300TON CARGO A/C

SAMS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

PANAPAKAM
ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

2013- 2014

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN OF 300 TON PAYLOAD CARGO AIRCRAFT

Done by

ABDUL NOWSATH A
KESAVAN S
SELVAKUMAR B
YUVARAJ S K
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 300TON CARGO A/C

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this ADP II project is to continue the design of CARGO

AIRCRAFT WITH 300 TON PAYLOAD which we started on ADP I. This project
includes V-n diagram and critical loading performance. We have analysed the
structure and estimated the loads on the wings and fuselage and also balancing and
maneuvering loads on tail plane, aileron and rudder is calculated. Some
components of fuselage and wings are also designed. Finally the detailed design
report in produced along with necessary diagrams.

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview:
The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope
or V-n diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane
can withstand at any particular flight velocity. However in normal practice the
airplane might experience loads that are much higher than the design loads. Some
of the factors that lead to the structural overload of an airplane are high gust
velocities, sudden movements of the controls, fatigue load in some cases, bird
strikes or lightning strikes. So to add some inherent ability to withstand these rare
but large loads, a safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural design.

The two major members that need to be considered for the structural design
of an airplane are wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concerned,
the most significant load is the bending load. So the primary load carrying member
in the wing structure is the spar (the front and rear spars) whose cross section is an
‘I’ section. Apart from the spars to take the bending loads, suitable stringers need
to take the shear loads acting on the wings.

Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the

fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical crossing and
symmetrical loading. The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load
because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form
of shear only. The structural design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear
force and bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The maximum
bending stress produced in each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress
of the material chosen for the respective member.

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1.2 Outline:

The Structural design involves:

Determination of loads acting on aircraft:

 V-n diagram for the design study

 Gust and maneuverability envelopes
 Schrenk’s Curve
 Critical loading performance and final V-n graph calculation

Determination of loads acting on individual structures:

 Structural design study – Theory approach

 Load estimation of wings
 Load estimation of fuselage.
 Material Selection for structural members
 Detailed structural layouts
 Design of some components of wings, fuselage

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 300TON CARGO A/C

1.3 Specifications from ADP I

Wing span 100m

Height 18m
Length 90m
Aspect ratio 9
Root chord 22.18 m
Tip chord 7.32 m
Mean chord to a/c centre line 26.38 m
Sweep angle 9.917 degrees
Vstall 65.97 m/s
Vcruise 950 Km/h
Cl max 1.34
CD 0.117
Wing area 1871.47 m2
Range 15000 km
Rate of climb 8.78 m/s
Load factor n 1.15
Take off distance 3320 m
Landing distance 3036 m
Total thrust 3084 KN
Total drag 583.67 KN
Max take off weight 1310033.659 Kg
Weight of fuel 432311.1 Kg
Empty weight of aircraft 576414.8 Kg

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2. V-n DIAGRAM
2.1 Introduction:
Airplanes may be subjected to a variety of loading conditions in flight. The
structural design of the aircraft involves the estimation of the various loads on the
aircraft structure and designing the airframe to carry all these loads, providing
enough safety factors, considering the fact that the aircraft under design is a
commercial transport airplane. As it is obviously impossible to investigate every
loading condition that the aircraft may encounter, it becomes necessary to select a
few conditions such that each one of these conditions will be critical for some
structural member of the airplane.

2.2 Velocity –Load Factor (V-n) diagram:

The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increases
in weight require stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further
increases in weight and so on. Excesses of structural weight mean lesser amounts
of payload, thereby affecting the economic viability of the aircraft. The aircraft
designer is therefore constantly seeking to pare his aircraft’s weight to the
minimum compatible with safety. However, to ensure general minimum standards
of strength and safety, airworthiness regulations (Av.P.970 and BCAR) lay down
several factors which the primary structure of the aircraft must satisfy. These are
the
Limit load, which is the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to
experience in normal operation.
Proof load, which is the product of the limit load and the proof factor(1.0-
1.25), and
Ultimate load, which is the product of the limit load and the
ultimatefactor(usually 1.5). The aircraft’s structure must withstand the proof load
without detrimental distortion and should not fail until the ultimate load has been
achieved.
The basic strength and fight performance limits for a particular aircraft
areselected by the airworthiness authorities and are contained in theflight
envelopeorV-n diagram.

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Fig.1

2.3 Maneuvering Loads

The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually comes from the generation of lift
during high-g maneuvers. Even the fuselage is almost always structurally sized by
the lift of the wings rather than by the pressures produced directly on the fuselage.
Aircraft load factor (n) expresses the maneuvering of an aircraft as a standard
acceleration due to gravity

2.3.1 Symmetric Maneuver Load:

These will occur when the aircraft’s pilot (or the autopilot) operates the
longitudinal control surface (e.g. the elevator or canard0 to cause aircraft to pitch
nose-up or nose-down. This action may result in two distinct forms of acceleration:

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 Translational, which may be either longitudinal or normal to the flight path

 Rotational

2.3.2 Normal Load Factor:

The loads due to symmetric maneuvers are most commonly analyzed

through use of the definition of a normal load factor (n), whereby:
n= Lift (L)/Weight (W)
The load factor is more properly defined as the component of aerodynamic
force perpendicular to the longitudinal axis divided by the aircraft weight. But,
assuming that in terms of gravitational accelerations (“g”).

2.4 IMPORTANT VELOCITIES:

The main velocities that r plotted in the V-n diagram are:

 1 – g Stall Velocity
 Design Maneuvering Velocity
 Design Cruise Velocity
 Design Dive Velocity

2.4.1 1-g Stall Velocity, Vs:

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 300TON CARGO A/C

where,
ρ = Density at the cruise altitude (0.41 kgm-3)
WFDWG = 1310033.659 x 9.81 N
S = 1871.47 𝒎𝟐
CN = ?

where,
CLmax= 1.34
CD atCLmax = 0.117
CN = 1.34
1-g Stall Velocity, Vs = 158m/s

2.4.2 DESIGN LIMIT LOAD FACTORS n lim pos and n lim neg:
The positive design limit load factor, nlimpos, must be selected by the
designer, but must meet the following condition:

For cargo aircraft, nlim pos= 3.8

nlim neg = -1.52
3.8 ≥ 2.1 + (24000 / (1310033.659 +10000)
3.8 ≥ 2.118
Hence our design satisfied the above condition.
The negative design limit load factor nlimneg,must be selected by the designer
but must meet the following condition:
nlimneg≥ 0.4nlimpos for normal and for utility category airplanes
Therefore,

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 300TON CARGO A/C

1.52 ≥ 0.4 × 3.8

1.52 ≥ 1.52
Hence our design satisfied the above condition.
-1.52 < n < 3.8

2.4.3 DESIGN MANEUVERING SPEED VA :

The design maneuvering speed VA, must be selected by the designer, but
must satisfy the following relationship:

VA ≥ 158√3.8
VA ≥ 217.93 ms-1
And, we take our Maneuvering speed as 217.93 ms-1.
VA = 308 ms-1

2.4.4 DESIGN CRUISE SPEED VC:

The design cruise speed VC, must be selected by the designer, but must
satisfy the following relationship:

kc= 33 for transport category

VC≥ 33x√ (1310033.659 x/1871.47)
VC ≥ 873 ms-1

VC = 873 ms-1

2.4.5 DESIGN DIVING SPEED VD:

The design diving speed must satisfy the following relationship:
VD ≥ 1.4 VC
VD≥ 1222.2ms-1

VD = 1222.2 ms-1

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2.5 SAMPLE V-n MANEUVER DIAGRAM

2.6 V-n MANEUVER DIAGRAM FOR OUR AIRCRAFT

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3. GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES

Gust envelope of an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of
airspeed and load factoror altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and can
also refer to other measurements such as maneuverability. When a plane is pushed,
for instance by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be flown "outside the
envelope", something considered rather dangerous.

3.1 CALCULATION
The gust V-n diagram is given by the following formulae

where,
Ude = equivalent gust velocity (in m/sec)
Ve = equivalent airspeed (in m/s)
Gust Alleviation Factor, Kg= 0.88µg / (5.3+ µg)for cargo aircrafts
𝒘
𝟐( )
𝑺
Mass ratio, µg=
𝝆𝒈𝑪𝑳𝜶 𝒄
µg= 5.96
Lift curve slope, 𝑪𝑳𝜶 = 3.96
Mean Chord, C = 14.75 m
Thus, Kg= 0.466
ui=kû; where i=b,c,d ; ûb=20.11m/s;ûc= 15.24m/s;ûd= 7.62m/s
At high angle of attack, point B, ub = 9.37 ms-1
At level flight, point C, uc = 7.1ms-1
At dive condition, point D, ud = 3.5 ms-1
And,
VB = VS√nc

VB = 404.4 ms-1

The incremental Gust Load Factor is given as,

𝝆𝒖𝑽
∆𝒏 = 𝑾 * CLαwhere u = Kgui , i=b,c,d.
𝟐( )
𝑺

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Therefore ∆𝒏 = 2.04 for VB = 304.4 m/s

∆𝒏 = 3.34 for Vc = 873 m/s
∆𝒏 = 2.31 for VD = 1222.2 m/s

Velocity (m/s) 𝟏 + ∆𝒏 𝟏 − ∆𝒏
VB = 304.4 B = 3.54 B` = -1.54
Vc = 873 C = 4.34 C` = -2.34
VD = 1222.2 D = 3.31 D` = -1.31

3.2 SAMPLE GUST ENVELOPE

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 300TON CARGO A/C

3.3 GUST ENVELOPE FOR OUR AIRCRAFT

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 300TON CARGO A/C

4. STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY – THEORY

APPROACH
Aircraft loads are those forces and loadings applied to the airplanes
structural components to establish the strength level of the complete airplane.
These loadings may be caused by air pressure, inertia forces, or ground reactions
during landing. In more specialized cases, design loadings may be imposed during
other operations such as catapulted take-offs, arrested landings, or landings in
water.
The determination of design loads involves a study of the air pressures and
inertia forces during certain prescribed maneuvers, either in the air or on the
ground. Since the primary objective is an airplane with a satisfactory strength
level, the means by which this result is obtained is sometimes unimportant. Some
of the prescribed maneuvers are therefore arbitrary and empirical which is
indicated by a careful examination of some of the criteria.
Important consideration in determining the extent of the load analysis is the
amount of structural weight involved. A fairly detailed analysis may be necessary
when computing operating loads on such items as movable surfaces, doors, landing
gears, etc. proper operation of the system requires an accurate prediction of the
loads.
Aircraft loads is the science of determining the loads that an aircraft
structure must be designed to withstand. A large part of the forces that make up
design loads are the forces resulting from the flow of air about the airplane’s
surfaces- the same forces that enable flight and control of the aircraft.

4.1 Load factors

In normal straight and level flight the wing lift supports the weight of the
airplane. During maneuvers or flight through turbulent (gusty) air, however,
additional loads are imposed which will increase or decrease the net loads on the
airplane structure. The amount of additional loads depends on the severity of the
maneuvers or the turbulence, and its magnitude is measured in terms of load factor.
The maximum maneuvering load factor to which an airplane is designed
depends on its intended usage. Fighters, which are expected to execute violent
maneuvers, are designed to withstand loads commensurate with the accelerations a
pilot can physically withstand. Long range, heavily loaded bombers, on the other
hand, are designed to low load factors and must be handled accordingly.
For a typical two spar layout, the ribs are usually formed in three parts from
sheet metal by the use of presses and dies. Flanges are incorporated around the

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edges so that they can be riveted to the skin and the spar webs Cut-outs are
necessary around the edges to allow for the stringers to pass through Lightening
holes are usually cut into the rib bodies to reduce the rib weight and also allow for
passage of control runs fuel electrics etc.

4.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN CRITERIA

The structural criteria define the types of maneuvers, speed, useful loads,
and gross weights which are to be considered for structural design analysis. These
are items which are under the control of the airplane operator. In addition, the
structural criteria must consider such items as inadvertent maneuvers, effects of
turbulent air, and severity of ground contact during landing. The basic structural
design criteria, from which the loadings are determined, are based largely on the
type of the airplane and its intended use.

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5. LOAD ESTIMATION OF WINGS

5.1 WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
Specific Roles of Wing (Main wing) Structure:

The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:
 To transmit: wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam
 Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the main
beam.
 Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to
the main beam.

 To react against:
 Landing loads at attachment points
 Loads from pylons/stores
 Wing drag and thrust loads

 To provide:
 Fuel tank age space
 Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.

 To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally

compromise:
 Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
 Chord wise members(ribs)
 A covering skin
 Stringers

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5.2 Basic Functions of Wing Structural Members

The structural functions of each of these types of members may be
considered independently as:

5.2.1 SPARS
 Form the main span wise beam
 Transmit bending and torsional loads
 Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and
tension loads.

In particular:
 Webs – resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
 Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.

5.2.2 SKIN
 To form impermeable aerodynamics surface
 Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
 Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
 React axial bending loads (with stringers).

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 300TON CARGO A/C

5.2.3 STRINGERS
 Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length
sections.
 React axial bending loads

5.2.4 RIBS
 Maintain the aerodynamic shape
 Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
 Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around
any discontinuities
 Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint
 Increase the skin panel buckling strength.

5.3 CALCULATIONS
We know,
 ab Planform Area

4 2

Spanofthewing
Where; a=
2
a = 100/2 = 50 m
π * 50 * b / 4= 1871.47/2
b = 23.82 m
To construct the ellipse,
x2 y 2 2 x2 
  1  y 2
 b  1  2 
a 2 b2  a 
 x2 
 y  b 2 1  2 
 a 

Using the above equation, for various values of x, the values of y are found
and the ellipse is drawn

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SPANWISE CHORDWISE
(m) (m)
5 23.7
10 23.3
15 22.72
20 21.83
25 20.62
30 19.05
35 17
40 14.3
45 10.4
50 0

25

20

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

LIFT DISTRIBUTION – SCHRENK’S CURVE

X AXIS = SPANWISE
Y AXIS = CHORDWISE

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5.4 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF WING

Wing is the major lift producing surface. Therefore, the analysis has to be
very accurate. The structural analysis of the wing by defining the primary load
carrying member Spars is done below.
The configuration used in our aircraft is the Box Beam (distributed flange)
concept-built-up or integral construction.

This method is more suitable for aircraft wings with medium to high load
intensities and differs from the mass boom concept in that the upper and lower
skins also contribute to the span wise bending resistance
Another difference is that the concept incorporates span wise stringers
(usually “z” section) to support the highly –stressed skin panel area. The resultant
use of a large number of end-load carrying members improves the overall
structural damage tolerance.
The concept described above is commonly known as built-up construction
method. The concept is simple in that the skin-stringer panels are manufactured
singly from large billets of metal. Advantages of the integral construction method
over the traditional built-up method include:
 Simpler construction & assembly
 Reduced sealing/jointing problems
 Reduced overall assembly time/costs
 Improved possibility to use optimized panel tapering.

This configuration is used in order to offer provision for our High Load
Intensity of 22000 Nm-1.
5.4.1 SPAR DEFINITION:
We define 3 Spars with front spar at 15% of chord, middle spar at 45%
of chord and rear spar at 70% of chord. The position of the three spars from the
leading edge of the root chord is given below as follows:

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At the mean chord,

Front spar - 15% of chord = 2.21 m
Middle spar - 45% of chord = 6.64 m
Rear spar - 70% of chord = 10.32 m

For each spar we are determining the following parameters:

1) Centroid

2) Moment of Inertia

3) Bending Moment

4) Bending Stress

FRONT SPAR
Height of the spar = 38 cm
Breadth of the spar = 16 cm
Thickness of the spar = 4.5 cm

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Cross Section of Front Spar

To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made.
Area(A x Ax Ax2 2
y Ay 4 Ay Icx Icy
Elemen ) (cm (cm3 (cm
(cm) (cm3 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 )
t (cm2 ) ) ) )

1 72 8 2.25 576 162 4608 364.5 121.5 1536

2479.
2 130.5 8 19 1044 8352 47110.5 9145.8 220.22
5

35.7
3 72 8 576 2574 4608 92020.5 121.5 1536
5

5215. 1756 139495. 9388.8 3292.2

Total 274.5 2196
5 8 5 7 2

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Front Spar Calculations

ΣAx ΣAy
Centroid = X = = 8 cm ; Y= = 19 cm
ΣA ΣA
I xx= Σ Icx + ΣAy2 – ΣAY2
I xx = (9388.87) + (139495.5) – (274.5)(19)2
I xx = 49789.88 cm4
I yy = Σ Icy+ ΣAx2 – ΣA X2
I yy = (3292.22) + (17568) – (274.5)(8)2
I yy = 3292.22 cm4
The FRONT SPAR carries 35 % of the BM carried by the Spars. Thus,
Front spar BM = 0.35 x 1156216019N-cm
= 404675606.7 N cm

Front Spar Bending Stress

Bending Stress, σ z = (M x / I xx) y

POINTS COORDINATES (y) (cm) BENDING STRESS (N/cm2)
A 19 154425.68
B 14.5 117851.18
C 14.5 117851.18
D -14.5 -117851.18
E -14.5 -117851.18
F -19 -154425.68
The bending stress at various points whose co-ordinates are determined with
centroid as the origin are calculated from above formula and tabulated.

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Bending Stress diagram for I-Section

MIDDLE SPAR:
Height of the spar = 41.6 cm
Breadth of the spar = 18 cm
Thickness of the spar = 5 cm

Cross Section of Middle Spar

To find out the center of gravity, the following calculations are made:
Area(A x y Ax Ax2
3 Ay 4 Ay2 Icx Icy
Elemen ) (cm (cm (cm (cm
(cm3 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 )
t (cm2 ) ) ) ) )

1 90 9 2.5 810 225 7290 562.5 187.5 2430

3286. 1279 68357.1 13147.

2 158 9 20.8 1422 329.17
4 8 2 7

137592.
3 90 9 39.1 810 3519 7290 187.5 2430
9

7030. 2737 206512. 13522. 5189.1

Total 338 3042
4 8 5 7 7

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Middle Spar Calculations

ΣAx ΣAy
Centroid = X = = 9 cm ; Y= = 20.8 cm
ΣA ΣA
I xx= Σ Icx + ΣAy – ΣAY
2 2

I xx = (13522.7) + (206512.5) – (338)(20.8)2

I xx = 60467.7 cm4
I yy = ΣIcy+ ΣAx2 – ΣA X2
I yy = (5189.17) + (27378) – (338)(9)2
I yy = 5189.17 cm4
The bending moment carried by the middle spar is 40% of the total bending
moment carried by the spars.
Middle Spar BM = 462486407.6 N-cm
Bending Stress σ z = (M x / I xx) y
The bending stress at various points whose co-ordinates are determined with
centroid as the origin are calculated from above formula and tabulated:
COORDINATES (y) BENDING STRESS
POINTS
(cm) (N/cm2)
A 20.8 159088.52
B 15.8 120846.09
C 15.8 120846.09
D -15.8 -120846.09
E -15.8 -120846.09
F -20.8 -159088.52

REAR SPAR
Height of the spar = 17.72 cm
Breadth of the spar = 7.6 cm
Thickness of the spar = 2.5 cm

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Cross Section of Rear Spar

To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made:
Area(A) x y Ax Ay Ax2 Ay2 Icx Icy
Element (cm2 ) (cm) (cm) (cm3 ) (cm3 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 ) (cm4 )

1 19 3.8 1.25 72.2 23.75 274.36 29.6875 9.896 91.45

2 31.8 3.8 8.86 120.84 281.748 459.19 2496.287 428.76 16.56

3 19 3.8 16.47 72.2 312.93 274.36 5153.957 9.896 91.45

Total 69.8 265.24 618.428 1007.9 7679.932 448.552 199.46

Rear Spar Calculations

ΣAx ΣAy
Centroid = X = = 3.8 cm ; Y= = 8.86 cm
ΣA ΣA
I xx= Σ I cx + ΣAy – ΣAY
2 2

I xx = (448.552) + (7679.932) – (69.8)(8.86)2

I xx = 2649.184 cm4
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I yy = Σ Icy+ ΣAx2 – ΣA X2
I yy = (199.46) + (1007.9) – (69.8)(3.8)2
I yy = 199.46 cm4
Rear Spar carries 25 % of the spar Bending Moments.
Rear Spar Bending Moment = 289054004.8 N-cm
Bending Stress σ z = (Mx/Ixx)y

The bending stresses at various points are obtained as:

Rear Spar Bending Stress
POINTS COORDINATES (y) (cm) BENDING STRESS (N/cm2)
A 8.86 966719.74
B 6.36 693943.29
C 6.36 693943.29
D -6.36 -693943.29
E -6.36 -693943.29
F -8.86 -966719.74

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6. LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE

6.1 FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space
for personnel, cargo,controls, and most of the accessories. The power plant, wings,
stabilizers, and landing gear are attached to it.
There are two general types of fuselage construction—welded steel truss and
monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and
it is still being used in some helicopters.
The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering,
to carry various loads. The monocoque design may be divided into three classes-
monocoque, semimonocoque and reinforced shell.

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 The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and

bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the
primary stresses. Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be
strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest problem in monocoque
construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within
limits.
 Semimonocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of
monocoque construction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies,
and bulkheads, the semimonocoque construction has the skin reinforced by
longitudinal members.
 The reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of
structural members.
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the three classes.
Most are considered to be of semimonocoque-type construction.
The semimonocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminum alloy,
although steel and titanium are found in high-temperature areas. Primary bending
loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across several points of
support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as
stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons.
The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and
formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for
concentrated loads. These members are also found at points where fittings are used
to attach other units, such as the wings and stabilizers.
The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins.
They have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment
of skin. The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The
bulkheads and formers hold the stringers. All of these join together to form a rigid
fuselage framework. Stringers and longerons prevent tension and compression
stresses from bending the fuselage.
The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural
members and carries part of the load. The fuselage skin thickness varies with the
load carried and the stresses sustained at particular location.

There are a number of advantages in using the semimonocoque fuselage.

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 The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and
construction of a streamlined fuselage. They add to the strength and rigidity
of the structure.
 The main advantage of the semimonocoque construction is that it depends
on many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of its stressed
skin construction, a semimonocoque fuselage can withstand damage and still
be strong enough to hold together.

6.2 FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Structural analysis of fuselage like that of wing is of prime importance while
designing an aircraft. As the fuselage is the one which houses the pilot, the power
plant and also part of the payload its structural integrity is a matter of concern.
While analyzing the fuselage structure the section must be idealized. Idealization
involves the conversion of a stringer and its accompanying skin thickness into a
concentrated mass known as a boom. The shear flow analysis of the fuselage
simulating flight conditions is shown below.

(a) Actual fuselage section; (b) idealized fuselage section

The stringer used is of Z type. The following are its dimensions
Cross sectional area of each stringer is 100 mm2
Cross section of Z-section

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The above stringer section is uniformly used throughout the fuselage as

shown above in order to provide the fuselage the required load carrying capacity.
The diagram showed adjacent is of the idealized fuselage structure. The
idealization process is carried out in the following way.

6.3 STRESS ANALYSIS:

IDEALIZATION:
The boom 1 is given by

Where
B1 = Area of Boom 1
tD = Thickness of skin panel
b = Circumferential distance between 2 stringers
By Symmetry,
B1 = B9, B2= B8, B10= B16, B3= B7,B11= B15, B4= B6= Bl2= B14,B5= B13

B1 =100+(0.65*1.37*106/6)[2+(4110/5500)]+(0.65*1.37*106/6)[2+(4110/5500)]
=815582.12mm2
Similarly for boom 2,

B2=815582.12mm2

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Similarly B3= 815582.12mm2, B4 =815582.12mm2. We note that stringers 5 and 13

lie on the neutral axis of the section and are therefore unstressed; the calculation of
boom areas B5and B13does not then arise.

Thus, we have B1:B16=815582.12mm2

We know that,
Ixx = By2

Ixx1=24.67 m4; Ixx2=13.77m4; Ixx3=6.12 m4; Ixx4=1.11m4

Maximum bending moment = 2897784.51Nm
Hence the Bending moment acting on the fuselage M = Max.B.M * n* FOS
=2897784.51* 3.8*1.5
=16517371.71Nm
4
Ixx =24.67m
The value of stress acting is given by the expression :

= (16517371.71*y)/24.67

Stress in Stringers

STRINGER/BOOM Y (m) STRESS x𝟏𝟎𝟔 (𝐍𝐦−𝟐 )

1 5.5 3.68
2, 16 4.11 2.75
3, 15 2.74 1.83
4, 14 1.37 0.9
5, 13 0 0
6, 12 -1.37 -0.9
7, 11 -2.74 -1.83
8, 10 -4.11 -2.75
9 -5.5 -3.68

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7. BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS ON

TAIL PLANE, RUDDER AND AILERON LOADS
7.1 Maneuvering loads.

Each horizontal surface and its supporting structure, and the main wing of a canard
or tandem wing configuration, if that surface has pitch control, must be designed
for the maneuvering loads imposed by the following conditions:

 A sudden movement of the pitching control, at the speed V A, to the

maximum aft movement, and the maximum forward movement, as limited
by the control stops, or pilot effort, whichever is critical.
 A sudden aft movement of the pitching control at speeds above V A, followed
by a forward movement of the pitching control resulting in the following
combinations of normal and angular acceleration

At speeds up to VA, the vertical surfaces must be designed to withstand the

following conditions. In computing the loads, the yawing velocity may be assumed
to be zero:

 With the airplane in unaccelerated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed that the
rudder control is suddenly displaced to the maximum deflection, as limited
by the control stops or by limit pilot forces.
 With the rudder deflected ,it is assumed that the airplane yaws to the
overswing sideslip angle. In lieu of a rational analysis, an overswing angle
equal to 1.5 times the static sideslip angle may be assumed.
 (A yaw angle of 15 degrees with the rudder control maintained in the neutral
position (except as limited by pilot strength).
 The airplane must be yawed to the largest attainable steady state sideslip
angle, with the rudder at maximum deflection caused by any one of the
following:

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i. Control surface stops;

ii. Maximum available booster effort;
iii. Maximum pilot rudder force as shown below:

The rudder must be suddenly displaced from the maximum deflection to the
neutral position.

 The yaw angles may be reduced if the yaw angle chosen for a particular
speed cannot be exceeded in--
i. Steady slip conditions;
ii. Uncoordinated rolls from steep banks; or
iii. Sudden failure of the critical engine with delayed corrective action.

The ailerons must be designed for the loads to which they are subjected--

 In the neutral position during symmetrical flight conditions; and

 By the following deflections (except as limited by pilot effort), during
unsymmetrical flight conditions:
i. Sudden maximum displacement of the aileron control at VA. Suitable
allowance may be made for control system deflections.
ii. Sufficient deflection at VC, where VC is more than VA, to produce a
rate of roll not less than obtained
iii. Sufficient deflection at VD to produce a rate of roll not less than one-
third of that obtained

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(a)Symmetricmaneuvering conditions:
For the analysis of the maneuvering flight conditions specified in paragraphs
(b) and (c) of this section, the following provisions apply:

 Where sudden displacement of a control is specified, the assumed rate of

control surface displacement may not be less than the rate that could be
applied by the pilot through the control system.
 In determining elevator angles and chordwise load distribution in the
maneuvering conditions, the effect of corresponding pitching velocities must
be taken into account. The in-trim and out-of-trim flight conditions must be
considered.

(b)Maneuvering balanced conditions:

Assuming the airplane to be in equilibrium with zero pitching acceleration, the
maneuvering conditions A through I on the maneuvering envelope must be
investigated.

(c)Pitch maneuver conditions:

The conditions specified in paragraphs (c)must be investigated. The movement of
the pitch control surfaces may be adjusted to take into account limitations imposed
by the maximum pilot effort, control system stops and any indirect effect imposed
by limitations in the output side of the control system (for example, stalling torque
or maximum rate obtainable by a power control system.

 Maximum pitch control displacement at VA.:

The airplane is assumed to be flying in steady level flight and the cockpit pitch
control is suddenly moved to obtain extreme nose up pitching acceleration. In
defining the tail load, the response of the airplane must be taken into account.
Airplane loads that occur subsequent to the time when normal acceleration at the

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c.g. exceeds the positive limit maneuvering load or the resulting tailplane normal
load reaches its maximum, whichever occurs first, need not be considered.

(2)Specified control displacement:

A checked maneuver, based on a rational pitching control motion vs. time profile,
must be established in which the design limit load factor will not be exceeded.
Unless lesser values cannot be exceeded, the airplane response must result in
pitching accelerations not less than the following:

 A positive pitching acceleration (nose up) is assumed to be reached

concurrently with the airplane load factor of 1.0. The positive acceleration
must be equal to atleast

where-
n is the positive load factor at the speed under consideration; and V is the
airplane equivalent speed in knots.
 A negative pitching acceleration (nose down) is assumed to be reached
concurrently with the positive maneuvering load factor. This negative
pitching acceleration must be equal to at least

where-
n is the positive load factor at the speed under consideration; and V is the
airplane equivalent speed in knots.

7.2 Balancing loads

 A horizontal surface balancing load is a load necessary to maintain

equilibrium in any specified flight condition with no pitching acceleration.
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 Horizontal balancing surfaces must be designed for the balancing loads

occurring at any point on the limit maneuvering envelope and in the flap
conditions
 It is not require to balance the rudder because it will not deflect due to
gravity.
 Aileron will defect in vice versa direction so it is doesn’t require balancing
load.

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8. DESIGN OF COMPONENTS OF THE WING

8.1 FUEL TANKS

Aircraft typically use three types of fuel tanks: integral, rigid removable, and
bladder.

 Integral tanks are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sealed to
allow fuel storage. An example of this type is the "wet wing" commonly
used in larger aircraft. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure,
they cannot be removed for service or inspection. Inspection panels must be
provided to allow internal inspection, repair, and overall servicing of the
tank. Most large transport aircraft use this system, storing fuel in the wings,
belly, and sometimes tail of the airplane.
 Rigid removable tanks are installed in a compartment designed to
accommodate the tank. They are typically of metal construction, and may be
removed for inspection, replacement, or repair. The aircraft does not rely on
the tank for structural integrity. These tanks are commonly found in smaller
general aviation aircraft, such as the Cessna 172.
 Bladder tanks are reinforced rubberized bags installed in a section of aircraft
structure designed to accommodate the weight of the fuel. The bladder is
rolled up and installed into the compartment through the fuel filler neck or
access panel, and is secured by means of metal buttons or snaps inside the
compartment. Many high-performance light aircraft and some smaller
turboprops use bladder tanks. One major down-side to this type of tank is the
tendency for materials to work harden through extensive use making them
brittle causing cracks. One major plus side is the ability to utilise as much of
the aircraft as possible to store fuel.
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 Combat aircraft generally use self-sealing fuel tanks.

The study of the fuel tanks and its corresponding feed systems is of
importance to us because, as the fuel is stored in the wings and also externally.
Thus structural analysis results are incorporated here to ensure that the fuel
tanks are positioned suitably and are adequate in capacity so that our aircraft
has an endurance of 8 hours. The C.G analysis carried out in ADP-I let us know
that our aircraft’s C.G remains within acceptable limits even on consumption of
fuel consumption.
Integral tanks are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sealed to
allow fuel storage. An example of this type is the "wet wing" commonly used in
larger aircraft. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure, they cannot be
removed for service or inspection. Inspection panels must be provided to allow
internal inspection, repair, and overall servicing of the tank. Most large
transport aircraft use this system, storing fuel in the wings, belly, and
sometimes tail of the airplane.
Internally, the fuel is carried in the wings. The wing tanks are capable of
withstanding up to 90000 kg of fuel. Externally however we had two choices,
conformal tanks or drop tanks. Drop tanks are heavy and are an aerodynamic
liability (drag).

8.2 RIB LOCATION AND DIRECTION

The span-wise location of ribs is of some consequence. Ideally, the rib
spacing should be determined to ensure adequate overall buckling support to the
distributed flanges. This requirement may be considered to give a maximum pitch

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of the ribs. In practice other considerations are likely to determine the actual rib
locations such as:
 Hinge positions for control surfaces and attachment/operating points for
flaps, slats, and spoilers.
 Attachment locations of power plants, stores and landing gear structure.
 A need to prevent or postpone skin local shear or compression buckling, as
opposed to overall buckling. This is especially true in a mass boom form of
construction.
 Ends of integral fuel tanks where a closing rib is required. When the wing is
unswept, it is usual for the ribs to be arranged in the flight direction and
thereby define the aerofoil section. While the unswept wing does give
torsional stiffness, the ribs are heavier, connections are more complex and in
general the disadvantages overweigh the gains.

8.3 FIXED SECONDARY STRUCTURE

A fixed leading edge is often stiffened by a large number of closely pitched
ribs, span-wise members being absent. Providing care is taken in the detail design
of the skin attachment it is possible to arrange for little span-wise end load to be
diffused into the leading edge and buckling of the relatively light structure is
avoided. This may imply short spam-wise sections. The presence of thermal de-
icing, high-lift devices or other installations in the leading edge also has a
considerable influence upon the detail design. Bird strike considerations are likely
to be important.

8.4 HORIZONTAL STABILISER

When the horizontal stabilizer is constructed as a single component across
the centerline of the aircraft, the basic structural requirements are very similar to
those of a wing.

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8.4 VERTICAL STABILISER

The vertical stabilizer presents a set of issues which are different from those
of the main plane or horizontal stabilizer. Relevant matters are:
 It is not unusual to build the vertical stabilizer integrally with the rear
fuselage. The spars are extended to form fuselage frames or bulkheads. A
‘root’ rib is made to coincide with the upper surface of the fuselage and is
used to transmit the fin root skin shears directly into the fuselage skin. Fin
span-wise bending results in fuselage torsion. Often it is logical to incline
the rear spar bulkhead to continue the line of the rear spar since it is usually
the end of the main fuselage structure. On the other hand, the front spar and
any intermediate attachment frames are often best kept perpendicular to
fuselage fore and aft datum. The change in direction being made at the fin
root rib. Otherwise the structural form can follow that of a wing.

8.5 AUXILIARY SURFACES

The structural layout of the auxiliary lifting surfaces is generally similar to
that of the wing but there are differences, in part due to the smaller size and in part
due to the need to provide hinges or supports. The latter implies that each
auxiliary surface is a well-defined.

8.6 HINGED CONTROL SURFACES

Conventional training edge control surfaces are almost invariably
supported by a number of discrete hinges, although continuous, piano type, hinges
may be used for secondary tabs. To some degree the number and location of the
discrete hinges depends upon the length of the control. The major points to be
considered are:
a) The bending distortion of the control relative to the fixed surface must
be limited so that the nose of the control does mot fouls the fixed
shroud.
b) The control hinge loads and the resulting shear forces and bending
moments should be equalized as far as is possible.

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c) Structural failure of a single hinge should be tolerated unless each

hinge is of fail-safe design and can tolerate cracking one load path.
These points suggest the use of a relatively large number of discrete hinges
but there are difficulties associated with this solution there are the obvious loads
likely to be induced in the control by the distortion under load of the main surface
to which it is attached may be significant. These problems do not arise if only two
hinge points are used as any span-wise distortion or misalignment can be
accommodated by designing one of the hinges so that it can rotate about a vertical
axis. When more than two hinges are used the ‘floating’ hinge concept

8.7 PIVOTED CONTROL SURFACES

In certain high-performance aircraft, the whole of a stabilizing or
control surface on one side of the aircraft may be pivot about a point on its root
chord. Clearly in this case, the structural considerations are dominated by the need
to react all the forces and moments at the pivot and operating points. Thus the
structural layout may consist of an integral root rib or pivot or stub spar
arrangement to which is attached a number of shear webs fanning out towards the
extremities of the surface, possibly in conjunction with full depth honeycomb.
High skin shear loading is inevitable due to the need to bring the loads to the two
concentrated points. Shear loads due to torsion may be limited by locating the
operating point on the root rib some distance away from the pivot.

8.7 HIGH LIFT SYSTEMS

There is a wide variety of leading and trailing edge high-lift systems.
Some types are simply hinged to the wing, but many require some degree of chord-
wise extension. This can be achieved by utilizing a linkage, a mechanism, a pivot
located outside the aerofoil contour or, perhaps most commonly, by some form of
track. Trailing edge flaps may consist of two or more separate chord-wise
segments, or slats, to give a slotted surface and these often move on tracts attached
to the main wing structure.
The majority of flaps and slats are split into span wise segments of no
greater lengths than can be supported at two or three locations. As with control
surfaces, the locations of the support points are established so as to minimize local
deformations since the various slots are critical in determining the aerodynamic
performance. Sometimes the actuation may be located at a different pan wise
position from the support points. This is often a matter of convenience, layout
clearances, and the like.

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8.8 ATTACHMENT OF LIFTING SURFACES

The joint of the fuselage with the wing is subjected to heavy load inputs and there
is a potential for considerable relative distortion. This distortion is usually accepted
and the wing center box is built completely into the fuselage, the resulting
constraint stresses being allowed for. It is usual for the wing structure of large
aircraft to include a production joint at the side of the fuselage and this is virtual
essential for swept wings.

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9. DESIGN OF COMPONENTS OF THE

FUSELAGE
9.1 DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR
We have designed the landing gear characteristics by following a step by
stepmethod.
1)Landing gear System
We have chosen a Retractable system landing gear which will be retracted in
tothe fuselage after the take off.

2)Landing Gear Configuration

The landing gear configuration we have adapted is the Tri-cycle type with a
nose wheel in front. From an ease of ground manoeuvringviewpoint as well as
ground looping the nose wheel configuration is preferred.

3)Preliminary landing gear strut disposition

There are two geometric criteria which are required to be considered on
decidingthe disposition of landing gear struts are:
A)Tip-over criteria
B)Ground clearance criteria

A)Tip-over Criteria :
a)Longitudinal Tip-over Criterion :
For tricycle gears the main landing gear must be behind the aft CG location.
The 15 deg angles shown in the Fig. represents the usual relation between main
gear and the aft CG.

b)Lateral Tip-over Criterion :

The lateral tip-over is dictated by the angle ψ in the Fig.

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B)Ground Clearance Criterion :

a)Longitudinal Ground Clearance Criterion :

b)Lateral Ground Clearance Criterion :

4)Number of Wheels :
Nose landing gear-2
Main landing gear-14
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Angles of Pitch and Roll during Takeoff and Landing

The available pitch angle (θ) at liftoff and touchdown must be equal, or
preferably exceed, the requirements imposed by performance or flight
characteristics. A geometric limitation to the pitch angle is detrimental to the liftoff
speed and hence to the takeoff field length. Similarly, a geometric limitation to the
roll angle (φ) could result in undesirable operational limit under cross-wind
landing condition.

For a given aircraft geometry and gear height (hg), the limit for the
takeoff/landing pitch angle follows directly from the roll angle at which the tip of
the wing just touches the ground is calculated using the expression.

In this case, Γ is taken as the dihedral angle, s is the wing span, t is the wheel
track, and Λis the wing sweep. Similar conditions may be deduced for other parts
of the aircraft,except that Γ, Λ and s) must be replaced with appropriate values. For
example,the permissible roll angle associated with nacelle-to-ground clearance is
determined withthe following values: Γ measured from the horizon to the bottom
of the nacelle in thefront view, Λ measured from the chosen landing gear location
to the engine in the topview, and s the distance between the engines.

Pitch Angle Required for Liftoff

The takeoff rotation angle is prescribed in preliminary design, and then

estimated.The final values for θ and φ are found as the detailed performance
characteristics of the aircraft become available. The pitch angle at liftoff (θLOF) is
calculated using the expression

Where αLOFis the highest angle of attack anticipated for normal operational
use, VLOFisthe liftoff speed, g is the gravitational acceleration CL, LOFis the lift
coefficient, anddCL/dα is the lift-curve slope.. For large transports, the typical
value for the rate ofrotation (dθ/dt) is taken as four degrees per second

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Pitch and Roll Angles during Landing

With the flaps in the fully-deflected position, the critical angle of attack of
the wingduring landing is smaller than in takeoff. Consequently, the pitch angle
during landing isgenerally less than that during takeoff. In the absence of detailed
information, the pitchangle on touchdown (θTD) may be assumed equal to θLOF.
As for the roll angle upontouchdown, an upper limit of between fiveand eight
degrees is generally appliedto large transport aircraft.

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10. DETAILED DESIGN REPORT

S.
Design Parameter Value Unit
No.
1 Length (l) 80 m

2 Height (h) 18 m

3 Wing Span (b) 100 m

5 Aspect Ratio(A.R) 5.34 no unit

6 Wing Area (S) 1871.47 m2

7 Root Chord (Cr) 22.18 m

8 Mean Chord (Cm) 14.75 m

9 Tip chord (Ct) 7.32 m

10 Lift coefficient (CL) 1.34 no unit

11 Landing distance 3036 m

12 Take off runway distance 3320 m

13 Cruising Altitude 10000 m

14 Service Ceiling 11000 m

15 Range (R) 15000 km

16 Number of Engines 6 (no unit)

17 Engine selected GE90-115B

18 Total thrust 3084 kN

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19 Rate of climb 8.78 m/s

20 Maximum Take Off Weight (Wo) 1310033.659 kg

21 Empty Weight (We) 576414.8 kg

22 Fuel Weight(Wf) 432311.1 kg

23 Wing Loading (W/S) 7000 kg/m2

24 Wing-Tail Configuration H-Tail No unit
25 Lift at cruise 6684774 N
26 Coefficient of drag 0.117 No unit
27 Lift at Cruise (L(cruise)) 6097603.38 N

28 Drag at cruise (D(cruise)) 583670.56 N

29 Load Factor (n) -1.52 < n < 3.8 no unit

30 1-g Stall Velocity (Vs) 158 m/s

31 Design Maneuvering Speed (Va) 308 m/s

32 Design Cruise Speed (Vc) 873 m/s

33 Design Diving Speed (Vd) 1222.2 m/s

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11. THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

12. THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

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13. CONCLUSION
Thus the series of cargo aircrafts incorporated many unique design of future
that were never seen on an operational aircraft. The design of these aircrafts points
the way for the design of future of very high machaeroplanes.

The aeroplane has gone through many design modifications since its early
conceptual designs expected, among these was a growth in weight. The document
to provide information on the trends in various aircraft characterstics that may
influence general long-term airport planning and design.

These are strong indications that future trends could see the coexistence of
very high capacity aircraft modules of similar capacities for the long range/very
long range operations. Cargo payloads, which include mail, express and freight, are
increasing in size and weight as larger aircraft service with the airlines,

To ensure continued growth in payload and the profitability of cargo

operations, improvements in methods, equipment and terminal facilities will be
required in order to reduce cargo handling costs and aircraft ground time and to
provide improved service for the shippers.

We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never gets
completed in a flutter sense but it is one step further towards ideal system. But
during the design of this aircraft, we learnt a lot about aeronautics and its
implications when applied to an aircraft design.

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14. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Introduction to Flight by J.D.Anderson.

2. Aircraft Performance and Design by J.D. Anderson.
3. Design of Aircraf by Thomas.C.Corke.
4. Aircraft Structures by T.H.G.Megson.
5. Aircraft Structures by D.J.Peery
6. Airframe StucturalDesign by Michael Chun-Yung Niu
7.FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

WEBSITE REFERENCES

1. www.wikipedia.org
2. www.nasa .gov
3. www.worldaircraftdierctory.com
4. www.airliners.net
5. www.globalsecurity.org
6. www.antonov AN-225 Mriya.com
7. www.passion for aviation.com
8. And other websites related to design of aircrafts.

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