parallel, the voltage of the system is equal to the volt-
age of each cell, while the electric charge transferred (or
the electric current) is extensive. However, if the same
cells are connected in series, the charge becomes inten-
sive and the voltage extensive.[5] The IUPAC definitions
do not consider such cases.[2]
Some intensive properties do not apply at very small sizes.
For example, viscosity is a macroscopic quantity and is
not relevant for extremely small systems. Likewise, at a
very small scale color is not independent of size, as shown
by quantum dots, whose color depends on the size of the
“dot”.

6 References
[1] McNaught, A. D.; Wilkinson, A.; Nic, M.; Jirat,
J.; Kosata, B.; Jenkins, A. (2014). IUPAC. Com-
pendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the “Gold
Book”). 2.3.3. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
doi:10.1351/goldbook.E02281. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8.

[2] Cohen, E. R.; et al. (2007). IUPAC Green Book (PDF)

(3rd ed.). Cambridge: IUPAC and RSC Publishing. pp.
6 (20 of 250 in PDF file). ISBN 978 0 85404 433 7.

[3] Canagaratna, Sebastian G. (1992). “Intensive and Ex-

tensive: Underused Concepts”. J. Chem. Educ.
69 (12): 957–963. Bibcode:1992JChEd..69..957C.
doi:10.1021/ed069p957.
4 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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