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Urdhvabahurviraumyesa na ca kashcicchrnoti me /
Dharmadarthashca kamashca sa kimartham na sevyyata //
Six figures etched on the Himalayan skyline. As they inch up the steep bleak heights,
suddenly the last figure, a woman, crumbles. A slight pause, then the five labour on
upwards. One by one, four fall. “Why? Why?” the shrieking wind whistling down the icy
gorges tears the question to shreds. The lone survivor does not look back. He vanishes
from sight on Mount Meru—Exeunt, followed by a mongrel.
‘The first spectacle that Yudhishthira saw when he entered heaven was Duryodhana
gloriously esconced in a beautiful seat and radiating a heroic sun-like
splendour….Yudhishthira said, “This is not heaven.”’ [2]
Alone on the slopes of Meru, dragging in the thin, icy air in short agonizing gasps,
waiting for the end, Yajnaseni-Draupadi watches the past flash by in iridescent vignettes.
Finally empress of Bharatavarsha indeed: all children and kin slaughtered;sakha Krishna
and his clan decimated in internecine strife, the Yadava women abducted by staff-
wielding robbers from the custody of Gandiva-wielding invincible Arjuna; mother-in-law
Kunti retiring to the forest and dying in a forest fire; and now not one of her five
husbands has turned back to be with her in her last moments.Nathavati anathavat, five-
husbanded indeed, but ever without protection! What was Kurukshetra all about? A
struggle for power, a wreaking of vengeance, a righteous war to establish dharma?
The epic tells us that when the unhindered play of individualism led to the strong
oppressing the weak [matsyanyaya], with none enforcing the rules agreed upon, the
vexed people decided to give up their individual power in the interest of general welfare
and approached Vaivasvat Manu for assuming overlordship. For his pains they offered
one-fiftieth of their herds, one-tenth of their agricultural produce and one-fourth of the
merit that the subjects would accrue by observing dharma.[4] The massive corpus of
the Shanti Parva is devoted to Bhishma’s discourse on the intricacies of Raja dharma,
the way of the king, in which the key pronouncement is:
Atma jeyah sada rajna tato jeyashca shatravah /
Ajitatma narapatirvijayeta katham ripun //
In another account the epic throws significant light on the implications of exercising
power in governance. The first king was Ananga, and it is with his grandson Vena that
we come across the record of what power brings in its wake: one cannot have enough of
it. That is why power is said to corrupt, and when it is absolute in nature, the corruption it
brings about is also total. Vena became a tyrant, oppressing the people so that they slew
him and in his place chose Prithu as king, for he had mastered the science
of danda [chastisement] that upholds dharma. It is Prithu who cultivated the earth, made
it yield its fruits so that it was called “Prithivi” after him. Because he protected all from
harm, he was called Kshatriya, and because he pleased all the people he was renowned
as raja
From one point of view, Vyasa’s epic is a study of the use and abuse of power. It is not
that in itself power is good or bad. It is essentially a force, a weapon, that can be used to
save and foster or to harm and extort: “Desiring power first as an instrument for the
achievement of other ends, he falls in love with and retains it as an end in itself … the
man who has drunk of the draught of power loses his wisdom and , forgetful of the end
which power should have achieved, dictates for the sake of dictating.”[8] This, indeed, is
what Vyasa recounts.
Essentially what the epic depicts is the fortunes of the dynasty founded by Yayati, and
the struggle between his descendants for the hegemony of Bharatavarsha. As a dynast,
he is a watershed in Pauranik history. Of his five sons the Yadavas, stemming from the
disinherited eldest son, Yadu, and the Pauravas descending from the youngest son Puru
who gets the throne, are the most important. One branch of the family establishes itself
in Hastinapura, while another rules in Magadha. The Kauravas, Pandavas and
Panchalas are all Pauravas, battling amongst themselves on Kurukshetra with the
Yadava Krishna presiding over it all.
In the natural course of things, this force should have been available in Hastinapura, for
it was here that the great righteous monarch Bharata had ruled, after whom the country
took its name “Bharatavarsha”. But here, again, personal lust was allowed to cloud a
ruler’s vision of public welfare. Bharata the eponymous dynast had displayed the true
qualities of greatness. Finding all his sons unworthy to rule, he discarded blind
adherence primogeniture, adopted the Brahmin Bharadvaja and, renaming him Vitatha,
gave him the kingdom. This over-riding concern for the welfare of the people instead of
caring for the claims of one’s progeny is what sets Bharata apart. It is precisely the lack
of this in his descendants Shantanu and Dhritarashtra that heralds the doom of the
dynasty. The contrast Shantanu presents to his ancestor Bharata is astonishing. In
pursuing the gratification of his personal desire for the intoxicatingly fragrant and dark
fisher-maiden Kali Shantanu is blind to the paramount consideration of the welfare of his
subjects, who already have in Devavrata a completely qualified heir-apparent. He
eagerly concurs in Gangadatta-Devavrata’s vow to abjure the throne and marriage. By
way of appreciation he confers on his son the boon of choosing the moment of his death.
And this becomes the bane of Bhishma’s life.
Shantanu dies before his sons from Satyavati reach majority. The eldest, Chitrangada, is
killed fighting a Gandharva, with no sign of his invincible foster-brother fighting at his
side. Vichitravirya becomes king as a minor, makes no mark whatsoever, and is
prematurely provided by Bhishma, at the insistence of queen mother Satyavati, hungry
for progeny, with two voluptuous brides. Vichitravirya dies without issue, as “driven by
passion, (he) became/a victim of his own lust.” These are words which will be echoed by
his foster-son, Pandu who laments:
It is the death of Vichitravirya that leads to the first exposition of Bhishma’s superhuman
qualities. When Satyavati pleads with him to satisfy the craving of Ambika and Ambalika
for sons (a typical case of desire transference, for it is she who is desperate for
grandsons), and thereby save the dynasty from extinction, this is his response:
I will give up the three worlds
I will give up heaven,
I will give up more than the three worlds and heaven,
But I will not give up my truth.
Earth may give up fragrance,
Water its wetness,
Light clarity,
Wind movement,
Sun may give up splendour,
fire its heat,
moon coolness
sky either,
Indra, Vritra-slayer, may give up valour,
Yama the just, justice,
But I will not break my vow.
What is the nature of this famous vow? It is not only the giving-up of a Crown Prince’s
right to the throne [which had been done by some of his ancestors like Yati and his uncle
Devapi] but also the incredible sacrifice of a Kshatriya right to beget progeny in order to
subserve a father’s infatuation for a fisher-girl. The futility of it all is that the vow is
adhered to long after its purpose has been served and even when it becomes
dysfunctional to the extent of threatening the very existing of the dynasty of which
Bhishma is the sole remaining representative.
Of a piece with this obstinate adherence to his vow is Bhishma’s peculiar attachment to
Hastinapura itself. He is the same age as Satyavati, if not older, but she does not follow
her into vanaprastha in the forest after the death of Pandu, when Vyasa advises his
mother and her two daughters-in-law not to be witnesses to the suicide of their race.
Bhishma is entombed in a perpetual brahmacharya ashrama, the first of the four stages
in a human being’s life. He eschews the stage of a householder, does not retire to the
forest, and fails to become a sanyasi. With this goes an obsession with Hastinapura, so
strong that he can bring himself to support the Pandavas only verbally, but needs must
ally himself physically with the Dhartarashtras despite knowing them to be in the wrong.
And that he does to the extent of leading their armies against the Pandavas in a cause
which he believes to be wrong! Truly, he is a man divided against himself. The only
rationale he provides for his behaviour is that he and Drona are borne on the
Hastinapura monarch’s exchequer and hence bound to serve him. Yet, Yuyutsut, son of
Dhritarashtra, has no hesitation in rising above loyalty to his brothers to cross-over to the
side he knows to be in the right. It is Gandhari who points out to her husband at the time
of Krishna’s peace-mission that the warriors on whom their son foolishly depends will not
lead him to victory because, although they will fight on his side being rajapinda
bhayat[borne on the state’s payroll], their hearts will not be with him.[10] Bhishma
himself echoes this when he tells them that he, along with Kripa and Drona, are bound to
the Kauravas “by need”, that is, they are borne on the Kaurava exchequer.[11]
It is Bhisma who is instrumental in bringing about the deaths of the successors to the
Hastinapura throne, albeit unwittingly. We have already seen that his over-eagerness to
provide his stepbrother with a surfeit of brides resulted in Vichitravirya’s premature
demise. This was followed his going out of his way to procure a second bride for Pandu,
whose very name indicates the state of his wife. It is significant that the blind
Dhritarashtra was not provided a second wife by Bhishma. Pandu had gone to
asvayamvara (bridegroom-choice ceremony) on his own. No Kuru king is found
attending any previous to this. Bhishma paid considerable bride price to procure Madri
who becomes the direct cause of Pandu’s death.
It speaks volumes for the much-vaunted wisdom of Bhishma that he never cast a glance
eastward of Hastinapura towards the alarming imperialistic ambitions of Magadha’s
Jarasandha despite the phenomenon of nearly a hundred kings having been captured
and nearby Mathura attacked repeatedly. A contingent from Hastinapura even
accompanied the Magadhan army’s onslaught on Mathura. One gets a sense of
Bhishma presiding over a small and weak kingdom, worried only about the traditional
enemies, the Panchalas [which is why Drupada’s sworn enemy Drona is immediately
taken into employment in Hastinapura], and blind to the growing threat of the
Jarasandha-Shishupala-Dantavakra-Kashi-Paundraka-Naraka-Kalayavana combine
gathering forces to the south, the east and the west. Bhishma merely made sure of the
north-western border through marital alliances with Madra and Gandhara, and the west
by marrying Dhritarashtra’s daughter Duhshala to Jayadratha, the Sindhu King. He was
unaware that the tenuous link down the Ganga with Kashi, whose princesses were the
Queen-mothers of Hastinapura, was already snapped by Magadha. It is young Krishna
who puts paid to these imperialistic designs by killing each of the tyrants separately,
without any assistance from Bhishma, renowned as the greatest statesman of the age.
This failed statesman, and this misogynist par excellence who abuses his Kshatriya
prowess to ruin the lives of Amba, Ambika, Ambalika, Kunti, and watches, without
protest, the attempted disrobing of Draupadi, is also a Commander-in-Chief who
deprives his army of its best warrior, Karna, by insulting him so grossly that he withdraws
from battle. Further, he announces that he will not slay any of the Pandavas and will
befriend them in his thoughts at night, although he will fight against them during the day.
What a splendid morale booster for his army! Over a period of ten days he kills
thousands of innocent soldiers but not a single Pandava. Unlike Drona, Bhishma does
not even think of capturing Yudhishthira as a way to end the war. It is as though he were
trying to tire out Duryodhana till he agrees to a truce. Repeatedly Duryodhana voices his
anguish over Bhishma’s half-hearted leadership, which he will not relinquish. A peculiar
dharma indeed!
It is a fact that Bhishma bestrides the epic like a colossus and it is because of this that
he has been celebrated over millennia as the repository of statecraft and the
embodiment of the warrior code, dharma-dharma, to be looked up to by all succeeding
generations. This aura is like the upanishadic golden lid veiling the face of truth. What
Vyasa shows us is Bhishma standing as the last bulwark of the ancient dharma in which
loyalty to the clan over-rode all other claims; in which fidelity to one’s word was the be-all
and end-all; into which considerations of the larger public weal did not enter. The
deceptive aura of perfection is ruthlessly dispelled in the Draupadi-
vastraharana episode. Never have the limitations of Bhishma’s way of life been exposed
so mercilessly as when Draupadi challenges him to stand by those very tenets of nobility
which the Kuru court supposed to uphold.
Draupadi said:
Bhishma said:
What Bhishma says now is of very great importance, for it speaks of the breakdown of a
system of values, of dharma having become an empty shell:
The face of Truth is hidden by not a golden lid but a sadly tarnished one. Here is the
greatest of patriarchs enmeshing himself in the dialectics of reason: whether Draupadi
has been won or not. As if that issue is of more importance than protecting her modesty
and saving the reputation of the Kuru Court whose code enshrines protecting the weak
as a central tenet. The confusion in Bhishma becomes evident as he abruptly swings to
asserting that the family which has taken Draupadi as daughter-in-law will not stray from
the path of dharma. Yet he does not lift a finger to free her from brutal Duhshasana’s
clutches. Instead, he voices a meaningless approval of her stance:
Indeed, the life-breath of this dharma is gone. What exists is a putrefying corpse kept
artificially alive, shown ultimately in Bhishma’s death-in-life on the bed-of-arrows. It is
revealing that explicit prohibition, disgust at the proceedings and warning is voiced finally
not by the Kshatriya Bhishma, protector of Hastinapura, but by the son of a mixed-caste
sage and a maid servant, Vidura:
Bhishma’s failure as a leader of the polity lies in his never having practiced the raja-
dharma he speaks of at length to Yudhishthira on his bed-of-arrows which seems to
become his penance for inaction. In a Kshatriya the “witness” stance only brings about
the destruction of the policy. The Kshatriya must use power to protect the rights of the
weak, for that is his dharma, the truth of his nature. To abjure this because of a self-
imposed vow and turn into the Egotistical Sublime of the age brings destruction and
misery in its wake not only for oneself, but also for the entire society of which such a
person is the corner stone, the pillar of strength. Withdrawal from the rightful use of
danda and exercising state power for lokasamgraha, holding together the people in the
way of dharma, is abdication that betrays the Kshatriya code. Indeed, in Bhishma,
between the ideal and the reality falls the shadow. Here is a leader fallen by the way.
When the celestial sage Narada visits Dhritarashtra, he tries to instruct him in the
dangers that wielders of state power are prone to. In this attempt he recounts the
example of Yayati, the founder of the dynasty. In Yayati’s own words:
I have lived in many realms,
I was adored by the gods,
I shone like the gods,
I was powerful like the gods
for millions of years I made love
to apsaras in the Nandana-gardens,
under clustering, lovely trees
ornamented with flowers
shedding delicate scent upon us…
Then a fearful-faced messenger came
And shouted loudly, thrice:
‘Lost! Lost! Lost!’
And I fell from Nandana. [20]
Yayati states the reason for his fall: his overweening pride in the merit of his virtuous
acts and his self-love:
Discard desire.
What follows is of extreme importance to each of us imprisoned for birth after birth in
“This earthly hell/which seems to offer no release” [23]. For, Yayati is Everyman who has
reaped the fruits of his toil, but then falls victim to his innate hubris and loses all that he
has so painfully built up, till fellow-men come to his rescue. This is the essence of the
wisdom Yayati has extracted from his vastly varied experience of life here and in the
hereafter, which he narrates as answer to the question, “Who finds heaven?”
But from this fatalism, Yayati progresses to the equanimity celebrated generations later
by one of his descendants, Krishna:
When we study Mahabharata for lessons in the use of power, it is three male figures who
spring to mind side by side with three women. Bhishma is flanked on either side by
Krishna and Karna. Similarly, Satyavati forms a trio with Kunti and Draupadi.
But, it is this warrior who publicity terms Draupadi a harlot, asks that she be stripped,
and joins six others to attack the teenaged Abhimanyu jointly, against all canons of fair
battle. It is Karna who seals the fate of this mighty teenager by cutting his
bowstring from behind. Unfortunately, Vyasa does not tell us of the inner workings of
Karna’s mind and heart. In lending a hand in killing his rival’s son did he feel he
was in some way avenging his many defeats at Arjuna’s hands? In calling
Draupadi a whore about whom it is of no concerns whether she is clothed or
naked, was he taking revenge for having been publicly rejected by her in
the svayamvara on account of his caste?
All this shows his confusion over what dharma and power are all about, and it is
this confusion about dharma that is flung back at him by Krishna when he entreats
Arjuna to wait till has extricated the chariot wheel from the mud, and can take up arms
again. Karna, too, is a man divided against himself, yet undoubtedly noble in his silence
about his mother’s secret and wise in his judgement. For, he tells Krishna not to reveal
the secret to Yudhishthira who will invariably offer the kingdom to him and he will
inexorably hand it over to Duryodhana. All his tremendous power has throughout been
put in the service of adharma because of his profound sense of a lacerated ego. Here is
a hero who knows, like Bhishma, that he is on the side of wrong, but is a slave of
his word and will not shift to support what he knows to be the right. His greatness
as a man shines radiantly in the fact that while he knows that he is battling his blood
brothers, and is promise-bound not to slay them, they are all eager to kill this
charioteer’s son! His slicing off the skin-armour and flesh earrings is an external symbol
of the inner splitting-in-two of his very psyche. One part of him knows that Duryodhana’s
plans are evil. This part in Karna is all that is admirable in a human being. It is the
“Surya” part of him, shining in an effulgent glory which rivets all attention on him right
from the beginning. This it is that catches the eye of Duryodhana who grapples Karna to
his breast with hoops of steel. It is this part of him that defeats each of his brothers in
turn, except Arjuna, and lets them go unharmed (even with a kiss on the infuriated but
helpless Bhima’s cheek) although by killing them or by capturing Yudhishthira for
Duryodhana [as Drona had planned] he could have ended the war.
However, a miasma of intrigue and evil envelops this sun in Karna. The chariot-wheel of
Karna’s life is, as it were, entrapped in a quicksand, being sucked under slowly but
surely, as he connives in the heinous abuse of state power by Shakuni and Duryodhana,
with the blind monarch Dhritarashtra eagerly acquiescing. The helping hand of succour
offered by Krishna is rejected on egotistic grounds alone. As Krishna points out:
All that Karna is concerned about is that his reputation must remain unsullied at all costs
and he must find out who is better: Arjuna or himself. Karna has waded in too far by now
to return. Perhaps death is his only salvation.
Krishna respects Bhishma, but prefers to stay with Vidura, for he is aware of the narrow
confines of the old dharma which he has made it his mission to demolish. In this task the
unknown Pandavas are chosen by him as the instruments for setting up a state founded
upon the ancient principle of the raja being the person who ensures the welfare, the
happiness, of the people. They are linked to him through their mother Pritha [his paternal
aunt] and are free from dysfunctional traditional concepts of dharma because of the very
nature of their diverse paternity. He binds them closer to himself by arranging his sister
Subhadra’s abduction by Arjuna, and by training their son Abhimanyu to become a great
warrior. He not only builds up the numerous Yadava clans into a confederacy to be
reckoned with by the time of the battle of Kurukshetra, which is why both sides vie for
their patronage, but also gifts considerable wealth to the Pandavas and guides them into
becoming rulers in their own right. He gets them recognized as benevolent, righteous
rulers because of their role in the removal of Jarasandha. He ensures that in each
conquered kingdom they restore the ruler to his throne, asking for his allegiance only
through presence in therajasuya yajna. After the exile is over, he advises a peace-
mission, despite the vociferous protests of his favourite sakhi Krishnaa, so that the
Pandavas cannot be faulted for having precipitated a war.
Krishna’s leadership in the war itself is too well known to need recital. In each case the
over-riding concern is that those who use power rightfully for the new dharma
oflokasangraha must be victorious. He does not suffer from the limitations of Bhishma or
Karna regarding attachment to a vow as a be-all and end-all. Where necessary, he
breaks his vow of not taking up arms and rushes to kill Bhishma. It is again Krishna who
dexterously finds a way to prevent Arjuna killing Yudhishthira out of blind adherence to a
vow. Knowing that a fresh Karna may overwhelm Arjuna, he avoids a confrontation till
Karna is tired, and then browbeats Arjuna into killing him when afoot and unarmed,
regardless of what others might say, because with Karna alive the Pandavas cannot win
the war. For the same reason, he gets them to pursue a tired–out Duryodhana, denying
him time to recuperate. With unerring instinct he takes the victorious brothers away from
their camp, otherwise they would also have been slaughtered by Ashvatthama in his
manic frenzy. It is he who saves Bhima from being killed by the Narayana weapon, from
losing to Duryodhana in the final duel and being crushed in furious Dhritarashtra’s
embrace at the end.
Yet, this supreme leader of men failed with his own people. The confederacy he had so
laboriously built up destroyed itself. In an internecine strife as tragic and as totally
annihilating as the Kurukshetra holocaust. Its seeds lay in the unrestrained indulgence in
liquor and the arrogance of wealth that led to flagrant insults to sages. Once again it is
unfettered individual liberty that spells doom. We are reminded of Plato’s discourse that
it is the “democratic man” who is the source of the tyrannical man, for in him all impulses
are allowed free indulgence and he considers himself entitled to indulge whichever
solicits him most powerfully at the moment instead of being ruled by a superordinate
marshalling vision that pursues ends valuable in themselves, namely goodness, beauty
and truth. Of these the power impulse is the strongest and establishes a tyranny over the
rest. [29]
“I live listening to the bitter comments of kinfolk, despite having given them half my
wealth. As one anxious to obtain fire keeps rubbing the kindling, similarly my kinsmen
are constantly churning and scorching my heart with their harsh words. Sankarshan is
mighty but drunk; Gada is delicate and averse to labour; Pradyumna is engrossed with
his own beauty. Despite such persons and others among the Andhakas and Vrishnis
being on my side, I am helpless passing the days. Ahuka and Akrura are excellent
friends of mine, but if I show affection for one, the other becomes furious. Hence, I do
not express affection for any. And because of friendship it is very difficult to discard
them… whoever has Ahuka and Akrura on his side is miserable beyond compare, and
he whose cause they do not espouse is also immeasurably sorrowful…O Narada!
Because of the need to control them, I suffer like one forced sail on two boats at
one.”[30]
The utterly human nature of Krishna’s dilemma does not, surely, need any gloss. Krishna
himself states [31]
And yet, what is the end of this supreme human, “Purushottama”? The Empire of
Righteousness he has established is a veritable field of ashes, peopled by wailing
widows and infants, which Karna had so vividly figured forth in a dream related to
Krishna:
“Powerful Yudhishthira climbed a hill
Of human bones,
smiled and ate sweet ghee-curd from
a golden cup.”[33]
Did Duryodhana have the last word when he told the Pandavas and Krishna, after being
felled by a blow below the belt (my translation) [34]:
“I have studied the scriptures, given away gifts as prescribed, ruled over the sea-girted
earth, placed my foot on the heads of enemies, possessed the greatest wealth, and
enjoyed that rare pleasure savoured by the gods which is the envy of other kings, and
ultimately won that death in battle which is prayed for by Kshatriyas following dharma.
Hence, who can have a better end than mine? Now I leave for heaven with my brothers
and friends, while you all stay behind on this earth, the living-dead, with hearts wrung
with sorrow.”
Here it is Duryodhana who appears to represent the successful leader! We recall the
undying loyalty of Karna and Ashvatthama, and of those hundreds of kings who willingly
laid down their lives in his cause. The Pandavas are overshadowed by the radiance of
Duryodhana’s nobility as he rises to the defence of Karna when his supposedly low birth
is laughed at, and his rousing defence of innate worth as the true measure of nobility
instead of judging it by one’s birth. This is precisely the beauty of Vyasa’s epic. There
are no easy answers in life. But we must not be swept away by the grandeur of
this dying speech. His end itself depicts what happens when power is used for
serving egotistic urges. It may bring immediate, illusory success. Ultimately the
misuser has to share the ruinous fate of Nahusha and Yayati.
Kunti
Though she has already given birth to Karna, it evidence of her firm resolve to preserve
an unsullied reputation after marriage, because of which she does not follow the
example of her mother-in-law in acknowledging her pre-marital son. Despite the
inexplicable exile of Pandu-and possibly because of its peculiar unexplained nature-
Kunti must have had expectations of a rehabilitation. With that in view, she would be
particular not to do anything which might create problems in the hoped-for return to
Hastinapura. That would also explain why she does not tell Pandu about Karna despite
his frantic desire for progeny. Children born with the sanction of her husband would be a
completely different proposition from a pre-marital son born to an unmarried princess.
Then she narrates-perhaps with unconscious irony-the ancient tale of Bhadra who begot
seven sons by embracing the corpse of her husband Vyushitashva who died prematurely
of consumption like Pandu’s father because of over-indulgence. Pandu refuses to invite
death-in-intercourse with Kunti (ironically, that is precisely what he does with Madri ) and
urges that she will only be doing what is sanctioned by the Northern Kurus, that the new
custom of sticking to one man is very recent, [36] and that she has the precedents of
Sharadandayani, Madayanti, Ambika, Ambalika and the scriptural directive of Shvetaketu
(he could have added his ancestress Madhavi, daughter of Yayati). None of these
commands cut any ice with Kunti, whose character is far stronger than her husband’s.
She gives in only when Pandu abjectly begs her:
“Sweet lady,
I fold my palms
joining the tips
of my lotus-leaf fingers
and I implore you
listen to me!” [37]
Although her ready knowledge of the scriptures is admirable, her words are also
tragically ironic, for she actually has had relations with four different men [that word is a
give-away for if she had been summoning only gods, this prohibition ought not to have
been invoked by her, and Pandu surely would have seized upon that flaw to command
her to gratify his hunger for more sons]. Even more tragic is the last statement, for that is
precisely the fate into which she thrusts her daughter-in-law Draupadi. And in the dice-
game it is Karna, her first-born, who, on the basis of this same scriptural
pronouncement, declares Draupadi a whore. In that horripilating scene we cannot but
agree with Naomi Wolf’s condemnation of masculine culture’s efforts to “punish the slut”,
the sexually adventurous woman who crosses the ambiguous lines separating “good”
from “bad”.[40]
Kunti’s inflexible determination is again revealed when she flatly refuses Pandu’s request
to help Madri in having more children. Despite his bravado before Madri [‘I know that if I
ask Kunti/she will not refuse me”], Pandu slinks away before Kunti’s fury:
“She deceived me”, said Kunti.
“With one mantra I gave her,
she managed to get two sons.
I am afraid she will get
more sons than I. Scheming woman!
What a fool I was!
Had I known, I too
would have summoned the Ashvins,
and obtained twins.
Don’t come to me again, my lord,
saying give her the mantra.”[41]
“Princess of Vahlika!
You are fortunate indeed –
I never had the chance to see
his face radiant in intercourse.” [42]
Even in death, Madri accompanies her husband. Her tribute to Kunti brings out the
beauty of character which makes her into a leader of men:
asks Madri [43] lacking that nobility of character which conquers the ego’s petty
jealousies. Madri continues:
How true this description is of Kunti ! A superb instance of the sublimation of the libido
into a single-minded determination to win back her sons’ rights, she brings up five
children in a hostile court, bereft of relatives and allies. We see no signs of either
Kuntibhoja or the Shurasenis coming forward to give her shelter or support. Once
Bhishma has provided her with a roof over her head, it is solely Kunti who guards her
children. The insecurity is of such dimensions that she dare not inform Bhishma of the
attempt to poison Bhima. It is she who gets the Nishada woman and her five sons drunk
in the House of Lac so that no evidence is left of the Pandavas’ escape when it is gutted.
The comment of Professor P.Lal, the epic’s eminent transcreator, is worth noting in this
respect: “Instigating Macbeth-Bhima was Kunti, unerring instinct she is able to rally the
drooping spirits of her sons:
We know how useful the fruit of this union, Ghatotkacha, was for them subsequently
during their exile and as the saviour of Arjuna from Karna’s infallible weapon in the war
at the cost of his own life. It is again Kunti who instructs her first grandchild so as to
ensure his loyalty:
Thus, the Pandava dynasty is slowly but surely structured into an entity with multi-racial
affinities. Earlier we have seen how, because of Kunti, Bhima is befriended by the Naga
Aryaka who is her father’s maternal grandfather. Here an alliance with the forest-dwelling
Rakshasas is established. Later, Arjuna will forge other alliances with the Nagas,
Manipur and Dvaraka.
It is profoundly instructive to study how Kunti educates her sons in the proper
use of power. Her abiding concern for the welfare of the common man, which she
inculcates into them, is brought out tellingly in the Ekachakra episode where she
comes forward, over-ruling Yudhishthira’s frantic remonstrances, to depute Bhima to
meet the ogre Baka in place of the Brahmana who has given them shelter. It is
necessary to note this exchange between son and mother, in which Kunti, as earlier with
Pandu, emerges totally victorious. Yudhishthira says pretty harshly,
After staying with a poor Brahmana in Ekachakra, Kunti now puts up in a potter’s house
in Panchala, further down in the caste hierarchy. The point to note is how she is bringing
up her children virtually from the lowest level of society to the status of rulers. In that
process, she turns necessity to glorious gain. For, the enforced exile brings her sons into
close contact with the common people, so that they develop that feeling for the felt
needs of the vast majority which equips them for ruling over them as true rajas, those
who discharge the duty of pleasing their subjects, and share in the merit accrued thus.
Kunti’s intention is to obtain the daughter of Drupada as daughter-in-law and thus gain
the alliance of the traditional enemy of the Kauravas, so that a firm foundation can be
established for the plan to win back her sons’ birthright. Her keen far sight has intuited
the ruination attendant on any splitting up of the united five. Hence she plays that grim
charade of pretending not to know what Bhima and Arjuna are referring to when they ask
her to see what they have brought home. For, in 190.29 we find Yudhishthira and the two
Madreyas have ‘slipped out of the enclosure” the moment the skirmish started over
Arjuna winning Draupadi. These three are already back when Draupadi is brought home
by the other two. Moreover, their very coming to Panchala was with the aim of jointly
winning Draupadi, as advised by Vyasa in Ekachakra. Kunti is fully in the know of Arjuna
having won Draupadi, but she also knows that so long their lives have revolved only
around her. She can be replaced only by a single woman, not five, if their unity is to
remain intact. That is why she deliberately asks that whatever has been brought should
be shared out and enjoyed as usual. After “discovering” her “mistake”, her only worry is
that something must be done so that her spoken command does not become untrue.
[52] Yudhishthira’s speech to Drupada makes it amply clear that the decision is actually
Kunti’s although the brothers are eagerly acquiescing [“Each had her in his heart”] [53]. It
is also a magnificent tribute to the total respect and implicit obedience paid by them to
Kunti, which is unexampled in the epic. Despite all the paeans to Gandhari’s virtues as a
wife, her complete failure as a mother to command any respect from Duryodhana (he
does not hesitate to insult her by stalking out of the court in anger when she admonishes
him) only serves to highlight the qualities which make Kunti pre-eminent among all
women in Mahabharata and indeed among almost all the leading characters:
It is instructive to see how keen Kunti is that her stratagem should not be foiled . She
immediately appeals to Vyasa as Yudhishthira finishes speaking:
As usual, Kunti ensures that she has her way, this time with the help of Vyasa, her actual
father-in-law. Kunti’s ambition for her children is finally voiced openly when she formally
blesses Draupadi after the marriage ceremonies:
Simultaneously, Kunti’s nephew Krishna, son of her brother Vasudeva, comes forward
with Yadava wealth to build up the power of the Pandavas.
The truly powerful do not cling to power. They know when and how to wield it but
also, even more important, when not to use it. Kunti is no queen mother glorying in
her new royalty and ordering her daughter-in-law about. Hereafter she retreats into the
background, silently giving up pride of place to Draupadi. But opportunely thrice she
comes forward using the power that is coiled up within her most effectively for the benefit
of her sons. When her sons are exiled, she decided to stay back in Hastinapura as a
silent but constant reminder to the Kauravas of the violated rights of the Pandavas. She
will not allow Dhritarashtra to forget conveniently what is due to his nephews just
because they are in exile. Then, when Krishna comes with the peace mission to
Hastinapura, she tells him to urge Yudhishthira to fight for their rights as Kshatriyas
must. She compares his obsession with peace to those who, not understanding the true
sense, of the Vedas ruin their intelligence by immersing it in rituals. To inspire him, she
repeats a tactic used in the Varanavata exile:
To inspire him further, she bids Krishna repeat to Yudhishthira the thrilling exhortation of
Vidula to her son Sanjaya who is reluctant to face battle with the king of Sindhu who has
already defeated him once:
To these twin spurs to prick them on, Kunti now adds the culminating motivating factor:
the insult to her daughter-in-law, and upbraids her sons in no uncertain terms in order to
arouse their manhood which has gone into hibernation:
Kunti’s actions are, indeed, quite unconventional and wholly autonomous starting with
her first pregnancy. It is only she who agrees to shoulder the awesome burden of
bringing up five teenagers in a hostile court, without resources but for the tacit support of
Vidura, dependent on the tender mercies of Dhritarashtra and the indecisive ruminations
of Bhishma on dharma’s subtleties. Up to their marriage, it is overwhelmingly Kunti’s
story: the story of her masterly guidance at every step to gather allies around her sons
till they are able to claim their inheritance. And yet, her guiding touch is ever unobtrusive,
yet firm and unmistakable.
Kunti has that rare capacity to surprise us which characterises great leaders who know
how to use power. When everything that she worked for has been achieved—the war is
over, her beloved sons are the rulers of Hastinapura and her daughter-in-law has been
avenged-she astonishes them all by resolving to retire to the forest with, of all persons,
Dhritarashtra and Gandhari to spend her life in ascesis and in serving the old couple
responsible for her sufferings! Her reply to Bhima’s anguished query as to why she
urged them to wade into this river of blood if she was going to leave them is a revealing
insight into the remarkable nature of this greatest of Vyasa’s heroines. Kunti says that
she had inspired them to fight so that they did not suffer oppression at their relative’s
hands. But, having glutted herself with happiness during her husband’s rule [which itself
is an ironic statement in view of Pandu’s rule exceptionally abbreviated tenure as king],
she has no desire to enjoy a kingdom won by her sons. Neither the tears of her sons,
nor the entreaties of Dhritarashtra succeed in changing her mind. Gifted away as a child
by her father like a piece of property, in adolescence callously placed by her foster father
at the mercy of an eccentric sage, her curiosity making her the victim of a god’s lust,
choosing as husband one who never consummated the marriage and made her beget
children from others thrice over, never the recipient of any assistance from her father or
foster-father when in exile, her end, as that of Bhishma, symbolises the angst that
consumed her. Kunti chooses to die as a forest-fire engulfs her.
What is the secret of this remarkable power that flows from within these women of
Vyasa? It is a state of virginity. Even more than Satyavati, Kunti is a virgin in the Jungian
sense. In return for allowing Parashara to enjoy her, Satyavati had obtained boons of
remaining youthful and fragrant forever and of regaining her virginity after the birth of
Vyasa. In that encounter we find a superb instance of the use of her sexual power by an
adolescent fisher-girl of outstanding intelligence [60]
Kunti, too, obtains the identical blessing from Surya. This state of “virginity” is not
merely a physical condition but refers to an inner state of the psyche which
remains untrammelled by any slavish dependence on a particular man. Madri
presents the exact opposite concept of the “married” woman who is dependent on what
others think, and therefore she does what she may not actually approve of. “She is not
one-in-herself but acts as female counterpart or syzygy to some male.” On the other
hand, “The woman who is psychologically virgin is not dependent in this way. She is
what she is because that is what she is.” This “virgin” is “one-in-herself (and) does what
she does not because of any desire to please, not to be liked, or to be approved, even
by herself,.. but because what she does is true. Her actions may, indeed be
unconventional.” [61]
In the ultimate analysis, “all power is really soul-power”, writes Sri Aurobindo, “for
all material energy contains hidden the vital, mental, psychic, spiritual energy and
in the end it must release these forms of the one Shakti, the vital energy.’’[62] How
truly Kunti exemplifies this in all the crucial decisions concerning her sons, and in the
ultimate choice of her life’s ending !
Draupadi
The last of this unique trio of “Virgins” is Draupadi, adept in the chandrayana vrata,
whereby she is able to regain her virginity before changing each husband as Narada
specifically mentions while describing the multiple weddings. She replaces Kunti as the
nave of the Pandava-wheel, and also acts as the axle for the Panchala-Pandava-Yadava
chariot. Wholly unconventional in accepting the opprobrium, along with the staggering
challenge, of having five husbands (her mother-in-law had only temporary encounters
with Surya, Dharma, Vayu and Indra), her success is so complete that she is besought
by the intrigued Satyabhama to share the secret of her success. Right from her birth
from the sacrificial flames, Vyasa gives us a vivid picture of this extraordinary dark
beauty who is the instrument of Drupada’s vengeance on the Kauravas. If she shares
with her mother-in-law the fact of having “known” five men, then like her grand-mother-
in-law she is dark, endowed with enchanting bodily fragrance and rivetingly lovely. [63]
Draupadi shocks her contemporaries by daring to challenge the Kuru elders’ very
concept of Dharma in a situation where any other woman would have collapsed in
hysterics. None can answer her. Can we even imagine any woman who would suffer
attempted in the forest and countenance her husband forgiving the abductor; this to be
followed by public molestation in Virata’s court with her husband reprimanding her for
making a scene; be carried off to be cremated with the dead Kichaka; and then, when all
seems ready for war, to hear her husbands tell Krishna to sue for peace and still remain
loyal to them, and sane! The worst is yet to come, with the decimation of all her sons by
Ashvatthama. Ultimately Draupadi becomes queen, but what does she have left for
herself, we wonder. And at the very end, when she stumbles and falls, dying, on the
Himalayan ridges, not one of the five husbands tarries by her side. Not one even turns
back with a word of comfort. Self-born of the sacrificial flames, Yajnaseni leaves the
world all by herself, nathavati anathavat, five-husbanded yet without a husband.
It is then that we realise that this remarkable “virgin” never asked anything for herself.
Virtually a kritya, an avenging fury, ritually invoked to sate Drupada’s desire for
vengeance, everything she does is with single-minded determination to goad the
Pandavas into destroying the Kauravas. By snubbing Karna publicly, flouting
Dhrishtadyumna’s announcement that the successful marksman would win her hand,
she makes the viryashulka contest where the strongest wins the bride into a
true svayamvara (bridegroom-choice ceremony). Simultaneously, her decisive
intervention plants seeds of the assault on her in the Kaurava court where Karna takes
his sweet revenge. Again, it is her mysterious silence when Yudhishthira announces the
polyandrous decision which cements the brotherhood into an invincible fighting force.
Throughout the exile her bitter recriminations are aimed at ensuring that her husbands
never forget that they have to avenge the gross insult she has suffered. That is indeed
why she insists on accompanying them while their other wives stay back with the
children. The climax of this is seen when she upbraids her intimate
friend, sakha, Krishna in the Udyoga Parva on finding that her husbands (save
Sahadeva) are all in favour of suing for peace. After pouring out her injuries, she takes
up her serpent-like thick, glossy hair and with tearful eyes urges Krishna to recall these
tresses when he sues for peace. Sobbing, she announces that her five sons led by
Abhimanyu and her old father and brothers will take revenge if her husbands will not.
Krishna’s response is precisely what she has been aiming for:
Who but Krishnaa can upbraid Krishna thus: “No husband have I, nor son, nor brother.
So much so, O Madhusudana, that even you are not mine. “[65] Who else can virtually
lay down the law to Krishna, tell him that he is bound to protect her whenever necessary,
and cite four reasons for this? [66]
We have seen that those who are celebrated as flawless acmes of perfection to be
looked up to as role models by society are actually flawed, human creatures obsessed
with their individual egotistic needs and pre-occupations.
On the other hand, it is the trio of heroines who usually escape our attention who turn
out to be the real Grey Eminences. In them we find validation of Naomi Wolf’s
celebration of women as “sexually, powerful magical beings.”[68]. The dynasty which
Vyasa is concerned with most of all is created by Satyavati, a fisher-girl. One branch of it
is created and carried forward by Kunti, quite on her own. The other branch is
annihilated by Draupadi’s relentless quest for revenge. It is they who are the real
leaders, the true wielders of power in its many forms—sexual, maternal and state—in
this epic which is usually looked upon as a male-preserve and is, in some communities,
banned reading for unmarried women.
A very different type of use of power is depicted in the lives of the sages. One type is
represented in Vashishtha, and the other in Vishvamitra. In Parashurama we have a third
and quite unique type. All the three sages are linked to the epic tale. Vishvamitra is the
father of Shakuntala, and thereby an ancestor of the Bharata dynasty. The very birth of
Bhishma is because of Vashishtha’s cursing the Vasus for their theft of his cow.
Parashurama is the guru of Bhishma in weapon-craft, and also of Drona and Karna. The
helpless condition of Karna before Arjuna is because of the curse of Parashurama.
Parashurama anticipates Krishna in the concept of a mission to root out the decrepit,
effete, and decadent rulers of society. This, of course, is an integral component of the
avatara’s personality. Parashurama belongs to a society where the Kshatriyas have
degenerated into tyrants, who do not scruple to slay Brahmins in their search for hidden
gold. The Haiheyas, descended through Yadu, launch a murderous assault on the
Richika-Bhargavas, to the extent of destroying embryos, till the effulgence of Aurva stops
them. Aurva embarks on a terrifying penance for annihilating all Kshatriyas, exclaiming:
Aurva is persuaded by the manes of ancestors to cast his fury into the sea, and thus
both the Kshatriyas and the Brahmins seem to have come to an uneasy truce, with the
Brahmin virtue of forgiveness having won the day.
This is, however, a temporary reprieve. The arrogant Karttavirya Arjuna destroys the
hermitage of Aurva’s grandson Jamadagni and kills the sage, which leads to the
declaration of an all–out war against them by Parashurama, in whom the fury of Aurva
seems to have descended. This remains a unique event in Pauranik Bharata, in which a
Brahmin takes to arms to end, once and for all, the oppression of those who are meant
to protect. At the end of twenty-one battles, society is left bereft of Kshatriya males. This
awesome achievement of Parashurama earns him the sixth place in the pantheon of
Vishnu’s incarnations. Parashurama performs the obsequies of his ancestors in five
lakes of Kshatriya, the site of the epic holocaust. The Kshatriya race is given a new
lease of life through Brahmins impregnating the Kshatriya widows. In the process, the
Kshatriyas have been taught a lesson, and the balance between the two superior castes
has been restored.
That virtue of forgiveness which Aurva reluctantly reverts to, and which is foreign to
Parashurama’s nature, is depicted at length as the pre-eminent quality holding society
together in the life of Vashishtha and the story of Vishvamitra’s all-consuming jealousy of
his greatness. The Vishvamitra of the epic is not that great seer of Rig Veda, the
discoverer of the Gayatri mantra. He is shown as a proud monarch who cannot accept
being worsted by a mere forest-dwelling sage. No lessons have been learnt from the
experiences of the power-drunk Haiheyas at the hands of Parashurama. It becomes his
life’s mission to attain the same status as Vashishtha’s, that of a brahmarshi, and to put
him down somehow. Ridden by that obsession, he turns the king of South Koshala,
Mitrasaha-Kalmashapada into a cannibal, who destroys all the sons of Vashishtha.
Despite this, Vashishtha “bore it as Meru bears the earth” [178.43] and decides to give
up his life rather than harm Vishvamitra. When Kalmashapada tries to devour
Vashishtha’s pregnant daughter-in-law, Vashishtha frees him from the Rakshasa state.
The amazing nobility of the sage is now seen. Kalmashapada, like Pandu, has been
cursed with death in intercourse. Hence he begs Vashishtha to father a son on Queen
Madayanti (she, unlike Madri, repulsed her husband’s amorous advances) and the sage
consents. When his grandson Parashara organises a Rakshasa-destruction sacrifice
(prefiguring the serpent-annihilation rite of Janamejaya), it is Vashishtha who dissuades
him from exterminating innocent Rakshasas for the fault of Kalmashapada. Not only this,
but when the penitent Vishvamitra, finally free from envy, approaches him begging
pardon, it is Vashishtha who crowns his relentless pursuit after recognition as a seer by
addressing him as brahmarshi! The perfect self-control seen in Vashishtha, whose name
itself means “sense-subduer”, is unparalleled and is a telling instance of the superiority
of spiritual and moral strength over brute power.
Vishvamitra, on the other hand, is the Brahmin can become the Parashurama showed
the world that the Brahmin can become the greatest of all warriors, Vishvaratha, king of
Kanyakubja, proved to society that a Kshatriya can become the greatest of sages. It is
Vishvamitra characteristic to take up lost causes. Thus, grateful to Trishanku (a prince of
the Ikshvaku dynasty banished for having eaten a cow of Vashishtha’s, raped a
Brahmin’s wife and his family during a famine, Vishvamitra goes all out to ensure that the
sacrifice sought to be held by him is a success, despite the boycott by Vashishtha and
the gods. Trishanku had lost caste and was living with Chandalas. The incensed
Vishvamitra took up the challenge and created new deities to accept the offerings (in the
Rig Veda III.9 he refers to 3339 gods in place of the Vedic 33). Vishvamitra had no
hesitation in asking a Chandala to share with him the only food available, dog’s meat, on
the eminently practical ground that if the body itself did not exist, how could one practice
dharma and earn merit? However, where spiritual wisdom was concerned, it was
Vashishtha who remained the supreme master, as sublimely recorded in the Yoga-
Vashishtha Ramayana.
It is these sages who play a critical role in securing the cohesiveness of the social
structure and establishing it on the [46] highest principles of human conduct, protecting
which is the job of the Kshatriya raja. One of the reasons for the collapse of moral order
noticed in the epic is the absence of great sages in the courts of Hastinapura,
Indraprastha and Dvaraka. Dhritarashtra’s family priest is not even mentioned, while the
Pandavas pick up Dhaumya, who is no more than a good ritualist. The age of Vashishtha
and Vishvamitra is long passed. Vyasa is no replacement for them.
Yet, it is Vyasa who is the stage-manager, truly the “arranger” as his name denotes. At
every critical stage he appears to provide a different turn to the course of events.
Commanded by his mother to intervene to save the dynasty, he cannot cut himself off
thereafter. It is he who ensures that Gandhari does not discard the aborted foetus, and
produces from it the 101 Dhartarashtras (as Aurva had long back the 60,000 sons of
Sagara). He appears at the right time to guide the Pandavas to Draupadi’ssvayamvara,
and to ensure that she is married to all five of them. During the exile it is Vyasa who
advises Arjuna how to obtain celestial weapons. It is because of him that Sanjaya can
see the entire battle and narrate it to Dhritarashtra. After the war he steps in to prevent
general annihilation from the twin missiles launched by Arjuna and Ashvatthama. Finally,
it is he who advises the Pandavas to depart on their last journey. It is Krishna
Dvaipayana Vyasa’s anguished cry—placed ironically in the “Ascension to Heaven”
section—that is left ringing in our ears, echoing down the dusty corridors of recorded
time. One answer is provided in Bhishma’s discourse from the death-in-life bed of arrows
in terms of the metaphor of the Kamavriksha 70which Sri Ramakrishna transformed into
the marvellous parable of desire under the Kalpataru. It is the other Krishna, Vasudeva,
who evokes it in a wondrous eidetic image [47] that begins with the same word, urdhva,
and goes on to provide the solution [71]:
Each of us has to find that answer for oneself. Each one of us has to become the
protagonist in one’s individual course of life. What the epic can and does provide us is
with are lessons to be drawn from the experiences of the leaders in the epic narrative, so
that we can, avoid those pitfalls and live a proactive instead of a reactive life; shape our
destiny using power not for self-aggrandisement but for developing the self to subserve
the public weal.
– Pradip Bhattacharya
December 15, 2002
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Hinduism
References :
All English translations from the Mahabharata are taken from Padma Sri Prof. P. Lal’s verse-by-
verse transcreation of the complete epic (Writers Workshop, Calcutta, December 1968 ff.). The
original Sanskrit text is taken from the Aryashastra recension (Calcutta, 1968 ff.).
1. P. Lal: The Mahabharata (condensed & transcreated into English), Vikas, New
Delhi, 1980 p. 370, Svargarohana, 5.62. This remarkable passage was pointed out
by Prof. Lal in his third session on Vyasa’s epic on 14th November 1999 at the G.D.
Birla Sabhaghar, Calcutta.
2. ibid. p. 365.
3. T.S. Eliot: “The Wasteland and other poems” Faber, 1922.
4. Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, 67. 23-27
5. ibid. 69. 4.
6. ibid. 69. 94, 125-126.
7. C.M. Joad: Philosophy for our times [Thomas Nelson, London, p. 334].
8. Adi Parva, 102. 70; 119 . 2-5
9. Adi Parva, 103 . 15-18
10. Udyoga Parva, 129. 53.
11. Bhishma Parva, 43 . 41, 56, 71.
12. George Meredith: “Modern Love”, 1862. I am grateful to Prof. Amitava Roy,
Shakespeare Professor, Rabindra Bharati University, for providing me with the
reference.
13. Sabha Parva, 67 . 38-40, 47, 49, 53.
14. ibid., 69 . 6, 8, 14.
15. ibid. 69 . 15, 16.
16. ibid. 69, 19-20.
17. ibid. 71 . 19, 20.
18. Adi Parva, 1 . 110; Shanti Parva 254 . 1-4.
19. W.B. Yeats : “The Second Coming” 1921.
20. Adi Parva, 89 . 17-20.
21. Adi Parva, 89 . 4, 5.
22. Adi Parva, 85 . 12-14. In Vana Parva 181 . 12-14 Nahusha recounts his fall
due to pride.
23. Adi Parva, 90 . 7.
24. Adi Parva, 89 . 5-7.
25. Adi Parva, 89 . 9-10.
26. Adi Parva, 90 . 22, 24, 26.
27. Udyoga Parva, 143 . 47.
28. Gita, 3 . 19; 4 . 8.
29. Joad op . cit pp. 285-7, 354.
30. Shanti Parva, 81 . 5-10.
31. Udyoga Parva, 79 . 5.
32. Sabha Parva, 26 . 28, 29; 38 . 8, 9, 15-21.
33. Udyoga Parva, 143 . 33.
34. Gada Parva, 61 . 50-53.
35. Adi Parva, 120-125.
36. ibid. 122 . 7.
37. ibid. 129 . 29.
38. ibid. 129 . 32.
39. ibid. 123 . 83.
40. Naomi Wolf is a best-selling feminist author, advisor to the American President
and Vice-President. The reference is to her latest work, Promiscuities (quoted in
TIME, 8 Nov. 1999, p. 25.).
41. ibid. 124 . 26-28.
42. ibid. 125 . 23.
43. ibid. 125 . 42.
44. ibid. 125 . 66-68.
45. ibid. 153 . 13.
46. ibid. 157 . 47-49.
47. ibid. 157 . 74.
48. ibid. 164 . 10-11.
49. ibid. 164 . 15.
50. ibid. 164 . 28.
51. ibid. 164 . 20-22.
52. ibid. 193 . 4-5.
53. ibid. 193 . 12.
54. ibid. 197 . 29; 198 . 16-17.
55. ibid. 198 . 18.
56. ibid. 209 . 9.
57. Udyoga Parva, 132 . 32-34.
58. ibid. 133 . 14.
59. ibid. 137 . 16-18.
60. Dr. M. Esther Harding: Woman’s Mysteries (Rider, London, 1971,pp. 125-126).
61. Devi Bhagavat Purana II . 2. 1-36.
62. Sri Aurobindo: Collected Works vol. 1, “The Village and the Nation”, p.737, he
explains how clan loyalty stood in the kingship in the epic is provided.
63. Adi Parva, 169 . 44-46, 48, Sabha Parva, 65 . 33-37.
64. Udyoga Parva, 82 . 45, 48.
65. Vana Parva, 10 . 125.
66. ibid. 10 . 127.
67. Virata Parva, 20 . 30.
68. Naomi Wolf op . cit.
69. Adi Parva, 182 . 11, 12, 14.
70. Shanti Parva 254 . 108. The parable has been discussed in P. Bhattacharya,
“Desire Under the Kalpataru”, Journal of South Asian Literature, Michigan State
University, 1997.
71. Gita, 15 . 1-3, transcreated by Prof. P. Lal, (Writers Workshop, Calcutta).