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Module No. 7

Pumps and Pumping

Pumps are indispensable devices in households, agriculture, and industries. They are used
in oil fields, water treatment plants, domestic and municipal water distribution systems, fire
protection and agriculture. They are also essential parts of car engines for fuel injection.
Wikipedia reported that pumps are also used in the medical industry for biochemical processes
in developing and manufacturing medicines, and as artificial replacements for body parts
particularly the artificial heart and penile prosthesis (2018).

The role of the pump in any pumping system is to provide sufficient pressure on the fluid
high enough to overcome the operating pressure of the system so that the fluid can be moved
at the required flow rate. This operating pressure of the pumping system is a function of flow
through the pipe system which, in turn, is determined by factors such as pipe length, pipe
diameter or size, fittings, the change in fluid elevation, and pressure on the fluid surface both at
the source and at the outlets. All of these factors cause the operating pressure to drop from the
pump to the utility outlets of the pumping system.

A pump is not a stand-alone equipment but is driven by either electric motor or internal
combustion engine through a shaft or a belt. This driver-driven system is emphasized because, in
this module, we not only calculate the pump (driven) performance but also the power rating of
the motor (driver) required to attain said performance at various hydraulic heads including the
overall efficiency of the pumping system.

The design of pumping system involves the calculation of its operating pressure as basis in
the selection of suitable pump taking into account the aforementioned factors. This is our
concern in this module particularly on the use of water pumps for domestic and irrigation
purposes. Lessons learned in this module may also be applicable for other purposes though.

It is emphasized that in the selection of appropriate pump units, refer to the pump
performance curves prepared for each make and model. Every pump has a different set of
performance curves relating to its operating head and discharge capacity. Select pumps and
power units for maximum operating efficiency within the full range of expected operating
conditions. Our topic in this module is to determine these operating conditions as basis in the
selection of the pump unit.

As a word of caution, let the pump dealer be the one to recommend and select the
appropriate pump unit. All the designer/user needs to do is to provide the design operating
conditions.

After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:

a. Identify different types of pump.

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b. Solve capacity, flow velocity and cross-sectional area of conduits or pipes; and

c. Solve pump problems in terms of:

a. discharge at given suction pressures, velocities, heads, friction heads of pipe, and
friction heads of fittings;
b. total pump head;
c. net positive suction head available at given elevations above sea level;
d. water power;
e. pump speed;
f. specific speed at best efficiency point (BEP);
g. suction specific speed at BEP;
h. input power of pump at given efficiency ratings;
i. overall efficiency; and
j. discharge, head and water power at given pump speeds.
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I. Classification of Pumps
Pumps are too many and come in a variety of sizes for a wide range of applications that
render their classification confusing. Hence, there is no universal agreement among pumps and
pumping authorities. Nonetheless, Resurreccion broadly classified water pumps according to
their basic operating principles such as positive displacement type, or variable displacement
type based on the head-discharge relationship as shown in Figure 1 (2006).

Source: Resurreccion (2006)

Figure 1. Classification and types of water pump

A. Positive displacement pump

Regardless of the head against which it operates, a positive displacement pump

discharges an almost constant flow or volume of fluid. There are two types – reciprocating and
rotary. In reciprocating pump, pumping action is through the repeated back-and-forth
movement or strokes of either a piston, plunger or diaphragm as illustrated in Figure 2. A
reciprocating pump comes as either a lift pump, or a force pump. Both are basic forms of pump
that are being utilized in most Filipino rural households.
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Source: Michael Smith Engineers, Ltd. (n.d)

Figure 2. Pumping action of piston, plunger and diaphragm reciprocating pumps

A lift pump (Figure 3a), also known as a suction pump, is a single-acting pump consisting
of an open cylinder, piston with built-in bucket valve. The Jetmatic and the older version which is
called pitcher pump in your homes are lift pumps. The basic operation of a lift pump is
described, as follows:

 On the upstroke of the plunger, the lower valve opens, the upper valve (situated on or in
the plunger itself) is closed, and the low air pressure produced in the barrel allows
atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water source, down below, to make the
water move up the downpipe and eventually fill the barrel below the plunger.

 On the downstroke, the lower valve closes, the upper one opens, and water is forced
into the barrel above the upper valve.
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 On the next upstroke, the water above the plunger is forced out of the spout, located at
the top of the barrel, at the same time as the volume below the barrel fills up with water
again (Williams, 2018).

(a) Lift pump (b) Force pump

Source: Williams (2018)

Figure 3. Types of reciprocating pump

A force pump, also known as a pressure pump, is a single- or double-acting pump

consisting of a plunger, inlet valve, and outlet valve. It forces the water above atmospheric
pressure as distinguished from the lift pump. Its operation is described, as follows:

 On the upstroke of the plunger, the outlet or delivery valve is closed and the inlet valve
opens. The low air pressure produced in the barrel causes the water below to move up
the downpipe and eventually fill the barrel.

 On the downstroke, the inlet valve closes, the outlet valve opens, and the water is forced
out via the outlet pipe, which is located at the bottom of the barrel. Water is only
expelled on the downstroke, and in order to even out the supply to some extent these
pumps, in particular, are often fitted with an air vessel (Williams, 2018).
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B. Variable displacement pump

A variable displacement pump has an inverse relationship between discharge rate and
pressure head. High pressure head will result in low discharge rate and vice versa. It comes either
as mixed flow pump, propeller pump, jet pump, air lift pump, or centrifugal pump.

In this module, centrifugal pump is given emphasis as it is the most widely used in
agriculture. Its main usage is for lifting groundwater from aquifers and surface water sources to
irrigate plants where rainfall is insufficient. Centrifugal pump is also used in sprinkler and drip
irrigation systems and in other general purpose applications (e.g. cleaning, drinking) in poultry
and livestock production endeavors.

II. Centrifugal Pump

A. Components and basic operation

The components of a centrifugal pump are as shown in Figure 4. The impeller is

connected to a shaft driven by an electric motor or internal combustion engine which causes it
to rotate inside a closed casing. The rotating impeller creates a suction eye at the center that
draws water into the pump through the suction nozzle and forces the water radially outward at
the periphery of the housing by means of centrifugal force (Figure 5) toward the discharge
nozzle. The shape of the casing is designed to reduce the velocity as the fluid leaves the
impeller, and this decrease in velocity triggers the pressure to increase. This inverse relationship of
velocity and pressure is based on Bernoulli’s principle, which we already discussed last semester
(see Module No. 9 of AE 163 – Hydrometeorology).

Source: Engineering Insider (n.d)

Figure 4. Components of centrifugal pump

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Source: Metropolitan Community College Nebraska (n.d)

Figure 5. Radial movement of water in centrifugal pump

The direction of impeller rotation depends on the backward curve of its blade. Figures 6
and 7 show the clockwise and counter clockwise rotation of the impeller, respectively. Note of
the relative position of the discharge nozzle with respect to this direction of impeller rotation.
Sometimes, the discharge nozzle is located at the center of the casing in the case of diffuser
type centrifugal pump (see Figure 8b).

Front View Right-side View

Source: Shieh (n.d)

Figure 6. Clockwise direction of impeller rotation

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Source: Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (n.d)

Figure 7. Counter-clockwise direction of impeller rotation

B. Classification of centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pumps are classified according to: (a) type of energy conversion either
volute or diffuser (Figure 8); (b) type of impeller either closed, semi-open or open (Figure 9);
(c) type of suction inlet either single or double (Figure 10); (d) axis of rotation either horizontal or
vertical; and (e) method of priming either non-self-priming or self-priming (Philippine Agricultural
Engineering Standard 114 (2000).

(a) Volute type (b) Diffuser type

Source: Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 114 (2000)

Figure 8. Type of centrifugal pump according to type of energy conversion

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(a) Closed type (b) Semi-open type (c) Open type

Source: Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (n.d)

Figure 9. Type of centrifugal pump according to type of impeller

(a) Single suction type (b) Double suction type

Source: Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 114 (2000)

Figure 10. Type of centrifugal pump according to type of suction inlet

A volute type centrifugal pump has a volute-shaped casing (resembles somewhat like a
snail shell), which produces an essentially uniform velocity distribution as the fluid moves around
the volute casing into the discharge nozzle. It is designed to reduce gradually the velocity of
water as it flows from the impeller to the discharge, thus increasing the pressure head. A diffuser
pump, on the other hand, is a type of centrifugal pump wherein the impeller is surrounded by
diffuser vanes, which have small openings near the impeller and enlarge gradually to their outlet
where the water flows into the chamber and around to the pump discharge.

The impeller is attached to the rotating shaft. It consists of a number of blades or vanes
arranged in a regular pattern around the shaft. The type of impeller is selected to meet specific
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conditions. The closed type has a front and back shroud and is designed to pump clear water.
The semi-open type has a shroud in the back of the impeller and is used to pump water having
some amount of suspended sediments. The open type has no shroud and is used to pump water
with considerable amount of small solids.

The single suction type has suction cavity on one side; while the double suction type has
an impeller which has suction cavity on both sides.

A horizontal centrifugal pump has a vertical impeller mounted on a horizontal shaft.

Conversely, a vertical centrifugal pump has a horizontal impeller mounted on a vertical shaft.

A non-self-priming is one that needs to be manually primed. The system has to be filled
initially by pouring water into the pipes from a bucket and thereafter the foot valve will keep
water in the system even after the pump is not used for some time. A self-priming pump is one
that develops a vacuum sufficiently enough for atmospheric pressure to force the liquid to flow
through the suction pipe into the pump casing without priming the pump (Philippine Agricultural
Engineering Standard 114 (2000).

III. Pump Hydraulic Terms and Equivalents

To enhance better comprehension of the succeeding discussions, familiarization with the
following pump hydraulic terms and equivalents are necessary. To guide you through, refer to
Figures 11, 12 and 13.

Base plane (also called reference or datum elevation). For horizontal shaft pumps, it is
the distance from the level of water source to the center line of the pump shaft. For vertical
single suction pumps (volute and diffusion vane type), it is the distance from the entrance eye to
the first stage impeller. For vertical double suction pumps, it is the distance from the level of
water source to the impeller discharge horizontal center line.

Velocity head (v2/2g). Refers to the energy of fluid due to its bulk motion. It is the head
(expressed in meters) required to create the velocity (v) of flow in the pipe due to the force of
gravity (g). The flow velocity is obtained by dividing the discharge (Q) of the pipe by the cross-
sectional area of the pipe (A = πd2/4) where d is the pipe inside diameter.

Pressure head (P/γ). It describes the height of an equivalent column of the fluid under
gravity. Pressure head and pressure (P) are two different properties of fluids. P is the force per unit
area (usually measured by a pressure gauge) which the fluid exerts in every direction. Since
pressure head is directly related to pressure, their relationship is that for every 1 m (1 ft H 2O) of
water column exerts a gauge pressure of 9.8 kPa (0.433 psi), or for every 1 kPa (1 psi) gauge
pressure the height of water column is 0.102 m (2.31 ft H2O). These conversion factors of pressure
terms into units of equivalent head help simplify pump and pumping calculations.

Note from the term (P/γ) that the specific weight (γ, gamma) = density (rho, ρ) x g
(gravitational force = 9.8 m/sec2).

Elevation head (Z). Represents the potential energy of a fluid due to its elevation above
a base plane (datum line).
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Friction head (hf). The loss in head due to friction caused by the flow through the pipe
and pipe fittings. It includes all pressure losses in the system due to friction. Since the pump must
overcome all the friction losses so that water is still delivered at the desired pressure at the end of
the pipe, add the hf into the estimate of the total dynamic head (see Figure 13).

Determining hf is discussed in the next section.

Dynamic condition. In a water pipe system, it is the state when water is allowed to move
or run through the pipe line.

Static condition. In a water pipe system, it is the state when water is not moving, or the
pump is not running.

Static suction head (hs). The vertical distance from the free suction water level to the
pump center line. A pump is said to be in a suction head condition when it is below the water
level being pumped as shown in Figure 12b.

Static suction lift (hs). In contrast with static suction head, it is the vertical distance from
the free suction water level to the center line of the pump. The term is only used when the pump
is above the water being pumped as shown in Figure 12a.

Static discharge head (hd). The vertical distance from the center line of the pump to the
discharge water level (see Figure 12).

Total discharge head (Hd). The sum of static discharge head, friction, and exit losses in
the discharge pipe plus the velocity head and pressure head at the point of discharge.

Total suction lift (Hs). The sum of static suction lift, friction and entrance losses in the
suction piping. Suction lift exists where the total suction head at pump datum is below
atmospheric pressure which the flow source vented to atmosphere (see Figure 12).

Total suction head (Hs). It is the vertical distance from the center line of the pump to the
free level of the water to be pumped minus all friction losses in suction pipe and fittings, plus any
pressure head existing on the suction supply (see Figure 12).

Total Dynamic Head (TDH). The measure of energy increase imparted to the water by the
pump. This energy is needed to move the water from the center line of a pump to some given
location. TDH includes the static head, velocity head and the head loss due to friction as shown
in Figure 13.

Horsepower (hp). A measurement of the amount of energy required to do work. Fuel

motors are rated in horsepower. The horsepower of an electric motor is called brake
horsepower. The horsepower requirements of a pump are dependent on the flow rate (Q) and
the total dynamic head (TDH).

Shaft power. The power required at the pump shaft, or the input power of the driver to
the pump.

Water power. Theoretical power required for pumping. It is the head and capacity of the
pump expressed in kilowatt (metric) or horsepower (English).
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Pump efficiency (ηp). The ratio of the power output to the power input of the pump.

Cavitation. The formation of bubbles filled with water vapor when the pressure at a given
location in the pipe system is reduced to the vapor pressure of the water. Cavitation has three
undesirable effects:

a. The collapsing cavitation bubbles can erode the vane surface;

b. Noise and vibration are increased, with possible shortened service life of seals and
bearings; and
c. The cavity areas will partially choke the impeller passages and consequently reduce the
pump performance.

Net positive suction head (NPSH). On the suction side of a pump, low pressures are
commonly encountered with the concomitant possibility of cavitation occurring within the
pump. Centrifugal pumps are most vulnerable to cavitation.

Net positive suction head required (NPSHR). It is related to conditions on the suction side
of the pump. In variable speed pumping using fuel engine drivers, NPSHR must be maintained or
exceeded so that cavitation will not occur. In other words, the NPSHR is the minimum suction
conditions required to prevent cavitation. It is a characteristic of the pump unit and usually
provided by the pump manufacturer.

Net positive suction head available (NPSHA). Represents the head that occurs at the
suction for a particular flow system as determined from the actual suction piping conditions. It is
a characteristic of the pump system design and installation and it should be calculated.

To avoid the liquid being pumped from vaporizing or boiling at the low pressure side of
the pump, the NPSHA must be equal to or greater than the NPSHR (NPSHA ≥ NPSHR).
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Modified from Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standard 115 (2000)

Figure 11. Definition sketch of pump hydraulic terms

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Source: James (n.d)

Figure 12. Definition sketch of discharge head, suction lift and suction head
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Source: Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (n.d)

Figure 13. Definition sketch of hydraulic heads

IV. Friction Head

The total amount of energy or hydraulic head (H) is that caused by the pressure head,
plus the motion or velocity head, plus the potential head caused by elevation referenced to an
arbitrary datum selected as reference zero elevation, plus head loss due to friction. At this
juncture, we postpone the discussion on the first three kinds of hydraulic head in the next section
and take up the fourth type of head instead.

In a pipe system, friction head (h f) occurs both in the pipe line and in the component
fittings and valves. Thus, the total friction head (hF) is the sum of the head loss in the pipe line and
the head loss in the fittings and valves.

A. Friction head in pipe lines

There are two widely used formulas to calculate head loss in pipe lines, namely: the
Darcy-Weisbach Equation and the Hazen-Williams Equation.
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1. Darcy-Weisbach Equation

hf = f (L/D) (v2/2g) (Eq. 1)

where: hf Friction head, m

f Friction factor
L Length of pipe, m
D Inside diameter of pipe, m
v Flow velocity, m/sec
g Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2

Through the years, several equations had been developed by authorities to estimate
Darcy’s friction factor (f). For laminar flow in pipes, Equation 2 is used; for turbulent flow, Equation
3 is used. Equation 3 is valid only to smooth pipes with Reynolds number up to 100,000.

f = 64/Re (Eq. 2)

f = 0.316/Re0.25 (Eq. 3)

where: f Darcy’s friction factor

Re Reynolds number, which is used to determine the flow regime
(Bentea, 2006):

Laminar – Re < 2,300

Transition – Re 2,300 to 4000*
Turbulent – Re > 4,000

* Darcy’s friction factor under transition flow regime (often called

critical zone) is subject to large uncertainties.

Re = v dh /ν (Eq. 4)

where: Re Reynolds number for flow in pipe

v Mean velocity of the fluid, m/sec
dh Hydraulic diameter, m (inside diameter for pipes and circular
ducts)
ν Nu, kinematic viscosity of the fluid = μ/ρ, m2/sec (see Appendix
Table 1)
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Values of Darcy’s friction factors can also be read directly from the Moody Chart based
on the computed Reynolds number. For accuracy, however, Re should be computed using
Equation 4, then compute for Darcy’s friction factor using either Equations 2 or 3 depending on
the flow regime.

2. Hazen-Williams Equation

hf = (608,704,451/D4.8655) (Q/C)1.85 (Eq. 5)

where: hf Friction head loss, m/100 m of pipe

D Inside diameter of pipe, mm
Q Discharge rate, li/min
C Roughness coefficient (see Appendix Table 2)

The Darcy-Weisbach Equation is generally considered more accurate than the Hazen-
Williams Equation but the latter is simpler. Choosing which equation to use redounds to which is
more important between accuracy and simplicity. If accuracy is not of utmost importance, then
Hazen-Williams Equation is used.

B. Friction head in fittings and valves

There are also several methods to calculate head loss in fittings and valves but only two
are very frequently used: the K-value method and the equivalent length method. The former is
more accurate than the latter, as the K-value method can be characterized against varying
flow conditions. For this reason, only the K-value method is discussed hereunder.

The K-value represents the different velocity heads that will be lost by fluid passing
through the fittings and valves. The formula for calculating head loss in the fittings and valves
using the K-values is:

hf = K (v2/2g) (Eq. 6)

where: hf Friction head, m

K Friction coefficient (see Appendix Table 3)
v Flow velocity, m/sec
g Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2
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Example 1 – Determining total friction head

Problem: Consider a 500 m long, 100 mm inside Ø PVC pipe line laid on a flat
surface (no change in elevation) as shown in the figure overleaf. Assume
the water being pump has a mean temperature of 20oC. What would be
the total friction head if the design velocity of flow is 1.0 m/sec?

Top View

Solution:

A. Friction head in pipe

From Appendix At 20oC, ν = 1.004 x 10-6 m2/sec

Tables 1, find the
kinematic viscosity
(ν) of water:

Solve for Reynolds Substituting values in the equation:

number (Re) using
Equation 4, thus: Re = v dh / ν

Re = [(1.0 m/sec) (0.1 m)] /

1.004 x 10-6 m2/sec = 99,602

Determine flow Since Re = 99,602, the flow is therefore

regime whether turbulent, thus Equation 3 should be used.
laminar or
turbulent based on
the Reynolds
number (Re):
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Solve for Darcy’s Substituting values in the equation:

friction factor (f)
using Equation 3, f = 0.316/Re0.25
thus: f = 0.316/(99,602)0.25 = 0.018

Solve for friction Substituting values in the equation:

head (hf) using
Equation 1, thus: hf = f (L/D)(v2/2g)
hf = (0.018)(500 m/0.1 m)
[(1.0 m/sec)2/2 (9.8 m/sec2)] = 4.59 m

Therefore, the total friction head loss in the 500 m long pipe (hf, pipe) is 4.59 m.

B. Friction head in fittings and valves

Consider Equation hf = K (v2/2g)

6 and solve for
each term:

From Appendix For standard 90o elbow, K = 0.75

Table 3, find value
of friction
coefficient (K):

Solve for friction Substituting values in the equation:

head (hf) using
Equation 6, thus: hf = K (v2/2g)
hf = 0.75 [(1.0 m/sec)2/(2) (9.8 m/sec2)] = 0.038 m/elbow

Since there are 3 elbows,

hf = 0.038 m/elbow x 3 elbows = 0.114 m

Therefore, the total friction head loss (hf) in the 3 fittings (hf, fitting) is 0.114 m.

Solve for total Substituting values in the equation:

friction head loss
(hF), thus: hF = hf, pipe + hf, fitting
hF = 4.59 m + 0.114 m = 4.70 m

Therefore, the total head loss due to friction (hF) in the 500 m long, 100 mm Ø pipe line with 3
pcs 90o elbow and laid flat on the ground surface is 4.70 m.
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V. Energy or Head Loss in Pipe Networks

Recall in Module No. 9 of AE 163 (Hydrometeorology) class last semester that hydraulic
problems concerning flow of water are generally handled by accounting the energy per weight
of flowing water from Point 1 to Point 2. This energy accounting is known as the Bernoulli’s energy
balance equation and expressed mathematically as:

(Eq. 7)

where: P1 Pressure at Point 1, Pa

P1 Pressure at point 2, Pa
ρ Rho representing density of fluid, kg/m3 (see Appendix Table 1)
g Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2
V1 Flow velocity at Point 1, m/sec
V2 Flow velocity at Point 2, m/sec
Z2 Elevation head at Point 2, m
Z1 Elevation head at Point 1, m
hF Total friction head loss in pipes and fittings, m

Equation 7 applies to both pipe flow and open channel flow. They are similar in many
ways but differ in one important respect. Open channel flow has a free water surface which is
subject to atmospheric pressure. It occurs in response to differences in gravitational potential
energy, due to elevation differences. In other words, water flows downhill from high potential
energy to low potential energy. Pipe flow, on the other hand, is triggered by hydraulic pressure
which is measured by a gage. It occurs in response to differences in hydraulic pressure. In other
words, water flows from high hydraulic pressure to low hydraulic pressure.

Example 2 – Determining head loss in pipe network

Problem: Consider again the 500 m long, 100 mm inside Ø PVC pipe network in
Example 1. But this time the elevation head in Point 2 is higher by 3 m
than in Point 1 as shown in the figure below. The pressure at Point 1 is 40
psi. Determine the pressure drop in Point 2 when the flow velocity
remains constant at 1.0 m/sec throughout the pipe line. What is the
discharge rate at point 2?

Elevation View
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Solution:

A. Pressure drop

Consider Equation
7 and solve for
each term:

Convert pressure P1 = 40 psi x 6,894.757 Pa/1 psi = 275,790 Pa

at Point 1 (P1) in psi
to pascal

From Appendix At 20oC, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3

Table 1, find the
density (ρ) of
water:

Since flow velocity

remains constant 0
throughout pipe
length (V1 = V2),
the term:

Solve for pressure Substituting values in the equation:

at Point 2 (P2)
using Equation 7
when flow velocity
remains constant
throughout the
(275,790 Pa – P2)/[(998.2 kg/m3)(9.8 m/sec2)]
pipe length, thus:
+ 0 = 3 – 0 + 4.7 m

Re-arranging the terms:

P2 = 275,790 Pa/[(7.7 m)(9,782.36 Pa/m2) = 3.66 m H2O

Convert meter of 3.66 m H2O x 9,800 Pa/m H2O = 35,868 Pa

water column to
Pa then to psi: 35,868 Pa x 1 psi/6,894.757 Pa = 5.2 psi

Note that this is the pressure at Point 2 (P2), not

the pressure drop between P1 and P2.

Solve for pressure 275,790 Pa – 35,868 Pa = 239,922 Pa

drop at Point 2,
thus: 239,922 Pa x 1 psi/6,894.757 Pa = 34.8 psi
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Therefore, the 40 psi (275,790 Pa) pressure at Point 1 drops to 5.2 psi (35,868 Pa) at Point 2,
which decreased by as much as 34.8 psi (239,922 Pa). This is because of head losses due to
friction both in the pipe line and in the component fittings and valves.

B. Discharge

Solve for cross- Substituting values in the equation of a

sectional area (A) circle:
of pipe, thus:
A = πd2/4)
A = π (0.1 m)2/4 = 7.85 x 10-3 m2

Solve for discharge Substituting values in the equation:

(Q) using the
continuity Q = AV
equation, thus: Q = (7.85 x 10-3 m2)(1 m/sec) = 7.85 x 10-3 m3/sec

or

7.85 x 10-3 m3/sec x (3.28 ft)3/1 m3 x

60 sec/1 min = 0.28 ft3/sec

Therefore, the discharge rate (Q) of the 500 m, 100 mm Ø PVC pipe is 7.85 x 10-3 m3/sec or 0.28
ft3/sec when the pressure at the end of the pipe (P 2) is 35.87 kPa or 5.2 psi).

VI. Pump Head

Pump head or discharge head is the maximum output power of the pump transmitted to
the fluid being pumped to achieve the desired pumping flow rate against gravity and density of
the fluid. The higher the pump head, the greater the pressure that the pump can generate. If a
water pump can produce more pressure, then it can pump more water to higher elevations.
Pump head is expressed mathematically as:

(Eq. 8)

where: H Pump head, m

Pd Discharge pressure, Pa
Ps Suction pressure, Pa
ρ Rho representing density of fluid, kg/m3 (see Appendix Table 1)
g Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2
Vd Discharge flow velocity, m/sec
Vs Suction flow velocity, m/sec
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Zd Discharge elevation head from reference, m

Zs Suction lift or elevation head from reference, m
hF Total friction head loss in pipes and fittings, m

Example 3 – Determining pump head where there is suction lift

Problem: Water with mean temperature of 20oC is to be pumped from a well to an

elevated open reservoir. The lengths of 30 mm inside Ø G.I. pipe
throughout the system are as shown in the figure below. Pumped water is
moving at a rate of 2.5 m/sec at suction and discharge when the
diaphragm valve is fully open. Use the Hazen-Williams Equation to find for
friction head loss in pipe. Calculate the pump total head (TH) and
discharge rate (Q).

Solution:

Consider
Equation 8 and
solve for each
term:
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From Appendix At 20oC, ρ = 998.2 kg/m3

Table 1, find the
density (ρ) of
water:

Solve for Substituting values in the equation:

discharge
pressure (Pd), Pd = ρgh
thus: Pd = (998.2 kg/m3)(9.8 m/sec2)(24 m) = 234,776.64 Pa

Solve for suction Substituting values in the equation:

pressure (Ps), thus:
Ps = ρgh = (998.2 kg/m3)(9.8 m/sec2)(8 m) = – 78,258.88 Pa

This should be negative (–) because it is a

suction lift condition as shown in Figure 12a in
contrast to Figure 12b where the sign should be
positive (+) under suction head condition.

Since flow
velocity at the 0
suction and
discharge sides
are equal
(V1 = 2.50 m/sec =
V2), the term:

Define elevation From the figure above:

head at
discharge (Zd) Zd = 24 m
and suction (Zs) Zs = –8 m
sides with respect
to the center line Again, note that Zs is negative because it is
of the pump located below the reference line, which is
impeller: specified at the center of pump impeller.

Consider hf = (608,704,451/D4.8655) (Q/C)1.85

Equation 5
(Hazen-Williams We cannot as yet use the above equation until
Equation) and the Q and C terms are known. D is given in the
solve for each problem.
term:

Solve for pipe Substituting values in the equation of a circle:

cross-sectional
area (A), thus: A = πd2/4
A = π (0.030 m)2/4 = 7.069 x 10-4 m2
 25

Solve for Substituting values in the equation:

discharge rate
(Q) using the Q = AV
continuity Q = (7.069 x 10-4 m2) (2.50 m/sec) = 1.77 x 10-3 m3/sec
equation, thus:

Convert 1.77 x 10-3 m3/sec x 1,000 li/m3 x 60 sec/1 min = 106.2 li/min
discharge (Q) in
m3/sec to li/min:

From Appendix For galvanized iron pipe (smooth & new), C = 123
Table 2,
determine the This is determined through ratio and proportion
roughness based on given values in the table.
coefficient (C):

Solve for friction Substituting values in the equation:

head of pipe
(hf, pipe) using hf, pipe = (608,704,451/D4.8655)(Q/C)1.85
Equation 5, thus: hf, pipe = (608,704,451)/(30 mm)4.8655 x
[(106.2 li/min)/(123)]1.85 = 30.16 m/100 m

Solve for total hf, pipe = (30.16 m/100 m)( 47 m) = 14.18 m

head loss of pipe
(hf, pipe):

Consider hf, fittings = K (v2/2g)

Equation 6 and
solve for each We cannot as yet use the above equation until
term: the K term is known. V is given in the problem.

From Appendix For foot valve (1pc), K = 15

Table 3, For 90o elbow (3 pcs, standard), K = 0.75
determine the For union (1 pc), K = 0.04
friction For coupling (3 pcs), K = 0.04
coefficients (K) for For valve (1 pc, diaphragm fully open), K = 2.3
the different
fittings:

Solve for friction Substituting values in the equation:

head for each
fitting using hf, fittings = K (v2/2g)
Equation 6, thus:
hf, foot valve = (1) 15 (2.5 m/sec)2/2 (9.8 m/sec2) = 4.78 m
hf, elbow = (3) 0.75 (2.5 m/sec)2/2 (9.8 m/sec2) = 0.72 m
hf, union = (1) 0.04 (2.5 m/sec)2/2 (9.8 m/sec2) = 0.013
hf, coupling = (3) 0.04 (2.5 m/sec)2/
2 (9.8 m/sec2) = 0.038 m
hf, valve = (1) 2.3 (2.5 m/sec)2/2 (9.8 m/sec2) = 0.73 m
 26

Solve for total Substituting values in the equation:

friction head (hF),
thus: hF = hf, pipe + hf, foot valve + hf, elbow + hf, union
+ hf, coupling + hf, valve
hF = 14.18 m + 4.78 m + 0.72 m + 0.013 m
+ 0.038 m + 0.73 = 20.46 m

Solve for total Substituting values in the equation:

pump head (H)
using Equation 8,
thus:

H = [234,776.64 Pa – (– 78,258.88 Pa)]/

(998.2 kg/m3) (9.8 m/sec2) + 0
+ [24 m – (– 8 m)] – 20.46 m = 43.54 m

Therefore, the total pump head is 43.54 m. Thus, the centrifugal pump to be installed should
have a rated capacity (Q) of not lower than 106 li/min, and total head (H) of 44 m or above.

Note that this is not yet the end of the design process. Other factors are still to be considered,
which will illustrated in the succeeding examples.

VII. Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head

A. Cavitation

Among the different kinds of pump, centrifugal pumps are most vulnerable to cavitation
because of the partial vacuum produced during pumping. It is destructive even to the best
quality brands of centrifugal pump. Cavitation or holes in liquid come in the form of bubbles.
Therefore, cavitation is all about bubbles formed as a result of a reduction in local static pressure
below the vapor pressure of the liquid and the subsequent collapse of these vapor bubbles as
the liquid flows through the pump from a region of relatively low pressure to a region of higher
pressure.

In all liquids regardless of viscosity, cavitation occurs as they are being pumped. When
each of these tiny bubbles collapses or implodes, it creates a high energy shock wave inside the
liquid. Due to the sheer number of bubbles creating these shock waves, the impeller and other
pump components can be eroded and damaged over time (Global Group of Companies,
2017) not to mention the significant reduction of pump performance. Cavitation is noticeable
through a strange noise coming from the pump sounding like popping sound of rocks, marbles
or gravel.

Cavitation is caused by several factors which include (Klimes, 2017; Schoenheit, 2013):

 when the source is open causing vortex issues that allow air into the pump suction line
 when the Sun heats the suction pipe too much that the liquid is overly heated to the
point of vaporization
 27

 when the friction head in the suction line is too high as a result of obstructed foot valve
and strainer
 when the vapor pressure of the pumped liquid gets very close to atmospheric pressure
particularly when the pump is installed in high altitude geographic locations
 when the pump discharge pressure is inordinately high, in other words, the pump is
running at less than 10 percent of its best efficiency point (BEP)

These should be given due consideration in pumping system design and installation.

B. Net Positive Suction Head

Cavitation is a function of the condition at the suction sides of the pump. This condition is
described by the net positive suction head (NPSH). In order to understand this, a brief review of
some engineering principles is in order:

 Atmospheric pressure decreases as elevation increases. At sea level, the atmospheric

pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.7 psi). In higher elevations, say 1000 m and 5000 m above sea
level, the pressure is about 90 kPa and 54 kPa, respectively.

 As the temperature of water decreases, its vapor pressure also decreases (see Appendix
Table 4).

 The boiling point of water is 100 0C. This is only true at sea level. As pressure decreases,
the temperature required to initiate boiling also decreases. Because of this, water can
boil at virtually any temperature. For example at partial vacuum (0.61 kPa), water will boil
at its freezing point!

1. Net Positive Suction Head Required

When water at some ambient temperature travels through an area of low pressure, it
can undergo a change of state from liquid to vapor (boiling). As it progresses into an area of
higher pressure, it will return to the liquid state (cavitation). During normal pump operation, the
area of lowest pressure occurs at the eye of the centrifugal pump impeller. For it to operate
cavitation-free, an excess of pressure energy is required of the water entering this area. This
energy requirement is referred to as NPSHR or net positive suction head required. NPSHR is the
net positive suction head at which the pump total head has decreased by three percent
(McNally Institute, 2018), which according to Evans is the minimum suction condition required to
prevent cavitation and necessary to ensure proper pump operation (2011). NPSHR is purely a
function of the pump design and usually provided by the pump manufacturer.

2. Net Positive Suction Head Available

In order to meet this NPSHR, a combination of several different forms of energy at various
levels on the suction side of the pumping system must be available. This is referred to as NPSHA
or net positive suction head available (Evans, 2011). NPSHR is defined as the NPSH at which the
pump total head has decreased by three percent due to low suction head which results to
cavitation within the pump (McNally Institute, 2018). To avoid the liquid being pumped from
 28

vaporizing or boiling at the low pressure side of the pump, the NPSHA must be equal to or
greater than the NPSHR (Shieh, n.d).

The NPSHA combines the effect of atmospheric pressure, water temperature, supply
elevation and the dynamics of the suction piping. These variables are given due consideration in
the design and installation of the pumping system. Singly, they represent the total pressure
available at the pump suction. Mathematically,

(Eq. 9)

where: NPSHA Net positive suction head available at the impeller, m

Pa Atmospheric pressure at installation altitude (Eq. 10), m
Pv Vapor pressure of water at operating temperature, m
(see Appendix Table 4)
Z Static head with reference to the pump impeller, m
hF Total friction head loss of suction line, m

If the source of water is enclosed as in a deep well attached to a confined aquifer, P a is

the piezometric pressure. If the source is an open tank, a shallow tubewell attached to an
unconfined aquifer, or a stream where the water surface is exposed to the atmosphere, Pa is
simply the atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure varies at different elevations, Pa
can be calculated using the following formula:

(Eq. 10)

where: Pa Atmospheric pressure, kPa

z Elevation above sea level, m

Vapor pressure is about liquids boiling. Pv represents the pressure that is required to keep
the water in liquid state at some ambient temperature and is obtained from Appendix Table 4.

Z takes into account the positive or negative pressure of the water source due to its
elevation. If it is above the pump, Z is positive (+) and if it is below, negative (–).

hF incorporates the friction generated throughout the pipe length and the fittings and
valves.

The above variables can be in a continuous state of change. Velocity head and suction
line friction vary as a function of flow. Likewise, atmospheric pressure can vary depending on
weather conditions. Water supply elevation and temperature can vary seasonally. Thus, usually
the "worst case" values for each are used in the calculation of NPSHA (Evans, 2011).
 29

Example 4 – Determining net positive suction head available

Problem: Consider again the water system in Example 3. What is the net positive
suction head available if the said water system is installed in an area
located at 50 m above sea level (masl)? at 2,500 masl? The pump mean
operating temperature is 30oC.

Solution:

Consider
Equation 9 and
solve for each
term:

Solve for Substituting values in the equation:

atmospheric
pressure (Pa) using
Equation 10, thus:

At 50 masl:

Pa = 101.3 [293 – (0.0065)(50 m)/293]5.26 = 100.71 kPa

= 100.71 kPa x 1 m/9.8 kPa = 10.28 m

At 2,500 masl:

Pa = 101.3 [293 – (0.0065)(2,500 m)/293]5.26 = 75.04 kPa

= 75.04 kPa x 1 m/9.8 kPa = 7.66 m

From Appendix At 30oC, Pv = 4.25 kPa x 1 m H2O/9.8 kPa = 0.434 m H2O

Table 4, find the
vapor pressure
(Pv ) of water in
kPa and convert
it to m water
column:

Solve for friction Substituting values in the equation:

head loss of pipe
(hf, pipe) using hf, pipe = (608,704,451/D4.8655)(Q/C)1.85
Equation 5, thus: hf, pipe = (608,704,451)/(30 mm)4.8655 x
[(106.2 li/min)/(160)]1.85 = 18.54 m/100 m

Solve for total hf, suction pipe = 18.54 m/100 m x 18 m = 3.34 m

friction head loss
of suction pipe
(hf, suction pipe):
 30

Consider hf = K (v2/2g)
Equation 6 and
solve for each
term:

From Appendix For foot valve (1 pc), K = 15

Table 3, For 90o elbow (1 pc, standard), K = 0.75
determine the For coupling (1 pc), K = 0.04
friction
coefficients for
each fitting (K):

Solve for friction Substituting values in the equation:

head loss of
suction line fittings hf = K (v2/2g)
(hf, fitting) using
Equation 6, thus: hf, foot valve = (1)(15)(2.5 m/sec)2/2 (9.8 m/sec) = 4.78 m
hf, elbow = (1)(0.75)(2.5 m/sec)2/2 (9.8 m/sec) = 0.24 m
hf, coupling = (1)(0.04)(2.5 m/sec)2/2 (9.8 m/sec) = 0.013 m

Solve for total Substituting values in the equation:

friction head loss
of suction fittings hf, suction fitting = hf, foot valve + hf, elbow + hf, coupling
(hf, suction fitting): = 4.78 m + 0.24 m + 0.013 m = 5.03 m

Solve for total Substituting values in the equation:

suction friction
head loss (hFs): hFs = hf, pipe + hf, fitting
= 3.34 m + 5.03 m = 8.37 m

Solve for net Substituting values in the equation:

positive suction
head available
(NPSHA) using
Equation 9, thus: At 50 masl:

NPSHA = 10.28 m + 24 m – 0.434 m – 8.37 m = 25.48 m

At 2,500 masl:

NPSHA = 7.66 m + 24 m – 0.434 m – 8.37 m = 22.86 m

Therefore, the net positive suction heads available (NPSHA) at 50 masl and at 2,500 masl are
25.48 m and 22.86 m, respectively.

In order for the pump to operate properly without danger of cavitation, select a centrifugal
pump with NPSHR as specified by the pump manufacturer equal to or lower than 25 m for 50
masl and 22 m for 2,500 masl.
 31

The results imply that as the altitude or elevation of the site where the pump is to be installed
increases, the NPSHA decreases. Put it simply, the performance of a centrifugal pump in Sta.
Maria, Ilocos Sur is not the same as when this same pump is installed in Baguio City. Thus, it is
important to know the NPSHR rating of the pump as specified by the manufacturer prior to
selecting the appropriate pump for a particular location.

VIII. Pump Formulas

A. Water power

Eq. 11)

where: WP Water power, kW

Q Discharge or flow rate, m3/hr
H Total head, m
SG Specific gravity of fluid = 1 (for water)
η Eta representing pump efficiency, decimal
For fuel engine-driven:
= 50 to 70 % (small centrifugal pumps)
= 70 to 93 % (medium to large centrifugal pumps)
For AC motor-driven:
= < 90 % (≤ 7.5 kW)
= > 90 % (> 7.5 kW)

B. Pump torque

(Eq. 12)

where: τ Tau representing pump torque, N-m

WP Water power, kW
N Rated pump speed, rpm

Equation 12 is used when any one of the pump torque and the rated pump speed is not
specified by the pump manufacturer.
 32

C. Specific speed @ best efficiency point (BEP)

(Eq. 13)

where: Ns Specific speed, rpm (for variable speed pumps particularly

driven by internal combustion engine)
N Rated pump speed, rpm (specified by pump manufacturer)
Q Discharge or flow rate, m3/hr
H Total head, m

D. Suction specific speed @ BEP

(Eq. 14)

where: Ns Specific speed, rpm (for variable speed pumps particularly

driven by internal combustion engine)
N Rated pump speed, rpm
Q Discharge or flow rate, m3/hr
NPSHA Net positive suction head available, m

E. Pump efficiency

(Eq. 15)

where: ηP Pump efficiency, percent

WP Water power, kW
IPp Input power of pump, kW (this should be the output power of
the driver)
 33

F. Wire-to-water or overall efficiency

(Eq. 16)

where: ηo Wire-to-water or overall efficiency, percent

WP Water power, kW
IPm Input power of motor or driver, kW

G. Affinity laws of pump variables

1. Flow is proportional to the speed

Q1/Q2 = N1/N2 (Eq. 17)

2. Head is proportional to the square of speed

H1/H2 = (N1)2/(N2)2 (Eq. 18)

3. Power is proportional to the cube of speed

kW1/kW2 = (N1)3/(N2)3 (Eq. 19)

These relationships are useful in estimating the effect of changing the pump speed (N)
when some data are available from a pump test obtained by operating the pump at a
particular speed.

Example 5 – Determining pump performance

Problem: Consider once again the water pump system in Example 3. Determine the
pump performance in terms of:

a. water power when pump efficiency is 60 percent;

b. pump speed when rated torque is 5.5 N-m;
c. specific speed at best efficiency point;
d. suction specific speed at net positive suction head available;
e. input power of pump; and
 34

f. wire-to-water efficiency when driver input power is 2.5 kW.

What would be the capacity, head and water power when the above
pump is replaced with another pump with a rated speed of 1,500 rpm?

Solution:

A. Water power

Solve for water Substituting values in the equation:

power (WP) using
Equation 11, thus:

WP = [(1.77 x 10-3 m3/sec x 3600 sec/1hr)(49.01 m)(1)]/

[367 (0.60)] = 1.42 kW

B. Pump speed

Solve for pump Substituting values in the equation:

rated speed (N)
using Equation
12, thus:

Re-arranging the terms:

N = 9450 WP/τ
N = [(9450)(1.42 kW)]/5.5 N-m = 2,440 rpm

C. Specific speed at BEP

Solve for specific Substituting values in the equation:

speed (Ns) at best
efficiency point
(BEP) using
Equation 13, thus:

Ns = [(2,440 rpm)(1.77 x 10-3 m3/sec x 3,600 sec/1 hr)0.5]/

333 rpm
(49.01 m)0.75 =

D. Suction specific speed at BEP

Solve for suction Substituting values in the equation:

specific speed
(Ns) at best
efficiency point
using Equation 14,
thus:
 35

Ns = [(2,440 rpm)(1.77 x 10-3 m3/sec x 3,600 sec/1 hr)0.5]/

(22.86 m)0.75 = 589 rpm

Therefore, the pump shall operate between 333 to 589 rpm for maximum energy utilization
and eliminate danger of cavitation.

E. Input power of pump

Solve for input Substituting values in the equation:

power of pump
(IPp) using
Equation 15, thus:

IPp = (WP/ηP) x 100

IPp = (1.42 kW/60) x 100 = 2.37 kW

F. Overall efficiency

Solve for wire-to- Substituting values in the equation:

water efficiency
(ηo) using
Equation 16, thus:

ηo = (1.42 kW/2.50 kW) x 100 = 56.8 %

Therefore, the water system in Example 3 has specification as shown in the figure overleaf.
 36

G. Capacity @ 1,500 rpm

Solve for Substituting values in the equation:

capacity (Q2)
using Equation 17, Q1/Q2 = N1/N2
thus:
Q2 = Q1 N2/N1
Q2 = [(6.37 m3/hr)(1,500 rpm)]/2,440 rpm 3.92 m3/hr

Therefore, when a pump with rated speed of 2,440 rpm is decreased to or is replaced with
another pump with rated speed of 1,500 rpm, the capacity decreased from 6.37 m 3/hr to 3.92
m3/hr.

H. Head @ 1,500 rpm

Solve for head Substituting values in the equation:

(H2) using
Equation 18, thus: H1/H2 = (N1)2/(N2)2

H2 = H1 (N2)2/(N1)2
H2 = [(49.01 m)(1,500 rpm)2]/(2,440 rpm)2 = 18.52 m

Therefore, when a pump with rated speed of 2,440 rpm is decreased to or is replaced with
another pump with rated speed of 1,500 rpm, the head decreased from 49.01 m to 18.52 m.
 37

I. Water power @ 1,500 rpm

Solve for water Substituting values in the equation:

power (WP2)
using Equation 19, WP1/WP2 = (N1)3/(N2)3
thus:
WP2 = WP1 (N2)3/(N1)3
WP2 = [(1.42 kW)(1,500 rpm)3]/(2,440 rpm)3 = 0.33 kW

Therefore, when a pump with rated speed of 2,440 rpm is decreased to or is replaced with
another pump with rated speed of 1,500 rpm, the water power decreased from 1.42 kW to
0.33 kW.
 38

Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay

If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.

1. In the world-wide-web, find actual pictures (not drawings and illustrations) of vertical turbine,
jet pump, vortex pump, screw or auger-type pump, piston pump, diaphragm pump, and
peristaltic pump. (10 pts)
 39

2. Is it reasonable to pump water by centrifugal pump having performance capacity of 50

m3/hr through a 150 mm pipeline when the design velocity should be 1.5 to 3.0 m/sec? What
would be the appropriate rated flow capacity of the pump to use? (25 pts)
 40

3. The water pump system shown in the figure below has the following design specifications:

Suction side:  25 m pipe

 1 standard 90o elbow
 1 union
 1 gate valve

Discharge side:  155 m pipe

 2 standard 90o elbow
 1 union
 1 gate valve
 1 check ball valve
 25 coupling

Determine:

a. discharge and suction pressures; (5 pts)

 41

b. discharge and suction velocities; (5 pts)

c. discharge and suction heads; (5 pts)

d. discharge and suction friction heads of pipe using the appropriate equation; (5 pts)

e. discharge and suction friction head of fittings; (5 pts)

 42

f. total pump head; (5 pts)

g. net positive suction head available when installed at 1,000 meters above sea level;
(5 pts)

h. water power; pump speed @ 7 N-m; (5 pts)

i. specific speed @ best efficiency point (BEP); (5 pts)

 43

j. suction specific speed @ BEP; input power of pump @ 70 % efficiency; (5 pts)

k. overall efficiency; discharge when pump speed is increased by 500 rpm; (5 pts)

l. head when pump speed is increased by 600 rpm; and (5 pts)

m. water power when pump speed is increased by 700 rpm. (5 pts)

 44

Appendix Table 1. Density and kinematic viscosity of water at different temperatures

Temperature Density, ρ Kinematic Viscosity, ν
(oC) (kg/m3) (x 10-6 m2/sec)
0 999.8 1.787
4 1000 1.519
10 999.7 1.307
20 998.2 1.004
30 995.7 0.801
40 992.2 0.658
50 988.1 0.553
60 983.2 0.475
70 977.8 0.413
80 971.8 0.365
90 965.3 0.326
100 958.4 0.294
Source: Engineering Toolbox (n.d)a & (n.d)b consolidated
 45

Appendix Table 2. Values of C in the Hazen-Williams equation*

Pipe Diameter
Type of Pipe 1 in 3 in 6 in 12 in 24 in 48 in
25mm 76 mm 152 mm 305 mm 620 mm 1219 mm
Uncoated cast iron – smooth 121 125 130 132 134
& new
Coated cast iron – smooth & 129 133 138 140 141
new
Galvanized iron – smooth & 120 129 133
new
Wrought iron – smooth & new 129 137 142
Coated steel – smooth & new 129 137 142 145 148 148
Uncoated steel – smooth & 134 142 145 147 150 150
new
Coated asbestos cement – 147 149 150 152
clean
Uncoated asbestos cement – 142 145 147 150
clean
Hydraulically smooth pipes 140 147 149 150 152 153
(including lead, brass,
copper, etc.) – clean
PVC (wavy) – clean 134 142 145 147 150 150
* It is emphasized that the Hazen-Williams Formula is not suitable in form for values of C
appreciably below 100, but the values in the above table are approximately correct at a
velocity of 1 mps.
Abridged from IRRICAD Irrigation Design Software (n.d)
 46

Appendix Table 3. Friction coefficient (K) of various fittings

Fitting Types K-value
45° Elbow Standard (R/D = 1) 0.35
Long Radius (R/D = 1.5) 0.2
90° Elbow Curved Standard (R/D = 1) 0.75
Long Radius (R/D = 1.5) 0.45
90° Elbow Square or Mitered 1.3
180° Bend Close Return 1.5
Tee, Run Through Branch Blanked 0.4
Tee, as Elbow Entering in run 1
Tee, as Elbow Entering in branch 1
Tee, Branching Flow 1
Coupling 0.04
Union 0.04
Gate valve Fully Open 0.17
3/4 Open 0.9
1/2 Open 4.5
1/4 Open 24
Diaphragm valve Fully Open 2.3
3/4 Open 2.6
1/2 Open 4.3
1/4 Open 21
Globe valve, Bevel Seat Fully Open 6
1/2 Open 9.5
Globe Valve, Composition Fully Open 6
seat
1/2 Open 8.5
Plug disk Fully Open 9
3/4 Open 13
1/2 Open 36
1/4 Open 112
Angle valve Fully Open 2
Y valve or blow-off valve Fully Open 3
 47

Appendix Table 3. (continued)

Fitting Types K-value
Plug cock θ \theta θ = 5° 0.05
θ \theta θ = 10° 0.29
θ \theta θ = 20° 1.56
θ \theta θ = 40° 17.3
θ \theta θ = 60° 206
Butterfly valve θ \theta θ = 5° 0.24
θ \theta θ = 10° 0.52
θ \theta θ = 20° 1.54
θ \theta θ = 40° 10.8
θ \theta θ = 60° 118
Check valve Swing 2
Disk 10
Ball 70
Foot valve 15
Water meter Disk 7
Piston 15
Rotary (star-shaped disk) 10
Turbine-wheel 6
Source: Neutrium (2012)
 48

Appendix Table 4. Water vapor pressure at different temperatures

Temperature Vapor Pressure Temperature Vapor Pressure
(oC) (kPa) (oC) (kPa)
0.0 0.61 23.0 2.81
5.0 0.87 23.5 2.90
10.0 1.23 24.0 2.98
15.0 1.71 24.5 3.10
15.5 1.76 25.0 3.17
16.0 1.82 26.0 3.36
16.5 1.88 27.0 3.57
17.0 1.94 28.0 3.78
17.5 2.00 29.0 4.01
18.0 2.06 30.0 4.25
18.5 2.13 35.0 5.63
19.0 2.19 40.0 7.38
19.5 2.27 50.0 12.34
20.0 2.34 60.0 19.93
20.5 2.41 70.0 31.18
21.0 2.49 80.0 47.37
21.5 2.57 90.0 70.12
22.0 2.64 95.0 84.53
22.5 2.72 100.0 101.32
Source: Duncan (n.d)
 49

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation. (n.d). Chapter 6 – Introduction to pumping

system. Retrieved from https://dec.alaska.gov/water/opcert/Docs/Chapter6.pdf

Bentea, L. (2006). Reynolds: Evaluates the Reynolds number of given parameters. Retrieved from
http://www.codecogs.com/library/engineering/fluid_mechanics/fundamentals/reynolds
.php

Brown, G. (2000). The Darcy-Weisbach equation. Retrieved from

https://bae.okstate.edu/faculty-sites/Darcy/DarcyWeisbach/Darcy-WeisbachEq.htm

Duncan, C. (n.d). Water vapor pressure chart. Retrieved from

http://www.msduncanchem.com/Reference_Tables/water_vapor_pressure_chart.htm

Engineering Insider. (n.d). Centrifugal pump: Principle, parts, working, types, advantages,
disadvantages with its application. Retrieved from
https://engineeringinsider.org/centrifugal-pump-parts-working-types-advantages-
disadvantages/

Engineering Toolbox. (n.d)a. Density and specific weight of water. Retrieved from
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-density-specific-weight-d_595.html

____________________. (n.d)b. Dynamic and kinematic viscosity of water. Retrieved from

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-dynamic-kinematic-viscosity-d_596.html

Evans, J. (2011). Pumps & systems: Addressing net positive suction head (NPSH) and its
relationship to cavitation. Retrieved from
https://www.pumpsandsystems.com/topics/net-positive-suction-head-npshr-and-npsha

Global Group of Companies. (2017). What is pump cavitation and how to prevent it? Retrieved
from https://www.globalpumps.com.au/blog/what-is-pump-cavitation-and-how-to-
prevent-it

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