1

Module No. 5

Flow Measurement in Open Channels Using Flumes

In the previous module, we discussed about weirs used to measure flow in open
channels. Another flow measuring structure is the flume. Instead of placing a vertical obstruction
to flow as with weir (Figure 1a), a constriction in the channel width is used with flumes (Figure 1b).
This constriction causes the flow to accelerate creating critical flow which, in turn, causes the
depth of water to decrease. This depth of water flowing in the constriction can be correlated
with flow rate. This is our topic in this module.

(a) Weir (b) Flume

Source: Mississippi State University Extension (2010) Source: Ni-Plast India (n.d)b

Figure 1. Flow measuring structures in open channels

There are numerous flume models, styles, or makes that had been developed through
the years, namely: Parshall, cutthroat, Montana, RBC, HS- / H- / HL-types, Palmer-Bowlus, Khafagi,
and venturi flumes. Each has its own distinct characteristics and suitability to a given field
condition. In this module, only the Parshall and cutthroat flumes are discussed, as they are the
most popular and commonly used today. While these are available in the market in standard
designs, a customized design particularly cutthroat flume is also included.

Note that this module as well as the previous module (Module No. 4 – Flow Measurement
in Open Channels Using Weirs) are very useful in determining how much irrigation water to be
applied, which will be discussed in the next module (Module No. 6 – Irrigation Scheduling) using
any of the different methods discussed in Module No. 2 and any geometric shape of open
channel discussed in Module No. 3.
 2

After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:

a. Differentiate weirs from flumes;

b. Identify the different models or types of flume and differentiate their design
configurations;

c. Determine the rates of flow over Parshall and cutthroat flumes including custom-made
cutthroat flume under different flow conditions; and

d. Summarize the installation, maintenance and operational requirements of flumes.

 3

I. Parshall Flume
The Parshall flume was developed by Dr. Ralph L. Parshall. It is a fixed hydraulic structure
which, according to Bengtson, is widely used for open channel flow measurement, especially for
flows containing suspended solids (2010). It has three main structural components, namely:
(a) converging section; (b) constriction or throat section; and (c) diverging section (Figure 1, see
also Figure 3a). There is also prescribed variations in the channel bottom slope.

Modified from Wikipedia (2018)

Figure 2. Geometric configuration and structural components of Parshall flume

The upstream section is uniformly converging and flat, the throat is a short parallel section
that slopes downward, and the downstream section is uniformly diverging and slopes upward to
an ending elevation that is lower than the upstream starting elevation. The width of the throat
determines the flume size. There are 22 standardized sizes of a Parshall flume ranging from 1 inch
to 50 feet throat width with flow rates from 0.005 ft3/sec (cfs) to 3,280 cfs.
 4

There are two conditions of flow that can occur in all types of flume: (a) free flow; and
(b) submerged flow. These flow conditions are highlighted green in Figure 2. According to
Adkins, hydraulic jump occurs downstream of the flume for free flow conditions. As the flume
becomes submerged, the hydraulic jump eventually diminishes and ultimately disappears as the
downstream conditions increasingly restrict the flow out of the flume (2010).

Although commonly thought of as naturally occurring at higher flow rates, it should be

noted that, according to WikiVividly, submerged flow can exist at any flow rate level as it is a
function of downstream conditions. In natural stream applications, submerged flow is normally
the result of several factors downstream such as vegetative growth on the downstream channel
banks, sedimentation, or subsidence of the flume (n.d).

For free flow, only one head measurement (Ha, the primary point of measurement) is
required to determine the discharge. This Ha is located in the inlet of the flume located two-
thirds of the length of the converging section from the flume crest. For submerged flow, a
secondary head measurement (Hb) is required to determine the degree of submergence. This
Hb is located near the end of the throat section of the flume (see stilling basin A & B in Figure 2).

A. Free flow in Parshall flume

For free flow, the equation to determine the flow rate is (United States Department of the
Interior-Bureau of Reclamation (2001):

(Eq. 1)

where: Q Flow rate, ft3/sec (cfs)

C Free flow coefficient (Table 1)
Ha Head at the primary point of measurement, ft
n Free flow exponent which varies with flume size (Table 1)

Table 1. Parshall flume discharge characteristics for free flow conditions

Throat Width Coefficient (C) Exponent (n)
1 in 0.338 1.55
2 in 0.676
3 in 0.992
6 in 2.06 1.58
9 in 3.07 1.53
1 ft 3.95 155
1.5 ft 6.00 1.54
2 ft 8.00 1.55
3 ft 12.00 1.57
 5

Table 1. (continued)
Throat Width Coefficient (C) Exponent (n)
4 ft 16.00 1.58
5 ft 20.00 1.59
6 ft 24.00 1.59
7 ft 28.00 1.60
8 ft 32.00 1.61
10 ft 39.38 1.60
12 ft 46.75
15 ft 57.81
20 ft 76.25
25 ft 94.69
30 ft 113.13
40 ft 50.00
50 ft 186.88
Source: United States Department of the Interior-Bureau of Reclamation (2001)

B. Submerged flow in Parshall flume

For submerged flow, a depth of flow needs to be taken upstream (H a) and downstream
(Hb), the locations of which are shown in Figure 2 as stilling basin A and B, respectively. In order to
determine when corrections should be made and the degree to which the flume is submerged,
the submergence ratio (Sc) must be calculated, thus (United States Department of the Interior-
Bureau of Reclamation (2001):

Sc = Hb/Ha (Eq. 2)

If the computed Sc is greater than or equal to the submergence transition (St) given in
Table 2, then it is a submerged flow. If there is a submerged flow, adjustments need to be made
in order for the flume to work properly. The discharge (Q) can be estimated using the following
equations:

Qnet = Qfree flow – Qcorrection (Eq. 3a)

and

Qcorrection = M (0.000132 Ha2.123 e9.284 (St) (Eq. 3b)

 6

where: S Hb/Ha (Table 2)

M Correction factor (Table 3)
e Naperian number = 2.71828…

Table 2. Ratios of Ha and Hb to determine submerged flow in Parshall flume

Flume Size Submergence Transition (St)
1 to 3 in 0.5
6 to 9 in 0.6
1 to 8 ft 0.7
10 to 50 ft 0.8
Source: United States Department of the Interior-Bureau of Reclamation (2001)

Table 3. Correction factors for different sizes of Parshall flume

Flume Size (ft) Correction Factor (M)
1 1.0
1.5 1.4
2 1.8
3 2.4
4 3.1
5 3.7
6 4.3
7 4.9
8 5.4
Source: (United States Department of the Interior-Bureau of Reclamation (2001)

Example 1 – Determining discharge of Parshall flume

Problem: Determine the free flow discharge of a 60-in flume with a depth (Ha) of
2.5 feet. Suppose the flow becomes submerged due to sedimentation,
what is the flow rate when Hb is 2.0 ft?

Solution:

a. Free flow discharge

Convert size of flume Size of flume = 60 in x 1 ft/12 in = 5 ft

from inches to feet
as there is no entry
for 60-in in Table 1:
 7

From Table 1, find For 5-ft Parshall flume:

values for discharge
coefficient (C) and C= 20.00
exponent (n): n= 1.59

Solve for flow rate Substituting values in the formula:

(Q) using Equation 1,
thus:

Q = 20.00 (2.5)1.59 = 85.85 cfs

Convert ft3/sec to 85.85 ft3/sec x 1 m3/(3.28 ft)3 = 2.43 m3/sec

m3/sec:

Therefore, the free flow rate of a 60-in Parshall flume with 2.5 ft depth of flow at the throat is
85.85 cfs or 2.43 m3/sec.

b. Submerged flow discharge

Solve for Sc = Hb/Ha = 2.0 ft/2.5 ft = 0.8

submergence ratio
(Sc) to determine if
there is submerged
flow using Equation
2, thus:

From Table 2, find St = 0.7

submergence
transition (St) Since the computed Sc = 0.8 is greater
corresponding the 5 than the submergence transition (St) of 0.7
ft Parshall flume: for 1 to 8 ft Parshall flume in Table 2, then a
submerged flow is evident. Thus, correction
is needed.

From Table 3, find M= 3.7

correction factor
(M) for 5 ft Parshall
flume:

Solve corrected Q Substituting values in the formula:

using Equation 3b,
thus: Qcorrection = M (0.000132 Ha2.123 e9.284 (St)
Qcorrection = 3.7 ((0.000132)(2.5)2.123
(e)9.284 (0.7) = 2.27 cfs

Solve Qnet using Substituting values in the formula:

Equation 3a, thus:
Qnet = Qfree flow – Qcorrection
 8

Qnet = 85.85 cfs – 2.27 cfs = 83.58 cfs

Convert ft3/sec to 83.58 ft3/sec x 1 m3/(3.28 ft)3 = 2.37 m3/sec

m3/sec:

Therefore, the submerged flow rate of a 60-in Parshall flume with 2.5 ft depth of flow upstream
and 2.0 ft downstream is 83.58 cfs or 2.37 m 3/sec.

II. Cutthroat Flume

The cutthroat flume was developed to overcome the limitations of the Parshall flume in
flat gradient applications (OpenChannelFlow, 2018c). Like other flumes, the cutthroat flume is a
fixed hydraulic structure. Using vertical sidewalls throughout, the flume accelerates flow though
a contraction of sidewalls until the flow reaches the ‘throat’ of the flume where the flow is then
expanded. Unlike the Parshall flume (Figure 3a), the cutthroat flume (Figure 3b) has no parallel-
walled throat section and maintains a flat floor throughout its length (International Irrigation
Management Institute, 2013).

(a) Parshall flume (b) Cutthroat flume

Source: OpenChannelFlow (2018d) Source: Ni-Plast India (n.d)a

Figure 3. Basic difference between Parshall and cutthroat flumes

There are two cutthroat flume models, styles, or makes – rectangular (Figure 4a) and
trapezoidal (Figure 4b). Between the two, the rectangular cutthroat flume is the most commonly
used. For this reason, only the rectangular cutthroat flume is discussed in this module.
 9

(a) Rectangular (b) Trapezoidal

Source: OpenChannelFlow (2018b) Source: OpenChannelFlow (2018e)

Figure 4. Cutthroat flume models

Flumes having a flat bottom is satisfactory for both free flow and submerged flow
operation. The advantages of a level floor of the cutthroat flume as opposed to the Parshall
flume with an inclined floor in the throat and diverging sections, are: (a) ease of construction;
(b) the flume can be placed inside a concrete-lined channel; and (c) the flume can be placed
on the channel bed (Skogerboe, Hyatt, Anderson & Eggleston, 1967).

Like the Parshall flume, the design dimensions of the cutthroat flume is also standardized
as shown in Figure 5. Rectangular cutthroat flumes are available in four different lengths (18, 36,
54, and 108-inches L) and four throat widths for each length for a total of 16 standard sizes.

The primary point of measurement (Ha) is located in the converging section of the flume
a distance of 2L/9 upstream of the throat (L = flume length). The secondary point of
measurement (Hb) used to determine the submergence of a cutthroat flume is located near the
outlet of the flume, 5L/9 downstream of the throat. As the floor of the cutthroat flume is flat, there
is no need to adjust the Hb elevation when calculating the submergence ratio, unlike with
Parshall flume.

Turbulence at Hb typically makes determination of the head at this location difficult. To

make the measurement of Hb easier, a stilling basin is typically used (see Figure 2). The stilling
basin helps to reduce surface turbulence and dampen sudden changes in water level so that
more accurate measurements can be taken (OpenChannelFlow, n.d).
 10

Modified from OpenChannelFlow (n.d)

Figure 5. Standard design dimension of rectangular cutthroat flume

A. Free flow in cutthroat flume

Under free-flow conditions, the depth of water at specified location upstream of the
flume throat can be converted to a rate of flow. The free flow discharge can be determined as
(OpenChannelFlow, n.d):

(Eq. 4)

where: Q Flow rate, ft3/sec (cfs)

C Free flow coefficient which varies by flume length (Table 4)
H Head at the primary point of measurement, ft
n Free flow exponent which depend upon throat width (Table 4)
 11

Table 4. Free flow characteristics of cutthroat flume

Length (in) Width (in) n C
1 0.494
2 0.947
18 2.150
4 1.975
8 4.030
2 0.719
4 1.459
36 1.840
8 2.970
16 6.040
3 0.960
6 1.960
54 1.720
12 3.980
24 8.010
12 3.500
24 7.110
108 1.560
48 14.490
72 22.000
Source: OpenChannelFlow (2017a)

B. Submerged flow in cutthroat flume

For submerged flow of cutthroat flumes, a depth of flow needs to be taken upstream (Ha
= 2L/9) and downstream (Hb) as in Parshall flumes. Hb is located 5L/9 in the discharge portion of
the cutthroat flume as it has a zero length throat. As the submergence in the cutthroat flume
increases, small measurement errors determining Hb become critical. Thus, a stilling basin shall
be an integral component of the flume (see Figure 2).

The submerged flow rates of cutthroat flume can be determined by the following
equation (OpenChannelFlow, n.d):

(Eq. 5)

where: Qs Submerged flow rate, ft3/sec (cfs)

Cs Submerged flow coefficient which varies by flume length and units
(Table 5)
Ha Upstream depth, ft
n2 Submerged flow exponent (Table 5)
 12

Table 5. Submerged flow characteristics of cutthroat flume

Length (in) Width (in) n2 Cs
1 0.261
2 0.516
18 1.741
4 1.408
8 2.140
2 0.413
4 0.837
36 1.480
8 1.705
16 3.465
3 0.548
6 1.120
54 1.410
12 2.275
24 4.575
12 3.500
24 7.110
108 1.390
48 14.490
72 22.000
Source: OpenChannelFlow (2017b)

Example 2 – Determining discharge of rectangular cutthroat flume

Problem: Determine the free flow rate of a 9 ft rectangular cutthroat flume with
6 ft throat and corresponding upstream head of 3 ft. What would be
the discharge when submerged flow exists (Hb = 2.85 ft) due to
vegetative growth downstream?

Solution:

a. Free flow discharge

Determine the flume L = 9 ft x 12 in/1 ft = 108 in

dimensions in inches:
W = 6 ft x 12 in/1 ft = 72 in
 13

From Table 4, find C= 22.0

corresponding n= 1.56
values of free flow
coefficient (C) and
free flow exponent
(n):

Solve for free flow Substituting values in the equation:

discharge (Q) using
Equation 4, thus:

Q = 22.0 (3.0 ft)1.56 = 122.10 cfs

Convert ft3/sec to 122.10 ft3/sec x 1 m3/(3.28 ft)3 = 3.46 m3/sec

m3/sec:

Therefore, the free flow rate of the 9 ft x 6 ft rectangular cutthroat flume with 3.0 ft depth of
flow upstream is 122.10 cfs or 3.46 m3/sec.

b. Submerged flow discharge

From Table 5, find Cs = 22.0

corresponding n2 = 1.39
values of
submerged flow
coefficient (Cs) and
submerged flow
exponent (n2):

Solve for submerged Substituting values in the equation:

flow rate (Qs) using
Equation 5, thus:

Qs = 22.0 (3 ft)1.39 = 101.30 cfs

Convert ft3/sec to 101.3 ft3/sec x 1 m3/(3.28 ft)3 = 2.87 m3/sec

m3/sec:

Therefore, the submerged flow rate of a 9 ft x 6 ft rectangular cutthroat flume with 3.0 ft depth
of flow upstream is 101.30 cfs or 2.87 m 3/sec.

This goes to show that flow rate decreases when submerged flow exists due may be to
unfavorable conditions downstream. In our example above, the flow decreased by 0.59
m3/sec, that is, 3.46 m3/sec minus 2.87 m3/sec. It must be noted that the decreased amount of
irrigation water application will consequently increase the time to irrigate.
 14

III. Custom-made Cutthroat Flumes

One advantage the cutthroat flume over Parshall flume is the flexibility to develop
intermediate width flumes for one of the four standard lengths. Besides, if the standard lengths
do not fit the actual field condition and application, a custom-made cutthroat flume can be
developed, provided it conforms to the following standard layout:

 flat floor
 “no length” throat
 inlet contraction ratio of 3:1
 outlet contraction ratio of 6:1
 0.1 < W/L < 0.4
 length is between 18 and 108 inches

A set of ‘unified discharge’ calibrations were developed by Skogerboe (1974) for

cutthroat flumes so that it is not necessary to select one of the 24 standard sizes. Merkley (2004),
in turn, performed regression analysis on Skogerboe's graphic results and the result of which is
that both free flow and submerged flow can be determined for custom-made cutthroat flumes
conforming to the aforementioned standards.

A. Free flow in custom-made cutthroat flume

The free flow equations for custom-made cutthroat flumes are, as follows
(OpenChannelFlow, 2018a):

(Eq. 6a)

(Eq. 6b)

and

(Eq. 6c)

where: Qf Free flow rate, ft3/sec (cfs)

Cf Free flow coefficient
W Throat width, ft
Ha Head at primary point of measurement, ft
nf Free flow exponent
L Flume length, ft
 15

B. Submerged flow in custom-made cutthroat flume

For submerged cutthroat flume flow, the following equations can be used
(OpenChannelFlow, 2018a):

(Eq. 7a)

(Eq. 7b)

(Eq. 7c)

and

(Eq. 7d)

where: Qs Submerged flow rate, ft3/sec (cfs)

Cs Submerged flow coefficient
Cf Free flow coefficient
Ha Head at primary point of measurement, ft
Hb Head at secondary point of measurement, ft
nf Free flow exponent
ns SUbmerged flow exponent
W Throat width, ft
L Flume length, ft
S Submergence ratio = Hb/Ha
St Submergence transition

When compared to the parameters of the 24 standard cutthroat flume sizes, the above
equations have a maximum difference of less than 2 percent.
 16

Example 3 – Designing custom-made cutthroat flume

Problem: What would be the free flow discharge of a 6 ft x 1.5 ft custom-made

cutthroat flume when the upstream head is 1.25 ft? Design the other
dimensions of the said flume.

Solution:

a. Free flow discharge

Determine whether W/L shall be between 0.1 to 0.4

or not the W/L W/L = 1.5 ft/6 ft = 0.25
condition is met:
Since the computed W/L = 0.25 is between
the specified ratio, then the said condition
is met.

Solve for free flow Substituting values in the equation:

exponent (nf) using
Equation 6c, thus:

nf = 2.0936 (6 ft)-0.1225 – 0.128 (1.5 ft/6 ft) = 2.939

Solve for free flow Substituting values in the equation:

coefficient (Cf) using
Equation 6b, thus:

Cf = 6.585 (6 ft)-0.331 (1.5 ft)1.025 = 8.049

Solve for free flow Substituting values in the equation:

rate (Qf) using
Equation 6a, thus:

Qf = 8.049 (1.5 ft) (1.25 ft)2.939 = 28.60 cfs

Convert ft3 /sec to 28.60 ft3/sec x 1 m3/(3.28 ft)3 = 0.81 m3/sec

m3/sec:

Therefore, the free flow rate of the 6 ft x 1.5 ft custom-made cutthroat flume with 1.25 ft depth
of flow upstream is 28.60 cfs or 0.81 m 3/sec.
 17

b. Other dimensions

Determine Consider the following figure:

dimensions of
converging and
diverging sections
that conform to
contraction ratios of
3:1 and 6:1,
respectively:

Total length (L) of flume = 6 ft, therefore:

Length of converging section = L/3 = 6/3 = 2.0 ft

Length of diverging section = 2 L/3

= 2 (6/3) = 4.0 ft

By ratio and proportion, the mouth of

flume from its throat width (x) on both sides
can be determined.

For converging section (3:1):

3/1 = 2/x
x = 2 ft/3 ft = 0.67 ft

Total width of flume at converging

section = throat width + 2x
= 1.5 ft + 2 (0.67 ft) = 2.84 ft

For diverging section (6:1):

6/1 = 4/x
x = 4 ft/6 ft = 0.67 ft

Total width of flume at converging

section = throat width + 2x
= 1.5 ft + 2 (0.67 ft) = 2.84 ft
 18

Draw the final

design dimensions of
the custom-made
cutthroat flume:

Design dimensions of the custom-made cutthroat flume

in Problem #3

IV. Flume Installation, Maintenance and Operation

The accuracy of water measurement is of prime importance in the operation of any
water distribution system. For an accurate measurement of the flow through the flume, the
following conditions should be observed (Adkins, 2006):

1. The approaching flow should be well distributed across the channel and should be
relatively free of turbulence, eddies and waves. Otherwise, deepening, widening or
introducing baffles or other spreading devices on the approach channel may be
necessary to correct poor flow patterns.

2. A flume should be located in a straight section of the open channel, without bends
immediately upstream.

3. The channel section immediately upstream from the flume should be free of sediment
and debris. If the flume is installed properly, sediment deposition should be minimized
since the converging upstream portion of the flume accelerates the entering flow,
thereby eliminating deposition of sediments.

4. A solid watertight foundation is required to prevent settlement and to prevent flow from
bypassing the structure and eroding the foundation.

5. Flumes should be operated within their flow limits and head range.

6. Generally, a site with a high velocity of approach should not be selected for a flume
installation. However, if the water just upstream is smooth with no surface boils and
waves, accuracy may not be greatly affected by velocity of approach. Excessive flow
velocity at the flume entrance can cause errors of up to 4 percent of the discharge.
 19

7. Consideration should be given to the height of the upstream channel, with regard to its
ability to sustain the increased depth caused by the flume installation.

8. Although less head is lost through flumes than over weirs, it should be noted that
significant losses might occur with large installations.

9. The possibility of submergence of the flume due to backwater from downstream

obstacles should also be considered, although the effect of submergence upon the
accuracy of most flumes is much less than in the case of weirs. If a flume becomes
submerged then either the downstream obstruction should be removed or the flume
altered by either raising or narrowing the throat.

10. Minimum channel slope in the downstream section is necessary to maintain critical flow
through the throat of the flume and prevent the flume from becoming submerged.
Submerged conditions should be avoided since accuracy can be extremely poor (in
excess of 10%) even under well-controlled conditions.

11. Although a small slope will not significantly affect the accuracy of the flume. The flume
should be level in both longitudinal and transverse directions. Occasionally, a flume is
installed with a slight slope, which necessitates adjustment of the zero level on the staff
gage so that it is at the same elevation as the flume throat. If the flume is installed in an
earth ditch, the flume bottom should always be placed higher than the ditch bottom. If
the flume is installed in a concrete ditch having a flat slope, the flume may become
submerged. If this is the case, the flume should also be raised above the bottom of the
channel. An error of 0.01 foot (about 1/8 inch) in setting the flume or in setting the gage
zero, combined with a 0.001-foot error in reading the staff gage, could result in an error
of 8 percent in the discharge determination in a midrange flow for a 2-inch flume.
 20

Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay

If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.

1. Define and contrast weir and flume. (10 pts)

2. In the world-wide-web (www) and/or elsewhere, find actual pictures (not drawings or
illustrations) of Parshall and cutthroat flumes including other styles or models of flumes not
included in the discussions in this module. (15 pts)
 21

3. Compute the flow rates of all the standard sizes of a Parshall flume under free and
submerged flow conditions. Enter values in Table 6 below. (25 pts)

Table 6. Flow rates of Parshall flume

Throat Width Flow Rate
Free Flow Condition Submerged Flow Condition
ft /sec
3 m /sec
3 ft3/sec m3/sec
1 in
2 in
3 in
6 in
9 in
1 ft
1.5 ft
2 ft
3 ft
4 ft
5 ft
6 ft
7 ft
8 ft
10 ft
12 ft
15 ft
20 ft
25 ft
30 ft
40 ft
50 ft
 22

4. Compute the flow rates of all the standard sizes of a rectangular cutthroat flume under free
and submerged flow conditions. Enter values in Table 7 below. (25 pts)

Table 7. Flow rates of rectangular cutthroat flume

Flow Rate
Length Width Free Flow Condition Submerged Flow Condition
(in) (in)
ft /sec
3 m /sec
3 ft3/sec m3/sec
1
2
18
4
8
2
4
36
8
16
3
6
54
12
24
12
24
108
48
72
 23

5. Determine the free flow discharge of an 8 ft x 6 ft custom-made rectangular cutthroat flume

when the upstream head is 2.5 ft? What are the other dimensions of the said flume and
draw-to-scale the final design dimensions (top view). (15 pts)
 24

6. In not more than 200 words, summarize the installation, maintenance and operational
requirements of flumes. (10 pts)
 25

Adkins, G.B. (2006). Flow measurement devices. Retrieved from

https://waterrights.utah.gov/distinfo/measurement_devices.pdf

Bengtson, H. (2010). Open channel flow measurement: Parshall flumes. In Bright Hub Engineering.
Stonecypher, L. (ed.). Retrieved from https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-
civil-engineering/61462-open-channel-flow-measurement-parshall-flumes/

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage. (n.d). ICID [Logo]. Retrieved from
https://icid2019.com/international-commision-on-irrigation-and-drainage/

International Irrigation Management Institute. (2013). Converting a fabricated cutthroat flume

into a discharge measuring instrument. Retrieved from Wiki2 at
https://wiki2.org/en/Cutthroat_flume

Merkley, G. (2004). Irrigation conveyance and control: Flow measurement and structure design.
Utah State University. BIE 5300 / 6300.

Mississippi State University Extension. (2010). Weirs also known as check dams. Retrieved from
http://extension.msstate.edu/news/feature-story/2010/new-technique-protects-
downstream-waters

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. (n.d). NASEM [Logo]. Retrieved
from http://sites.nationalacademies.org/PGA/biso/SS/index.htm

Ni-Plast India. (n.d)b. Parshall flumes. Retrieved from

http://www.niplastindia.com/niplastindia/parshall-flume-gallary.aspx

____________________. (n.d)a. Cut throat flumes. Retrieved from http://www.niplastindia.com/ni-

plast/cut-throat-flume-gallary.aspx

OpenChannelFlow. (2017a). Flow characteristics of cutthroat flumes. Retrieved from

https://www.openchannelflow.com/flumes/cutthroat-flumes/flow-characteristics

____________________. (2017b). Submerged flow of cutthroat flumes. Retrieved from

https://www.openchannelflow.com/flumes/cutthroat-flumes/submergence

____________________. (2018a). Custom size cutthroat flumes. Retrieved from

https://www.openchannelflow.com/blog/custom-size-cutthroat-flumes

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