Glossary

scientific The dominant behavioral perspective in the U.S. between 1900

management and 1950. It was championed by Frederick Taylor, an engineer
who felt that applying scientific principles to human behavior
was an efficient way to maximize performance.
human relations Took the view that the best way to improve production was to
approach respect workers and show concern for their needs. Became
popular in the 1920s and remained influential through the 1950s.
hawthorne effect The boost in morale and improved productivity that can occur
simply because employees feel that management care enough
about them to investigate their working conditions.
contingency The dominant perspective in organizational behavior, it argues
approach that there's no single best way to manage behavior. What 'works'
in any given context depends on the complex interplay between a
variety of person and situational factors.
breakthrough A corporate value system which recognizes that normal business
culture rules and pressures don't apply to innovative thinking.
self-enhancing tactics Direct attempts to influence the perceptions of others via self
promotion (e.g., name dropping) and image control.
other-enhancing Indirect methods of influencing others' perceptions by boosting
tactics their self-image (e.g., flattery, opinion agreement).

personal constructs A very general belief about what other people are like (e.g,
untrustworthy) that has wide effect on our perceptions of others
behavior.
halo effect A more specific perceptual bias that affects perceptions of others;
in particular, the use of one piece of information observed about
a person is used to infer other characteristics that may or may not
be there.
stereotypes A perceptual bias that involves using one characteristic about a
person - their group membership (e.g., race, gender, or age
group) - to infer other traits they think might also be present.
internal attribution Ascribing/assigning the cause of a person's behavior at work to
something about them (e.g, their effort, their innate ability, etc.).
external attribution Attributing the cause of work behavior to some reason that is
external to the person (e.g., bad luck, unfair circumstances, etc.).
actor-observer effect The tendency for observers to make internal attributions and for
actors to make external attributions for behavior.
self-serving A bias effect in attributions whereby people tend to take credit
attributions (internal attribution) for success and to make external attributions
for failure.
turnover The percentage of employees who leave the firm during a
specified time interval (usually a one year period)
affective An employee's inclination to stay with and committed to a firm
commitment based on their emotional attachment and identification with the
firm and its goals.
normative The degree to which an employee is committed to their company
commitment based on the influence of other people in the firm.
continuance A tendency to stay with a company that is based on a cost-
commitment benefit or economic analysis of options.
organizational The voluntary, 'above the call of duty' behaviors(e.g., talking up
citizenship behaviors the firm to outsiders, helping coworkers, etc.) that are vitally
important but often unrecognized sources of firm success.
glass ceiling A term that refers to the many barriers that can exist to thwart a
woman's rise to the top of an organization; one that provides a
view of the top, but a ceiling on how far a woman can go.
diversity programs A set of training and information dissemination programs that
help employees recognize the value of differences among people.
motivation Originates from movere-Latin for 'to move.' A process that
arouses and channels employee effort and behavior toward
achieving goals.

tiered wage system An approach to paying workers based on their hiring date. In
their simplest form, two wage classifications exist, with workers
hired after a particular date being paid much less than those
already on the payroll.
churning When firms fire many people and hire many people at the same
time.
reinforcement theory A motivation theory which argues that by linking consequences
to
behavior, desired behaviors can be strengthened and undesirable
ones eliminated.
positive Administering a positive consequence (e.g., praise) to strengthen
reinforcement a positive behavior.
negative Removing or stopping something unpleasant (e.g., eliminating
reinforcement time-consuming paperwork) to strengthen a positive behavior.
extinction Removing all reinforcement for a behavior, thereby letting it
atrophy on its own.
punishment Administering a sanction like docking pay in an effort to
eliminate a negative behavior.
goal theory A theory which argues that establishing future performance
targets can help motivate employees.
stretch targets Goals which are virtually unattainable. Often designed to
encourage 'doing it different' rather than 'doing what we already
do better.'
Management by A generic name for the systematic use of goal-setting throughout
Objectives (MBO) the firm. Usually involves a joint goal-setting process between
program managers and subordinates.
skill-based pay Programs that increase pay or give bonuses when employees can
programs demonstrate that they've acquired a new skill.
decision making The process of evaluating two or more options in order to reach
the best possible outcome.
Rational-economic A set of decision making approaches, often that use aids and are
models quantitative in form, that try to maximize the use of information
and/or possible choices.
bounded rationality The understanding that rational decisions are very much bounded
or constrained by practical constraints (e.g., time, money, etc.).
satisfying A method for making decisions under bounded rationality; to
choose the first option that meets a set of minimal criteria that
have been established.
policy Similar to a script in that a policy can be a less than completely
rational decision making method. Involves the use of a pre-
existing set of decision steps for any problem that presents itself.
preferred focus The tendency to concentrate on the technical/rational side of
decision making or on the people/issues side.
problem clarity The need for structure in making decisions vs. a tendency to have
greater acceptance for ambiguity or vagueness in making
decision.
behavioral style A decision making who is very attuned to how decisions affect
employees and the work environment; tends to be more
deliberate and slower in style.
analytic style A style characteristic of someone who approaches decisions in a
highly rational way and who is capable of tolerating
uncertainty/ambiguity.
conceptual style A decision maker who can easily see 'the big picture' and is not
necessarily mired in the fine details.
framing The tendency for a decision maker to be swayed by whether a
decision is pitched as a positive (e.g., gain) or negative (e.g.,
loss).
anchoring The heuristic tendency for our eventual decisions to be
importantly affected by the starting point (or anchor) of the
decision process.
escalation of A tendency among decision makers try to recover sunk costs - to
commitment throw good money after bad.
groupthink Refers to a situation in which pressures for cohesion and
togetherness are so strong as to produce narrowly considered and
bad decisions; this can be especially true via conformity
pressures in groups.
brainstorming A technique designed to overcome our natural tendency to
evaluate and criticize ideas and thereby reduce the creative
output of those ideas. People are encouraged to produce
ideas/options without criticizing, often at a very fast pace to
minimize our natural tendency to criticize.
nominal group A more elaborate attempt to separate the generation from the
technique evaluation of ideas in group settings. With the nominal group
method, ideas are generated in private and circulated later.
delphi technique A third, and even more elaborate attempt to reduce group
criticism and increase the generation of good decision options.
Ideas are generated in private, anonymously collated and
presented to the group.
compressed schedule A set of work schedules that use non-traditional methods of
completing a 40 hour work week (e.g., 4-40; 4 days of 10-hr
work).
flextime A scheduling methods that gives employees control over their
work schedule; usually involves some 'core' times when
employees must be at work, and a set of 'flextime' that can be
adjustable for various employees.
job rotation The practice of shifting workers to different jobs at periodic
intervals.
job enlargement Involves combining multiple tasks once performed by several
 people into one job. As with rotation, it is designed to increase
variety and reduce boredom association with job simplification.
job enrichment Making fundamental change to the way that work gets done, well
beyond when the job is done (e.g., flextime, rotation) and how
much is done (enlargement).
job characteristics A model of how to put enrichment in practice, which involves
model -among other things - changing jobs so that they provide more
feedback and autonomy to those actually doing the jobs.
vertical job loading Combining various job tasks together which involve increasing
the skill set of an employee (as opposed to enlargement where
horizontal job Like vertical loading, this involves combining tasks, but unlike
loading that technique the additional tasks are added without requiring
additional skills).
advisory teams Small groups of employees (10-20) that meet a few hours a week
to suggest solutions to problems in their work (e.g., quality
circle).
self-managed work If advisory teams point out problems, self-managed teams go
teams further and try to fix those problems. Team member exert
considerable influence on their group, some even hire/fire, and
evaluate other group members.
cross-functional Groups of employees from different areas of the organization
teams who are brought together to work on the same program; ideally
the team has all the expertise needed to complete even the most
complex of projects.
virtual team A group of physically dispersed people who work as a team via
alternative communication modes (e.g., video conferencing, e-
mail, etc.).
social loafing This is a tendency for a team member to put out less effort than
they would if they were working alone. Freeloading such as this
can occur when members' performance melds in and they can
hide in the crowd.
follower-centered Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on
leadership follower's needs and how they respond to leaders.
leader-centered Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on the
leadership leader's traits, skills, and behaviors.
situation-centered Approaches that try to understand leadership by focusing on how
leadership situational variables may impact leader effectiveness.
leader-member Explains leadership in terms of the relationship that develops
exchange theory between leaders and subordinates over time.
proactive ingratiation Involves the use of impression management tactics such as
strategies expressing agreement and offering praise.
exemplification An impression management tactic that involves self-sacrifice.
self-leadership A follower-centered approach to leadership which argues that
employees should look inward for motivation and initiative.
task-oriented Leadership behavior focused on the task itself or getting the job
behavior done (e.g., telling subordinates how to perform certain tasks).
relationship-oriented Leadership behavior focused on maintaining or improving
behavior relations with subordinates (e.g., developing, recognizing, and
otherwise supporting subordinates).
change-oriented Leadership behavior focused on making significant change
behavior happen (e.g., communicating an inspiring vision, gaining
subordinate commitment for change).
situational A leadership model which argues that effective leadership
leadership involves matching the right combination of task-oriented and
relationship-oriented behavior to the maturity level of
subordinates.
path-goal theory An approach which argues that managers use the leadership style
which will best support subordinates given their characteristics
and the existing work system. The right style will raise
subordinates' expectations that their efforts will lead to good
performance and that desired rewards will follow.
least preferred co- Argues that how leaders view their least preferred co-worker
worker (LPC) indicates whether they have a relationship-oriented or a task-
contingency theory oriented leadership style. Which style is more effective depends
on situational favorability (i.e., the leader's position power,
nature of leader-member relations, and task structure).
leader substitutes A approach which examines how various situational factors can
theory either substitute for leadership (making leader behavior
unnecessary) or neutralize the impact of leader behavior.
charismatic A form of leadership in which the leader is viewed as having
leadership extraordinary abilities, being 'larger than life,' and inspiring
tremendous effort. Often the result of a complex interplay
between leader characteristics, subordinate perceptions, and
situational pressures.
personal One way that charismatic leaders can influence subordinate self-
identification worth. Taps subordinates' needs to have someone to look up to
and may involve giving leaders unquestioned loyalty.
social identification Often the most positive way that charismatic leaders can
influence subordinate self-worth. Involves linking subordinates'
work to the good of a larger social entity.
narcissistic leaders Fundamentally insecure and self-absorbed individuals who often
pursue a
vision for selfish reasons. They manipulate subordinates and lack
concern for their welfare.
transformational Explains how some leaders are able to create loyal and
leadership theory committed subordinates who are willing to push themselves like
never before in the pursuit of radical change (i.e., through
charisma and inspirational motivation, individualized
consideration, and intellectual stimulation).
power The extent to which a leader has the potential capacity to
influence others. Can come from personal, positional, and/or
political sources.
influence tactics Behavioral strategies leaders use when trying to tap their sources
of power to influence others.
expertise A source of power to the extent that people around a manager
view him or her as an expert; someone whose knowledge and
skills can help them do their jobs.
referent power Power managers have when they are liked, admired, and given
loyalty by those around them.; may involve an intense emotional
bonding with the manager.
position power Power managers hold due to their role in the organization. May
include a manager's network of contacts, legitimate authority and
control over information, rewards, punishments, and the work
environment.
organizational Occurs when power sources and influence tactics are used to
politics serve personal goals or motives.
scapegoating Trying to shift the blame for a problem or failure away from
yourself (e.g., onto others or factors in the situation).
self-focused image Behaviors designed to make yourself look good or to create a
management tactics more favorable image of yourself with other people (e.g.,
boasting, working hard when the boss is around, etc.)
other-focused image Behaviors designed to make polish someone else's image in the
management tactics hopes of getting what you want (e.g., flattering or praising your
boss).
sandbagging Behaviors designed to project a weaker or more negative image
than is actually the case. The goal is often to lull opponents into a
 false sense of security (i.e., so they let down their guard or exert
less effort).
avoiding style When faced with conflict, a person who uses this style often try
to ignore conflict all together rather than trying to directly resolve
it.
accommodating style A style that involves trying to resolve conflict by giving in to the
desires of others, sometimes without raising conflicting
points/issues at all.
forcing style The exact opposite of an accommodating style - a person who is
very willing to use their power and authority to settle an
argument.
compromising style A person using this style approaches conflict as a give-and-take
situation giving up something to get something else.
collaborating style A style that ranks high on both assertiveness and cooperation;
often called a win-win approach because efforts are made to see
the best options for both parties to conflict.
role conflict Refers to the fact that some jobs have built-in conflicting
requirements that pull the job occupant in separate ways.
role ambiguity The lack of clear expectations about your job or role in a firm can
produce role ambiguity, which in turn can produce stress.
burnout A feeling of physical and mental exhaustion that may start from
work stress, but eventually extend to many parts of one's life.
employee assistance Programs offered by companies to help employees deal with job
program (EAP) stress and with personal problems that may have developed from
the stress or other sources (alcohol/substance abuse help,
counseling for psychological symptoms, etc.).
family-supportive A series of programs (e.g., on-site day care) adopted by
policies companies that can help employees deal with work-family
conflict and stress.
job redesign Efforts by firms to redesign how work is done to, among other
things, reduce job stress (discussed in Chapter 6 earlier).
corporate wellness Long-term programs that also act to increase and promote
programs employee health and reduce stress (fitness facilities, health
classes, etc.).
mechanistic An organizational form in which people perform specialized
structure jobs, the flow of information comes largely from above, and
there is considerable formality in how work is done. Efficiency is
usually the primary goal with such structures.
organic structure An organizational form in which formality is low, power is
decentralized and jobs are less specialized and are often broadly
defined. Adaptability and flexibility in the face of rapidly
changing conditions are usually the primary goals with such
structures.
corporate culture The whole collection of beliefs, values, and behaviors of a firm
that send messages to those within and outside the company
about how business is done.
mission statement An explicit statement of company philosophy that provides yet
another way to communicate culture.
socialization The whole process of cultural acclimation; the learning of
organizationally-useful behavior.
orientation phase The first few weeks or months on the job when it is particularly
important to communication cultural values to new employees.
mentors A person who can help smooth the integration of new employees
into a firm and its culture.
fearlessness culture A type of culture that can form in firms whose business involves
considerable risk and rapid feedback. Attracts and rewards
people willing to take chances and decisive.
persistence culture A business that involves relatively low risk but rapid feedback.
The culture encourages people who have energy and show
perseverance.
one-shot culture A culture comprised of a slow feedback/high risk combination.
People who can tolerate uncertainly for long periods and is
careful/detailed oriented.
process culture Characterized by slow feedback/low risk combination. A culture
that promotes a major concern with the process of running an
organization more than specific outcomes.
ubuntu An indigenous African approach to management that emphasizes
the company as a community of relationships, with a particular
emphasis on solidarity.
domestic firm Firms who largely do business in their home country, although
they may export some of their products or services across
borders.
international firm Those firms who have responded to stiff competition
domestically by expanding their sales abroad. They may start a
production facility overseas and send some of their managers,
who report to a global division, to that country.
multinational firm Firm who operate extensively in other countries and closely
coordinate effort across subsidiaries in those countries. They tend
to rely more on foreign nationals for their managerial talent.
global firm Firms are considered global if they produce high-quality products
that can be sold anywhere across globe, are international in their
thinking, and expatriates from around the globe comprise their
managerial pool.
civil law The most common legal system in the world, practiced in over 70
countries (e.g.,Germany, Japan, Turkey, etc.). Referred to as code
law since it is based on an elaborate list of rules about actions
and misdeeds, but considerable consistency in adjudication.
common law Also a popular legal system around the world (e.g., U.S., U.K,
etc.). In contrast to civil law's reliance on elaborate codes,
common law uses precedent or the balance of prior rulings to
resolve disputes.
Islamic law A code-based legal system tied to religious stipulations put forth
in the Koran. While not strictly a legal system, the Koran does
address business concerns such as the need to honor agreements
and to us good faith in interactions.
political risk Refers to the many different actions of people, subgroups, and
whole countries that have the potential to affect the financial
status of a firm.
learning A firm which values continuous learning and is consistently
organization looking to adapt and change with its environment.
sensitivity training An interpersonal approach for promoting change that involves
developing a greater understanding of oneself and one's
interactions with other people.
team-building Group-level efforts designed to illustrate the value of teams as
techniques well as build cohesion and a common sense of purpose among
team members.
process consultation Involves interviewing people and observing work group
processes to uncover interpersonal stumbling blocks and related
problems. A change agent will then provide feedback aimed at
improving the work process.
survey methods Involve the administration of a questionnaire (e.g., by computer,
in paper and pencil form, or interview). Usually designed to
assess problems and improve information flow throughout the
organization.