1

Module No. 3

Open Channels

In the previous module, you have learned that the methods of applying irrigation water
are broadly classified as surface, sprinkler and drip systems, and that the different surface
irrigation methods such as basin, furrow and border strip were also discussed. Relative to this
order of presentation, it is but logical that the discussions on sprinkler and drip irrigation systems
should immediately follow. However, since understanding these pressurized irrigation systems
requires in-depth knowledge about pumps and pumping, which will be covered in Module No.
7, we postpone their discussions at this juncture until after said module. Instead, the different
types of open channel used to deliver or convey the required amount of irrigation water from
the source to the fields are discussed in this module.

An open channel, canal, or ditch is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water
from one place to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to
one or more farms. Farm ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm
entrance to the irrigated fields. In an open channel, water flows downhill under the influence of
gravity in the presence of an air-water interface.

There are two important considerations in the design of open channels, such as: (1) to
limit the flow velocity; and (2) to limit the tractive force or shear stress on the channel lining. The
depth of water flowing on the channel as well as the bottom or bed slope of the channel both
tend to increase the velocity of flow. Thus, it is extremely necessary that the flow velocity shall be
controlled so that it should not be too fast to cause scouring or eroding the sides of the canal
but not too slow to cause deposition of sediments on the channel bottom which eventually
reduces over time the design discharge. The flow should be just fast enough so that the sides are
stable and the sediments travel with the water as it flows downstream.

Therefore, we must address the aforementioned considerations and design the open
channel in terms of its: (a) discharge or flow capacity; (b) flow velocity; (c) roughness
coefficient; (d) canal cross-section; (e) bottom or bed slope; and (f) freeboard. This is our topic
in this module.

After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:

a. Comprehend the conditions to be considered in the design of open channels;

b. Describe the relationships of discharge, velocity of flow and area of flowing

water in an open channel; and

c. Design main and secondary irrigation canals in terms of:

 2

 discharge (Q)
 maximum permissible flow velocity (V)
 bottom width (b)
 depth of flow (d)
 side slope
 bed slope
 freeboard (Fb) and
 top width (T).
 3

I. Design Discharge or Flow Capacity

The discharge or capacity of open channels (Figure 1) is a function of the velocity of flow
(V) and the cross-sectional area (A) of the channel, thus:

Q = AV (Eq. 1)

where: Q Discharge, ft3/sec (cfs) or m3/sec

A Cross-sectional area of the flowing water normal to the direction of flow,
ft2 or m2
V Average flow velocity perpendicular to the cross-sectional area, ft/sec
(fps) or m/sec (mps)

Source: OpenchannelFlow (2016) Source: Vasquez (2003)

Figure 1. Discharge (Q) as a function of flow velocity (V) and cross-sectional area (A)

Equation 1 is called continuity equation, which also defines that in any conduit regardless
of cross-sectional area the amount of fluid in motion from point 1 (Q1) to point 2 (Q2) is always
equal, thus:

A1V1 = Q = A2V2 (Eq. 2)

In communal irrigation system, the design Q for the main or primary irrigation canal shall
be equal to the diversion water requirement (DWR in unit mm/day). The design Q for the
secondary canal or farm ditch, on the other hand, shall be equal to the farm water requirement
(FWR in unit mm/day). Determining DWR and FWR will be done in Laboratory Exercise No. 5. In
 4

this module, we will design the main canal and the secondary and tertiary canals that could
carry and deliver the amount of irrigation water required by the whole irrigation project. It must
be noted that several secondary canals are connected to the primary canal, and at the same
time there are several tertiary canals and farm ditches connected to the secondary canals.

Note: To convert mm/day to m3/ha/day, multiply it by 10.

II. Flow Velocity

The velocity of flow (V) in open channels is three-dimensional as shown in Figure 2. In
order to understand the velocity distribution, it is customary to plot the isovels (see front view).
Isovels are lines representing equal velocity at a cross-section. Velocity is relatively slower at the
bottom and banks (sides) than in any other section of the channel due to friction (see side view).
The maximum velocity is usually at the center of the channel which is immediately below the
water surface (see top view). However, one-dimensional flow approximation is usually made
with good success for many practical problems.

Source: Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning (n.d)

Figure 2. Profile of flow velocity in open channels

The velocity (V) of water flowing in an open channel has been described by Manning's
equation (Chow, 1959) as:

(English System) (Eq. 3a)

(Metric System) (Eq. 3b)

 5

where: V Average flow velocity perpendicular to the cross-sectional area,

ft/sec (fps) or m/sec (mps)
R Hydraulic radius, which expresses the efficiency of a water channel as a
function of its geometric shape, ft or m
S Slope of channel bottom or bed, vertical/horizontal (ft/ft or m/m)
n Manning’s coefficient of roughness, dimensionless

In general, Manning's equation can be used with the continuity equation: (1) to describe
and evaluate the capacity and velocity of an existing channel, or (2) to determine the required
channel dimensions so that the desired amount of water can be safely transported.

Note that the hydraulic radius (R) of the channel is directly proportional to the cross-
sectional area (A) and inversely proportional to the wetted perimeter (P), thus:

R = A/P (Eq. 4)

where: P Length of the line of intersection of the channel wetted surface with a
cross-sectional plane that is normal to the direction of flow (free water
surface is not included), ft or m (see Figure 3)

Source: Plainwater.com (n.d)

Figure 3. Cross-sectional area (A) and wetted perimeter (P) of open channel

For unlined channels, the design flow velocity shall not exceed the maximum permissible
velocity in order to avoid destructive erosion to the channel and progressively destroy fertile
lands. The maximum permissible velocity given in Table 1 depends on the resistance to erosion of
the banks of the canal.

For lined channels, the minimum permissible velocity shall be considered. However, the
flow velocity shall be in no case too slow to produce silt deposits or allow weed growth inside the
canal. The permissible minimum velocity can be estimated as 0.6 meters per second (mps) for
clean water and 0.9 mps for water with sediments. The maximum permissible velocity, on the
other hand, is 4.0 mps as recommended by Kosichenko (1993).
 6

Table 1. Maximum velocities for unlined canals of different types of material

Type of Material Maximum Permissible Velocity (mps)
Rock 2.00
Decomposed, disintegrated rock 1.50
Gravel with silt and sand 1.20
Clay 0.90
Clay loam 0.80
Loam 0.70
Sandy loam and silty loam 0.60
Sandy soil 0.45
Source: National Irrigation Administration (1991)

Sediment transport is described by the bed load capacity of a channel. Bed load is
sediment that moves in almost continuous contact with the stream bed, being rolled or pushed
along the bottom by the force of the water. Although none of the many theoretical formulas
developed to express the rate of bed load movement have been entirely satisfactory,
laboratory studies have shown that the critical threshold velocity required to initiate movement
of particles in the bottom of a stream is expressed by the empirical equation:

Vt = [(d)4/9 (G – 1)1/2]/2 (Eq. 5)

where: Vt Threshold velocity, fps

d Particle diameter, mm
G Specific gravity of the particle (1.83 to 2.64)

Equation 5 was developed for uni-granular materials ranging in diameter from 0.35 to 5.7
mm and from 1.83 to 2.64 specific gravity.

III. Roughness Coefficient

Coefficient of roughness (n) is the measure of the amount of frictional resistance of
flowing water passing over land and channel features. Varied conditions will give a wide range
of n-values ranging from 0.010 in smooth plastic pipe to over 0.100 in very rough natural
channels. It is important that a proper n-value be used in computing the flow velocity. Several
factors influence the value of n, especially in natural channels. Primary factors to be considered
are physical roughness, cross-section variations in size and shape, obstructions in the channel,
vegetation, and channel meandering.

Physical roughness of a channel considers the natural material forming the bottom and
sides and the degree of surface irregularity of the material. Surfaces made up of fine particles on
 7

smooth, uniform surfaces result in low values of n. Gravel or boulders with irregular surfaces would
have a higher n-value.

Variations in size and shape of the channel that are abrupt or constantly changing will
increase the n-value. Channels with small or gradual changes in size or shape will have lower
roughness factors.

Obstructions, such as log jams and debris, can have a significant effect on roughness.
The degree of effect is dependent upon the number, type, and size of obstructions.

A major factor in increasing the n-value is vegetation. The height, density and type of
vegetation are considered in this factor. Density and distribution of vegetation along the
channel and the wetted perimeter and the degree to which it occupies or blocks the cross-
sectional area are to be noted.

A channel that meanders across a valley in a sinuous pattern such that channel length is
considerably larger than valley length will have a larger n-value than a channel that follows the
valley or has gradual meanders.

Values for n of different materials forming the channel are given in Table 2. The value for
roughness coefficient shall not be based on the degree of the original finish but on the surface
that will exist after a few years of operation.

For the design of farm ditches, an n-value of 0.03 may be adopted since such canal is
not well maintained, section is not uniform and there is usually grass or weed growth.

Table 2. Mean roughness coefficients for different strata and condition of the channel
Material and Condition Mean Roughness Coefficient (n)
A. Natural channels
 Streams in lowland plains
1. straight, no weeds, neither cracks nor depths are 0.0300
present
2. same as item 1 but weeds and stones are 0.0350
present
3. no weeds but sinuous and with some depths 0.0400
and fords
4. same as item 3 but weeds and stones are 0.0450
present
5. same as item 3 but little changes in slope and 0.0480
cross-section, low water level
B. Excavated or dredged canal
6. same as item 4 but more stones 0.0500
7. weeds and deep crevices are seen along slow 0.0700
stream flow sections
8. densely weeded section with many crevices 0.1000
and bushes
 8

Table 2. (continued)
Material and Condition Mean Roughness Coefficient (n)
 Streams in mountainous areas
1. boulder and gravel bed 0.0400

2. big boulder bed 0.0500

 Earth, straight and uniform

1. clean (immediately after completion) 0.0225

2. clean (after weathering) 0.0250

3. gravel, no weed and uniform section 0.0250

4. short grass, but little weeds 0.0270

 Earth, curved and irregular section

1. no vegetation 0.0250

2. some weeds/grass 0.0300

3. with dense water weeds 0.0350

4. earth bottom and rubble sides 0.0300

5. earth bottom and weedy sides 0.0350

6. cobblestone bottom and clean sides 0.0400

 Dragline excavation or dredged

1. no vegetation 0.0280

2. some bushes on the banks 0.0500

 Rock excavation
1. smooth and uniform 0.0350

2. irregular 0.0400

C. Lined canal
 Rigid
1. concrete 0.0130

2. grouted riprap 0.0300

3. stone masonry 0.0320

4. soil cement 0.0220

5. asphalt 0.0160

 Gravel riprap
1. 1-inch D50 0.0330

2. 2-inch D50 0.0410

 9

Table 2. (continued)
Material and Condition Mean Roughness Coefficient (n)
 Rock riprap
1. 6-inch D50 0.0690

2. 12-inch D50 0.0780

Source: National Irrigation Administration (1991)

IV. Channel Cross-section

Open channels usually come in different geometric shapes, such as: (a) trapezoidal;
(b) rectangular; (c) parabolic; and (d) triangular channels. Their geometric elements are shown
in Figures 4 to 7, respectively, and defined in Equations 6 to 9.

Source: Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 603 (2016)

Figure 4. Geometric elements of trapezoidal channel

Cross-sectional Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius Top Width

Area (A) (P) (R)

(Eq. 6a) (Eq. 6b) (Eq. 6c) (Eq. 6d)

 10

Source: Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 603 (2016)

Figure 5. Geometric elements of rectangular channel

Cross-sectional Area Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius Top Width

(A) (P) (R)

(Eq. 7a) (Eq. 7b) (Eq. 7c) (Eq. 7d)

 11

Source: Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 603 (2016)

Figure 6. Geometric elements of parabolic channel

Cross-sectional Area Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius Top Width

(A) (P) (R)

(Eq. 8a) (Eq. 8b) (Eq. 8c) (Eq. 8d)

 12

Source: Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 603 (2016)

Figure 7. Geometric elements of triangular channel

Cross-sectional Area Wetted Perimeter Hydraulic Radius Top Width

(A) (P) (R)

(Eq. 9a) (Eq. 9b) (Eq. 9c) (Eq. 9d)

where: A Cross-sectional area of the flowing water normal to the direction of flow
P length of the line of intersection of the channel wetted surface with a
cross-sectional plane that is normal to the direction of flow (free water
surface is not included)
R Hydraulic radius, which expresses the efficiency of a water channel as a
function of its geometric shape
b Bottom width
d Depth of flow
t Top width of water surface
z Side slope expressed as a ratio of horizontal (h) is to vertical (v).
z is shown in Figures 5 and 8 as being equal to the ratio e/d where
e is the horizontal distance and d = 1 is the vertical distance of the sloping
side of a channel.
 13

The parabolic cross-section is the best practical shape for an open channel owing to its
inherent structural strength. However, the discharge of parabolic channel as compared to other
cross-sections is relatively lower even when with higher velocity and greater depth. Hence, the
construction cost of parabolic canal is relatively more expensive than the other cross-sections.

Per the Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 603 (2016), the recommended
shapes of irrigation canals are trapezoid and rectangle for lined channels or rock formation due
to their stability and higher resistance to scouring.

V. Side Slope
For lined trapezoidal channels, the recommended side slope is 1.5:1.

For unlined trapezoidal channels, side slopes shall depend on soil characteristics and
should be flat enough to avoid the possibility of caving in after saturation. Steeper slopes can be
permitted in cutting reaches in rock or hard strata but not for embankment reaches.
Recommended values are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Stable side slopes for unlined channels

Location/Strata Stable Side Slope (Horizontal:Vertical)
A. Cutting reaches
1. hard rock ¼:1 to ½:1

2. decomposed rock, soft rock ¼:1 to 1:1

3. granular soils, sand, gravel and silt 1:1 to 1.5:1

4. highly plastic, expansive clays, loams 1.5:1 to 2:1

5. non-cohesive and loose sand 2:1

B. Embankment reaches
1. with granular material, sandy, silty soils 1.5:1
2. with highly plastic, expansive clays, 2:1
loams
3. non-cohesive and loose sandy soils 2:1 to 3:1
Source: National Irrigation Administration (n.d)
 14

VI. Channel Bed Width and Depth Ratio (b/d ratio)

The bed width and channel depth can be determined by using Table 4, which gives the
recommended b/d ratio for a corresponding design discharge.

Table 4. Recommended b/d ratio

Channel Discharge Range of b/d Ratio
(m3/sec) Unlined Channel Lined Channel
0.1 1.00 – 2.50 1.00
0.5 1.25 – 3.00
1 1.50 – 3.50
2 2.00 – 4.00
5 2.50 – 4.50
10 3.00 – 5.50
15 3.50 – 6.00 1.25
20 3.75 – 6.50
25 4.00 – 7.00
50 4.50 – 9.00 1.50
75 5.00 – 10.50 2.00
100 5.50 – 11.50
More than 100 - 2.50
Source: National Irrigation Administration (n.d)

VII. Bottom or Bed Slope

The bottom slope or the slope of the channel bed shall be determined from the
topographic surveys. In sections with steep gradients, appropriate hydraulic structures should be
provided in order to avoid supercritical flow regime that would persist throughout the length of
the canal.

VIII. Freeboard
Freeboard is an unused portion of a canal created to hold or carry water. It is a way of
adding or creating a factor of safety that is built into a water structure. When a channel is
properly designed, most of the channel depth is expected to fill with and carry water when the
design discharge occurs.

The flow capacity in the cross sectional area including the freeboard shall be about 1.25
to 1.35 times the design discharge.
 15

For both unlined and lined channels, the freeboard shall be calculated based on the
formula below:

Fb = 0.4d (for depths of flow of 0.3 m up to 2 m) (Eq. 10a)

Fb = 0.25d + 0.3 (for depths of flow of more than 2 m) (Eq. 10b)

where: Fb Freeboard, m
d Depth of flow during crop maintenance, m

When accounting for velocity head, freeboard is computed, as follows:

Fb = 0.05d + hv + (0.05 m to 0.15 m) (Eq. 11)

where: Fb Freeboard, m
d Depth of design discharge, m
hv Velocity head = v2/2g, m
g Gravitational force = 9.81 m/sec2

The best method of determining channel freeboard is to prescribe the larger value
obtained from Equations 10 and 11.

Example 1 – Designing main or primary irrigation canal

Given: Project total irrigable area = 10,000 ha

Diversion water requirement (DWR) = 189.7 mm/day
Cross-section = trapezoid
Condition = concrete-lined

Required: Specifications of main irrigation canal in terms of:

a. discharge (Q)
b. maximum permissible flow velocity (V)
c. bottom width (b)
d. depth of flow (d)
e. side slope
f. bed slope
g. freeboard (Fb) and
h. top width (T).
 16

Solution:

Convert DWR into DWR = 189.7 mm/day x 10 = 1,897 m3/ha/day

discharge (Q) unit:

Solve for total Q = DWR x Total Irrigable Area

discharge (Q): Q = 1,897 m3/ha/day x 10,000 ha x
1 day/86,400 sec = 219.56 m3/sec

Per Kosichenko Maximum permissible velocity (V) for lined

(1993) channels = 4.00 mps
recommendation:

Solve for area (A) Q = AV

using Equation 1: A = Q/V = (219.56 m3/sec)/4.00 m/sec = 54.89 m2

From Table 2, find For concrete-lined channel, n = 0.013

the value of
roughness
coefficient (n):

From Section V The recommended side slope for lined

hereof: trapezoidal channel = 1.5:1

Therefore, from the above recommended

side slope, z = 1.5

From Table 4: For lined channel with Q of more than 100

m3/sec, the b/d ratio = 2.5

Therefore, bottom width (b) = 2.5d

Note: There is no need to assume values

for b and d as these could be
determined using Eq. 6a as
supposedly the right way to do it by
trial and error method.

Substituting values in A = bd + zd2

Equation 6a A = (2.5d)d + 1.5d2
(trapezoid cross- A = 2.5d2 + 1.5d2
section): A = 4.0d2
5.49 m2 = 4.0d2
d2 = 5.49 m2/4.0
d = √1.37 m2 = 1.17 m

Since: b = 2.5d
b = 2.5 (1.17 m) = 2.92 m
 17

Solve for top width t = b + 2dz

(t) of the water t = 2.92 m + 2 (1.17 m)(1.5) = 6.43 m
surface using
Equation 6d:

Solve for wetted P = b + 2d√(z2 + 1)

perimeter (P) of P = 2.92 m + 2 (1.17 m) √[(1.5)2 + 1]
trapezoidal cross- P = 2.92 m + (2.34 m)(1.80) =
section using P = 2.92 m + 4.21 m = 7.13 m
Equation 6b:

Solve for hydraulic Using Eq. 4:

radius (R) using R = A/P
either Equation 4 or R = 54.89 m2/7.13 m = 7.70 m
Equation 6c for
trapezoidal cross-
section:

From Table 2, n= 0.013

coefficient of
roughness (n) for
concrete-lined
canal:

Solve for bottom or V = [(R)2/3 (S)1/2]/n

bed slope (S) of the S1/2 = nV/R2/3
channel using S = {[(0.013)(4.00)]/(7.70)2/3}2
Equation 3b: S = [0.052/3.90]2 = 0.00018

Note: This bottom slope is equivalent to a

gradient of 0.18 m for every 1 km of
canal length or 18 cm per 1 km.

Solve for freeboard Fb = 0.4d

accounting for Fb = 0.4 (1.17 m) = 0.47 m
depth of flow using
Equation 10a since d
is less than 2 m:

Solve also for Fb = 0.05d + v2/2g + (0.05 m to 0.15 m)

freeboard Fb = 0.05 (1.17) + [(4.00)2/2(9.81)] + 0.05
accounting for Fb = 0.0585 m + 0.8155 m + 0.05 m = 0.92 m
velocity head using
Equation 11: Since the required freeboard when
accounting for velocity head is higher than
when accounting for depth of flow, a 0.92
m Fb shall be provided.
 18

Since total depth (D) D = d + Fb = 1.17 m + 0.92 m = 2.09 m

is:

Solve for top width t = b + 2dz = 2.92 + 2 (1.17)(1.5) = 6.43 m

of water surface (t)
and top width of T = b + 2Dz = 2.92 + 2 (2.09)(1.5) = 9.19 m
canal (T) using
Equation 6d
(trapezoid cross-
section):

Therefore: The designed concrete-lined trapezoidal

main irrigation canal has the following
specifications (see Figure 8):

Q= 219.56 m3/sec
V= 4.00 mps
b= 2.92 m
d= 1.17 m
D= 2.09 m
Side slope = 1.5:1
S= 0.00018
Fb = 0.92 m
t= 6.43 m
T= 9.19 m

Drawn to scale

Figure 8. Designed concrete-lined trapezoidal main irrigation canal

 19

Example 2 – Designing secondary/tertiary canal and farm ditch

Given: Total service area = 100 ha
Farm water requirement (FWR) = 170.7 mm/day
Cross-section = rectangle
Bottom slope = 0.0012
Condition = excavated earth canal, curved and irregular section
with some weeds/grasses

Required: Specifications of secondary or tertiary irrigation canal in terms of:

a. discharge (Q)
b. maximum permissible flow velocity (V)
c. bottom width (b)
d. depth of flow (d)
e. bed slope and
f. freeboard (Fb).

Solution:

Convert FWR into FWR = 170.7 mm/day x 10 = 1,707 m3/ha/day

discharge (Q) unit:

Solve for total Q = FWR x Total Service Area

discharge (Q) Q = 1,707 m3/ha/day x 100 ha x
1 day/86,400 sec = 1.98 m3/sec

From Table 1: Maximum permissible velocity (V) for

unlined clay loam channels = 0.80 mps

Solve for area (A) Q = AV

using Equation 1: A = Q/V = (1.98 m3/sec)/0.80 mps = 2.48 m2

From Table 2, find For excavated earth canal, curved and

the value of irregular section with some weeds/grass,
roughness n= 0.03
coefficient (n):

From Table 4: For unlined channel with Q of 2 m3/sec,

the b/d ratio = 2.00
to 4.00

Unlike in Example 1, we cannot solve for b

and d directly using any of the Equations
7a, 7b or 7c. Thus, let us assume:

b/d = 3.00 m
and if b = 1.50 m
then, d = 1.50/3.00 = 0.50
 20

Solve for area (A) A = bd

using Equation 7a A = (1.50 m)(0.50 m) = 0.75 m2
(rectangle cross-
section):

Solve for wetted P = b + 2d

perimeter (P) using P = (1.50 m) + 2 (0.50 m) = 2.50 m
Equation 7b
(rectangle cross-
section):

Solve for hydraulic R = (bd)/(b + 2d)

radius (R) using R = [(1.50 m)(0.50 m )]/[1.50 m +
Equation 7c 2 (0.50 m)] = 0.30 m
(rectangle cross-
section):

To check whether all conditions are met, determine the flow velocity (V) and the discharge
(Q). Otherwise, adjust assumed values of a and b by trial-and-error method until the said
conditions are met.

For condition 1: V = [(R)2/3 (S)1/2]/n

Solve for flow V = [(0.30)2/3 (0.0012)1/2]/0.03 = 0.51 mps
velocity (V) using
Equation 3b: The computed V shall be less than or
equal to the maximum permissible
velocity of 0.80 mps. Otherwise, adjust the
value of base or depth.

The computed V = 0.51 mps is

acceptable as it is less than 0.80 mps.

For condition 2: Q = AV
Solve for discharge Q = (0.75 m2)(0.51 mps) = 0.38 m3/sec
(Q) using Equation 1:
The computed Q shall be greater than or
equal to but not appreciably different
from the design capacity or required flow
capacity. Otherwise, adjust the b/d ratio.

In our example, the required Q should be

1.98 m3/sec and the computed Q = 0.38
m3/sec, which differs appreciably hence
not acceptable.

Thus, we need to assume another values

for b/d ratio, b and d until the required V
and Q are both satisfied.
 21

By trial and error:

Assume again Assume b/d = 2.50

another values for And if b = 2.50 m
b/d ratio, bottom then, d = 2.50/2.50 = 1.00 m
width (b) and depth
of water (d):

Re-compute area A = bd
(A): A = (2.50 m)(1.00 m) = 2.50 m2

Re-compute wetted P = b + 2d
perimeter (P): P = (2.50 m) + 2 (1.00 m) = 4.50 m

Re-compute R = A/P
hydraulic radius (R): R = 2.50 m2/4.50 m = 0.56 m

To check whether all conditions are already met, determine again the flow velocity (V)
and the discharge (Q). Otherwise, adjust assumed values of a and b by trial and error
method until the said conditions are both met.

Re-compute flow V = [(R)2/3 (S)1/2]/n

velocity (V): V = [(0.56)2/3 (0.0012)1/2]/0.03 = 0.80 mps

This time, the computed flow velocity is

equal to the required maximum
permissible velocity and hence
acceptable.

Re-compute Q = AV
discharge (Q): Q = (2.50 m2)(0.80 mps) = 2.00 m3/sec

This time, the computed flow capacity is

almost the same as the required capacity
of 1.98 m3/sec and hence acceptable.

Inasmuch as the two conditions for V and Q are satisfied, we can now proceed solving the
other canal specifications.

Solve for freeboard Fb = 0.4d

accounting for Fb = 0.4 (1.00 m) = 0.40 m
depth of flow using
Equation 10a since d
is less than 2 m:
 22

Solve also for Fb = 0.05d + v2/2g + (0.05 m to 0.15 m)

freeboard Fb = 0.05 (1.00) + [(0.80)2/2(9.8)] + 0.05
accounting for Fb = 0.05 m + 0.0326 m + 0.05 m = 0.13 m
velocity head using
Equation 11: Since the required freeboard when
accounting for depth of flow is higher
than when accounting for velocity head,
a 0.40 m Fb shall be provided.

Solve for total depth D = d + Fb = 1.00 m + 0.40 m = 1.40 m

(D):

Therefore: The designed rectangular secondary or

tertiary has the following specifications
(see Figure 9):

Q= 2.00 m3/sec
V= 0.80 mps
b= 2.50 m
d= 1.00 m
D= 1.40 m
S= 0.0012
Fb = 0.40 m

Drawn to scale

Figure 9. Designed rectangular earthen secondary or tertiary irrigation canal

 23

Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay

If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.

1. Enumerate as many conditions as you can find in this module and in the world-wide-web
(www), which are to be considered in the design of open channels.
 24

2. Expound what will happen to the discharge (Q) when the velocity of flow (V) and area of
flowing water (A) are increased/decreased?

3. Design a trapezoidal main irrigation canal in terms of its:

 discharge (Q)
 maximum permissible flow velocity (V)
 bottom width (b)
 depth of flow (d)
 side slope
 bed slope
 freeboard (Fb) and
 top width (T).

Assume other data, if necessary. This is where you differ from your classmates.
25
 26

4. Design a rectangular lateral irrigation canals in terms of its:

 discharge (Q)
 maximum permissible flow velocity (V)
 bottom width (b)
 depth of flow (d)
 bed slope and
 freeboard (Fb).

Assume other data if necessary. This is where you differ from your classmates.
27
 28

Brouwer, C., Goffeau, A. & Heibloem, M. (1985). Irrigation water management: Training Manual
No. 1 - Introduction to irrigation. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e00.htm

Frevert, R.K., Schwab, G.O., Edminster, T.W. & Barnes, K.K. (1963). Soil and water conservation
engineering. 4th printing. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage. (n.d). ICID [Logo]. Retrieved from
https://icid2019.com/international-commision-on-irrigation-and-drainage/

Kosichenko, Y.M. (1993). Permissible velocities and variability of hydraulic resistances in concrete
canal channels. Hydro-technical Construction. Volume 27, Issue No. 8. August 1993. pp.
476 – 483. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01545142

Mwiya, R.M. (2013). Parabolic channel design. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering
Research. Vol. 4, Issue 4, April 2013. 804 ISSN 2229-5518. Retrieved from
http://www.ijser.org

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. (n.d). NASEM [Logo]. Retrieved
from http://sites.nationalacademies.org/PGA/biso/SS/index.htm

National Irrigation Administration. (1991). Irrigation engineering manual for diversified cropping.
Quezon City: Agency.

____________________. (n.d). Design manual on irrigation facilities. Quezon City: Agency.

OpenChannelFlow. (2016). Methods of measuring flows in open channels. Retrieved from

https://www.openchannelflow.com/blog/methods-of-measuring-flows-in-open-channels

Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 603. (2016). Open channels – Design of main canals,
laterals and farm ditches.

Plainwater.com. (n.d). Manning’s equation [Image]. Retrieved from

http://www.plainwater.com/tag/mannings-n/?print=print-search

Saad, A. (2014). What is the significance of the Froude Number? Retrieved from
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-significance-of-the-Froude-Number

Sabia Landscaping and Tree Service. (n.d). SLTS [Logos]. Retrieved from
http://www.sabialandscaping.com/landscaping/seasonal-yard-garden-services/ and
http://www.sabialandscaping.com/irrigation-drainage/

Vasquez, J. (2003). Hydro [Image]. Retrieved from http://www.pepevasquez.com/hydro.html

 29

Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning. (n.d). Open channel flow. A powerpoint presentation.

Wikipedia. (n.d). Hydraulic roughness. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_roughness