Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Deficiency in the
Older Adult
C. Christine Orton, PhD, FNP-BC

ABSTRACT
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency in the older adult occurs frequently and has the
potential for serious neurological and hematological complications. Because of a myriad of
discreet clinical manifestations, this disorder is often unrecognized by providers. The pur-
pose of this article is to increase awareness of cobalamin deficiency, its causes, clinical mani-
festations, diagnostic work-up, and management. As primary providers, nurse practitioners
should have a high degree of suspicion for at-risk populations. With early identification and
treatment, cobalamin anemia has an excellent prognosis with a normal lifespan.

Keywords: autoimmune, cobalamin, megaloblastic anemia, neuropsychiatric, older

population, pernicious anemia
© 2012 American College of Nurse Practitioners

V itamin B12, also known as cobalamin, is essen-

tial for proper functioning of the neurologic
and hematologic systems. Cobalamin deficiency
in aging adults poses significant risks to their physical and
mental wellbeing. Nurse practitioners (NPs) working in
primary care settings should be aware of the wide range of
neurological and hematological presentations, along with
subtle signs, that occur in cobalamin deficiency. Early
detection and treatment of this deficiency can prevent
serious and irreversible neurological injuries.1
Although medical and nursing professionals have
published articles on cobalamin deficiency,2-5 few articles
have presented case studies describing the subtle signs
and symptoms often seen in the elderly. The purpose of
this article is to present a case study of an elderly woman
with cobalamin deficiency and to increase awareness of
the deficiency, including its etiologies, clinical manifesta-
tions, diagnostic work-up, and management strategies for
NPs in primary care settings.
CASE STUDY
Ms H, an 81-year-old woman, presents for a new patient
visit accompanied by her son. She recently moved in
with her son and daughter in-law after the death of her
husband of 62 years. She states her primary concern is
her increased weakness and weight loss, approximately 40
pounds over the past 6 months. She states she has not
been herself, becoming more forgetful to the point of
forgetting who her son is. She was recently hospitalized
for a urinary tract infection and low potassium.
Her son confirms she has not been herself and says
she has had several falls (most often at night) and
increased weakness to the point she has started using a
walker, whereas she walked unaided just 1 month prior.
He says she is having episodes of extreme confusion,
paranoia, wandering, and occasionally delusions. The
patient was seen 2 weeks ago by an urgent care provider
after a fall, when she was diagnosed with mild dementia
and acute depression. The provider encouraged the fam-
ily to become established with a local provider and possi-
bly look at a “memory unit” for their mother.
Past medical history indicates the patient has a history
of chronic hypertension, hyperlipidemia, hypothyroidism,
and coronary artery disease with a “small” heart attack at
age 53. She also suffers from arthritis of her knees and
hands. Surgeries included a total thyroidectomy while in
her 20s and a hysterectomy at age 45 without complica-
tions. Current medication include donepezil 5 mg,

www.npjournal.org The Journal for Nurse Practitioners - JNP 547

aspirin 81 mg, celecoxib 200 mg, chlorthalidone 50 mg,
potassium chloride 40 mEq, conjugated estrogen 200 mg,
levothyroxine 112 mcg, a multivitamin, verapamil 240
mg and ezetimibe/simvastatin 10-80; each medication is
taken once a day. Tolterodine 2 mg and omeprazole 20
mg are both taken twice a day.
Physical exam reveals an elderly woman who is fair
skinned with slight pallor and walks slowly with use of a
walker. She is cooperative but slow to answer questions,
attentive, and oriented x 1 (who). The Mini-Mental State
Examination indicated a score of 20, suggesting moderate
dementia. Sensory exam indicated diminished sensory
with pinprick/cotton distribution. Deep tendon reflexes
were 2⫹ in the biceps, triceps, and brachioradialis and
1⫹ in patellar and ankles. Pitting edema 1⫹ was noted
bilaterally in lower extremities. Further exam findings
were unremarkable.
Although moderate dementia and acute situational
depression appear to be appropriate diagnoses, a closer
assessment may reveal a very treatable and common dis-
ease seen in the elderly. This patient presents with several
classic signs of cobalamin deficiency.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Cobalamin is a cofactor for 2 significant reactions in
human cells. It is necessary for DNA synthesis and
nuclear maturation, which leads to normal red cell matu-
ration and division, as well as other rapidly dividing
cells.2 A second function of cobalamin is the reaction
that prevents the development of abnormal fatty acids
from being incorporated into neuronal lipids, which has
been associated with myelin breakdown and linked to
neurologic complications.6 Cobalamin is a coenzyme
needed for the metabolism of methylmalonic acid
(MMA) and homocysteine (HC).3,6,7 Deficiency leads to
elevated levels of MMA and HC levels. Animal protein
through meat, fish, dairy products, and eggs provides the
only natural dietary source of cobalamin.
Through a complex cascade of events, pepsin,
transcobalamin, and pancreatic proteases help cobalamin
bind to intrinsic factor, which is secreted from the pari-
etal cells of the stomach.8 At this point the Cobalamin–
Intrinsic Factor (CIF) complex is absorbed in the distal
ileum, and the cobalamin is released into the plasma.
Adequate absorption of cobalamin requires adequate
dietary intake, acid-pepsin in the stomach, pancreatic
proteases, functional intrinsic factor, functioning CIF
548 The Journal for Nurse Practitioners - JNP
receptors in the ileum, and an intact upper gastrointesti-
nal tract.8 Disorders in any of these areas can lead to
cobalamin deficiency.
Cobalamin deficiency increases with age and mani-
fests with greater risk of sensory disturbances, neurologi-
cal abnormalities, and cognitive decline.3,5,9 There are
several etiologies of cobalamin deficiency listed in Box 1.
Pernicious anemia (PA)—the most common etiology of
cobalamin malabsorption9—is seen frequently in the eld-
erly population, where it is thought to result from an
autoimmune attack on the gastric intrinsic factor. Fifty
percent of patients with PA are found to have anti-
intrinsic factor antibodies.4 This decrease of functional
intrinsic factor leads to an overall cobalamin deficiency.
Other autoimmune disorders, such as dysthyroidia,
Sjogren’s, Addison’s, and Graves disease, have been associ-
ated with PA.4 Pernicious anemia has been linked to a
hereditary component, and an increased incidence is seen
in families.
Pernicious anemia is a type of megaloblastic anemia
where impaired synthesis of DNA results in enlarged red
cells (MCV ⬎ 100 fL) related to impaired maturation
and division of the cells.10 Deficiencies of both cobal-
amin or folic acid can lead to a characteristic megaloblas-
tic anemia that results in ineffective erythropoiesis.5 The
red blood cells (RBCs) are hyperplasic with excess cyto-
plasm and immature nuclei. The cells are oval, rather than
the usual concave shape, with flimsy membranes. Rather
than living for approximately 4 months, these mega-
loblastic cells live only a few weeks, resulting in moderate
to severe anemia.10 Both folic acid and cobalamin defi-
ciency lead to megaloblastic characteristics, but neuropa-
thy occurs only with cobalamin deficiency.11
Malaborption disorders from gastrectomy, gastritis,
pancreatic disease, and several intestinal disorders may
lead to low cobalamin levels.4 Ileal resection, inflamma-
tion, or neoplasm can also bring about cobalamin defi-
ciency.9 A possible link between susceptibility to
Helicobacter pylori infection, atrophic gastritis, and low
serum cobalamin levels has been suggested by Kaptan.12
Decreased dietary intake, as seen in strict vegans and veg-
etarians, is an additional cause of cobalamin deficiency.
Several drugs also have been associated with lower
cobalamin levels, including long-term use of proton pump
inhibitors (eg, omeprazole) and colchicine, chlorampheni-
col, cholestyramine, H2 receptor antagonists, and met-
formin.2,13 Additionally, folate, potassium supplements, and
Volume 8, Issue 7, July/August 2012
vitamin C may inhibit absorption and lead to a deficiency
of cobalamin. 14 Increased risk of developing either cobal- Box 1. Etiologies of Vitamin B12 Deficiency
amin deficiency or folic acid anemia is seen in certain Malabsorption of Vitamin B12
populations; these include adults older than 50, elderly, • Pernicious anemiaa
alcoholics, and those with malabsorption/malnutrition • Atrophic gastritis
disorders. • Pancreatic insufficiency
Prevalence of cobalamin deficiency is difficult to • Partial or total gastrectomy
ascertain because of the diverse etiologies and different • Ileal resection
assays used to determine serum levels.6 However, using a • Bacterial overgrowth
serum radioassay cutoff level of 200 pg/mL, the preva- • Helicobacter pyloris
lence rate for the older (⬎ 51 years) population was • Intestinal disorders
reported to be 5%-16%.2,3,15,16 Assessing for elevated HC • Tapeworm
and MMA levels along with serum cobalamin, the preva-
lence increased to 21% in the same population.6 Congenital Intrinsic Factor or
Increased age is the primary risk factor for the devel- Transcobalamin II Deficiency
opment of cobalamin deficiency, primarily because of the Nutritional Deficiency
higher risk of malabsorption and malnutrition.3 • Vegan diet
Interestingly, the Framingham Offspring Study found little • Vegetarian diet in pregnancy
differences between age groups (26-49, 50-64, and 65-83)
and low levels of cobalamain.17 Other demographic factors Human Immunodeficiency Virus
such as sex, race, and ethnicity are not seen as significant in Hereditary Factors
predicting cobalamin deficiency.3,6 Pernicious anemia has
Drugs
been noted to be more widespread in people of Celtic,
• Biguanides (metformin)
Scandinavian, and African origins.11,13,18 Although cobal-
• Colchicine
amin deficiency is common in the elderly, the megaloblas-
• Neomycin
tic anemia related to it is uncommon.
• Nitrous oxide
• Proton pump inhibitors (omeparzole)
EVALUATION
aSignifies
Manifestations the most common etiology.
Cobalamin deficiency may take 3-4 years to develop
because of the small daily requirement (1 mcg) needed
and the large body stores (1000 mcg) of cobalamin found rhea, glossitis, and cheilosis. Fifty percent of patients
in the liver and throughout the body. The patient usually present with Hunter’s glossitis, in which the lingual
presents with subtle manifestations of moderate to severe papillae atrophy, leaving the tongue smooth and shiny.19
anemia, but as a result of the slow onset of cobalamin, The tongue may be painful, beefy red, or have red
patients are often severely anemic at the time of presenta- patches on the dorsum edges. These symptoms may lead
tion.9 Frequently, health care is sought for symptoms of to unwanted weight loss. Constipation or having several
cardiac, renal, genitourinary, gastrointestinal, infectious, semisolid bowel movements daily may be reported. On
mental, or neurological disorders.13 General manifesta- rare occasions patients may present with abdominal
tions of anemia such as fatigue, pallor, dizziness, dyspnea, rigidity and severe abdominal pain, which suggests
and muscle weakness may be seen. Patients with more spinal cord pathology.13
severe anemia may present with tachycardia, heart mur- Most patients with cobalamin deficiency exhibit
murs, and chest pain. Patients with pre-existing heart dis- some degree of neurologic symptoms, including sym-
ease are at risk for developing congestive heart failure metric paresthesias of the legs and arms, progressive
and coronary insufficiency. weakness, and eventually spastic ataxia with a loss of
Gastrointestinal intestinal symptoms seen in cobal- vibratory and position sense. Other neurologic symp-
amin anemia include anorexia, nausea, vomiting diar- toms are weakness, clumsiness, and an unsteady gait,

www.npjournal.org The Journal for Nurse Practitioners - JNP 549

which is often worse in a dark room because of the loss
of proprioception.
Urinary and fecal incontinence are rare manifesta-
tions. These symptoms are a result of myelin degenera-
tion and loss of nerve fibers in the dorsal and lateral
columns of the spinal cord.13,19 Older patients and
those with more severe cobalamin anemia may be at
increased risk for frank dementia and neuropsychiatric
disease. The neuropsychiatric manifestations may
include paranoia, cognitive dysfunction, delusions, and
hallucinations. The term megaloblastic madness has been
used to describe this disorder.13 Symptoms often mimic
dementia or Alzheimer’s disease. Irritability, memory
impairment, and somnolence, along with visual, taste,
and smell changes are other cerebral signs manifested in
cobalamin anemia.9
Some patients are found to have Lhermitte’s syn-
drome, a shock-like sensation that radiates to the feet
during neck flexion. Interestingly 20%-25% of patients
with cobalamin deficiency, even those who present with
neurologic manifestations, do not have anemia or macro-
cytosis.9 However, if left untreated their symptoms can
become irreversible.1
Other manifestations that may occur with B12 defi-
ciency include hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, arthralgias,
and arthritis. Urinary retention and impaired micturition,
which predisposes patients to urinary tract infections,
may also occur. Spinothalamic involvement is seen with
nocturnal pain and upper or lower extremity cramps.13
Diagnostics
In addition to a thorough history and physical examina-
tion, an analysis of laboratory findings is indicated to
diagnose deficiency. A peripheral smear to evaluate red
cell indices will show a macrocytic anemia, with an
increased mean cell volume and mean cell hemoglobin.
Other findings are hypersegmented neutrophils, large
platelets, and anisopoikilocytosis (erythrocytes of varying
sizes and abnormal shapes). Mild leukopenia, thrombocy-
topenia, or pancytopenia may be present.19,20
Other lab findings center on measurement of serum
cobalamin, RBC (or serum) folate concentrations;
metabolites, MMA, and HC levels; and intrinsic factor
antibodies. Adding serum MMA and HC levels, which
are more sensitive and more reliable than the vitamin
levels, aids the provider in an accurate diagnosis of cobal-
amin deficiency. Serum concentrations of HC and MMA
550 The Journal for Nurse Practitioners - JNP
are elevated in cobalamin deficiency, whereas in folate
deficiency only HC is elevated.21
Because of various lab methods for measuring cobal-
amin and the uncertainty between cobalamin depletion
and the onset of disease, there is no universal gold stan-
dard to diagnose cobalamin deficiency.3,21 However, cli-
nicians can use the following guidelines in interpreting
cobalamin levels:21
• ⬎ 300 pg/ml, deficiency is unlikely
• 200-300 pg/ml, deficiency possible
• ⬍ 200 pg/ml, deficiency is positive
Cobalamin and folate deficiency are often found to
coexist, and each patient should be evaluated for both
deficiencies. Folate levels may be done using serum
folate, which varies significantly after meals or by using
RBC folate levels, reportedly a more reliable indicator of
tissue folate. Because of its cost, RBC folate levels may be
reserved for patients with borderline values of serum
folate or those who may have a combined folate and
cobalamin deficiency.21
The Shilling test, a traditional test for diagnosing
pernicious anemia using radioactive tracers, is rarely
used at this time in the United Sates. Other methods
can reliably diagnose pernicious anemia and cobalamin
deficiency. Autoimmune attacks on gastric intrinsic fac-
tor are thought to be a factor in cobalamin deficiency
in pernicious anemia. Anti-intrinsic factor antibodies
present in the serum are highly positive for the diagno-
sis of pernicious anemia.21
Differential
The differential is lengthy and includes neurologic, gas-
trointestinal, hepatic, and thyroid diagnoses, as well as
other possible anemias. Box 2 outlines other possibilities
that should be considered with patients presenting with
manifestations of megaloblastic anemia.
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
It has been suggested that all patients over 65 who are
malnourished, present with cognitive impairment,
myelopathy, neuropathy, or reside in institutions should
be screened for cobalamin (B12) deficiency.4,16,22,23 Both
folate and cobalamin levels should be evaluated since
cobalamin and folate deficiencies often coexist.21 If both
are within normal range, additional testing is not
required. If the folate or cobalamin are less than the nor-
mal range, providers should then check the MMA and
Volume 8, Issue 7, July/August 2012
total HC levels, both of which are sensitive indicators of
vitamin B12 deficiency.18 If both metabolites are normal, Box 2. Differentials
again, both deficiencies are ruled out. If both metabolites Alzheimer’s
are increased, cobalamin deficiency is confirmed (Table Achlorhydra
1).22 However, folate deficiency cannot be ruled out, and Alcoholic hepatitis
a serum folate level or RBC folate would be in order. If Aplastic anemia, toxic or idiopathic
methyimalonic acid is normal and the HC level is Bone marrow failure
increased, folate deficiency is likely. To aid in determining Celiac sprue
cause of cobalamin deficiency, intrinsic factor should be Cirrhosis
completed to diagnose pernicious anemia. Folate deficiency
Hemolytic anemia
MANAGEMENT Thyroid disorders
Prevention Immune thrombocytopenic purpura
Given the potential for serious neurological and hemato- Inflammatory bowel disease
logical side effects, the primary provider needs to be vig- Iron deficiency anemia
ilant and have a high degree of suspicion in certain Macrocytosis
populations at risk for cobalamin deficiency. This group Malabsorption disorders
includes all older adults over 50 who are not consuming Medications
fortified foods or supplements and patients with malab- Megaloblastic anemia
sorption disorders (eg, atrophic gastritis, chronic alco- Myelodysplastic syndrome
holism, gastric surgery, pancreatic insufficiency, or Multiple myeloma
chronic inflammatory disease of the ileum).1,19,23 All Neoplasm (gastric and colorectal)
patients who present with cognitive impairment should Neutropenia
be investigated for B12 deficiency.4,16,23,24 Other groups Pancreatic insufficiency
who should be screened include patients presenting with Psychiatric disorders: schizophrenia, dementia,
unexplained neurologic or hematologic signs or symp- senility, alzheimer’s
toms and pure vegans or strict vegetarians.3,21 Sprue, tropical
Thalassemia
Treatment Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
After establishing that the patient does indeed have a
cobalamin deficiency, treatment should be initiated imme-
diately. Determining the cause of the deficiency is still needed.3,5,21 Lower doses, such as 100 mcg, have been
somewhat controversial, and many clinicians treat patients recommended as an alternative to the 1000 mcg.1
if a diagnosis of low cobalamin is established.1 Adequate However, use of lower dose formulas may result in a
replacement of cobalamin is the goal of therapy. B12 is slower response, which may be critical when neurologic
available for parenteral use as cyanocobalamin or hydroxo- disease is present.17
cobalamin—the latter is thought to be retained better in Alternative treatment includes oral therapy after ini-
the body and therefore is more available to cells. A num- tial parenteral loading doses by ingestion of 1000-2000
ber of drug regimens have been suggested; the standard mcg every day. Because of the variable absorption of oral
protocol is to initially restore body stores by giving large B12, large daily doses are needed.2,3,6 Oral B12 replace-
daily doses of cobalamin administered parenterally, either ment for compliant patients has been shown to be safe,
intramuscular or deep subcutaneous. effective, and well tolerated. Serial cobalamin measure-
Cobalamin therapy is initiated by administering either ments at periodic intervals are suggested to ensure ade-
of the cobalamin formulas at 1000 mcg intramuscularly quate cobalamin levels have been obtained. New
(IM) every day for 1 or 2 weeks, followed by 1000 mcg therapies of cobalamin treatment include sublingual and
IM every week for 4-6 weeks. Afterward, a maintenance nasal spray or gel. These formulas are expensive and have
dose of 1000 mcg IM every month for life will be not been extensively studied.21

www.npjournal.org The Journal for Nurse Practitioners - JNP 551

Table 1. Differentiating Between Cobalamin and Folic
Acid Deficiency
Methlmalonic
Patient Condition Acid Homocysteine
No Deficiency Normal Normal
Cobalamin Elevated Elevated
Deficiency
Folate Normal Elevated
Deficiency
Adapted from Conrad ME. Pernicious anemia: differential diagnosis and
workup. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/204930-differential. Updated
May 26, 2011. Accessed February 20, 2011.
If the deficiency is reversed and the cause eliminated,
cobalamin replacement can be stopped.
Blood transfusions are rarely needed for cobalamin
deficiencies and must be weighed against the risk of the
elderly patient developing congestive failure. If indeed
the patient presents with severe anemia and is critically
ill, 1 unit of blood may be transfused with caution, along
with low-dose diuretic therapy.1
Follow-up care and repeat labs are required of all
patients to ensure they are responding to therapy and to
support their lifetime compliance with therapy. Cobalamin
deficiency has been associated with gastric and colorectal
cancers; therefore, routine screening for these disorders
should be included in the plan of care for these patients.6
Education
Other management considerations include patient/family
education, which should include information on the dis-
ease process and possible need for lifelong cobalamin
replacement, as well as monitoring for malignancy.
Patients may be taught to self-administer cobalamin sub-
cutaneously, which helps give them a sense of control in
managing their disorder. The Institute of Medicine
(IOM) suggests the recommended dietary allowance
(RDA) for vitamin B12 is 2.4 mcg/day for those 14 and
older, except for pregnant (2.6 mcg) and lactating
women (2.8 mcg).14,25 Diet education should include
foods high in vitamin B12 such as beef liver, clams, forti-
fied breakfast cereals, fish (trout, salmon, haddock),
yogurt, meats, and eggs for those with low-intake cobal-
amin deficiency.6,14 The Framingham Offspring study
noted B12 is absorbed better from dairy products than
meats and fish, for unknown reasons.
Given that up to 30% of older adults may have diffi-
culty absorbing natural B12, the IOM further recom-
552 The Journal for Nurse Practitioners - JNP
mends all adults over 50 include B12-fortified foods (eg,
breakfast cereals, which may contain 25%-100% of the
RDA) or B12 supplements in their diet.25 Vegans and
strict vegetarians are encouraged to follow these guide-
lines as well, especially those who are pregnant or breast
feeding.6 Some experts feel higher doses of B12 supple-
ments than those currently recommended by the IOM
may be needed for elderly patients to prevent deficiency.3
As a consequence of increased familial incidence of
pernicious anemia, family members should be made
aware they are at a greater risk for developing this dis-
ease.1 Usually, no restrictions on activity are needed
unless severe gait ataxia or weakness is noted.
Referral
Referral to a neurologist, may be helpful if the patient
presents or develops unusual neurological manifestations.1
To help improve gait, balance, and arm function, physical
therapy and occupational therapy may be used.
Consultations with a gastroenterologist and a hematolo-
gist should be considered.6
CONCLUSION
After analyzing Ms H’s risk factors and presenting symp-
toms (age, sudden onset of neuropsychiatric changes,
weight loss, falls at night, history of urinary tract infec-
tions, tachycardia, extreme weakness, decreased deep ten-
don reflexes in extremities, med history), her provider
decided to assess for cobalamin deficiency. A serum B12
level of 281 pg/ml indicated she had low levels, and she
began treatment immediately. She received 1000 mcg IM
every week for 6 weeks and then started on a mainte-
nance dose of 1000 mcg/month for life.
Within a few days of starting treatment, the family
noticed a significant change in Ms H’s cognitive level,
overall strength, and bouts with incontinence She also
received physical therapy for 8 weeks for gait and
strength training. Grief counseling was provided by hos-
pice, and her weight stabilized. She is now active in her
assisted living facility, where she walks unaided, serves on
several committees, and has resumed writing prose and
poetry.
Cobalamin plays a crucial role in several neurologic
and hematologic functions, and deficiency of this essen-
tial vitamin can have profound effects on these systems.
With early identification and treatment, cobalamin defi-
ciency anemia has an excellent prognosis with a normal
Volume 8, Issue 7, July/August 2012

lifespan. However, if not treated early, neurological com-
plications can become permanent. With the advent of the
Boomers turning 60 at a rate of 7-10,000/day,26 NPs
have an extraordinary opportunity to use their assessment
and detective skills in screening and uncovering a myriad
of disorders, including megaloblastic anemia.24 As pri-
mary providers NPs should have a high degree of suspi-
cion for at-risk populations. Additionally, NPs should be
aware that patients with certain medications, alcoholism,
vegan practices, and malabsoprtion/malnutrition syn-
dromes are at risk for cobalamin deficiency and should
be screened routinely.
21. Schrier SL. Diagnosis and treatment of vitamin B12 and folic acid.
http://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnosis-and-treatment-of-vitamin-b12-
and-folic-acid-deficiency?source⫽search_result&selectedTitle⫽1%7E145.
Updated February 2, 2010. Accessed February 17, 2011.
22. Aaron S, Kumar S, Vijayan J, et al. Clinical and laboratory features and
response to treatment in patients presenting with vitamin B12 deficiency-
related neurological syndromes. Neurology India. 2005;53(1):55-58.
23. Eastley R, Wilcock GK, Bucks BS. Vitamin B12 deficiency in dementia and
cognitive impairment: the effects of treatment on neuropsychological
function. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2000;15:226-233.
24. Knopman DS, DeKosky ST, Cmmings JL, et al. Practice parameter: diagnosis
of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards
Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology.
2001;56(9):1143-1153.
25. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for thiamin, riboflavin, niacin,
vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin and choline.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2000.
26. US Securities and Exchange Commission. Oldest baby boomers turn 65.
http://www.sec.gov/spotlight/seniors/oldestboomers2007.htm. Updated
September 10, 2007. Accessed June 15, 2011.

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