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Module No. 2

Earth-Sun Interaction, Earth’s Atmosphere,

Seasons and Weather

This module deals with the Sun’s influences on our planet Earth and how this relationship
relates to the Earth’s atmosphere and makes seasons on Earth and weather in a particular
geographic location. These are essential knowledge one should know in order to understand
how agricultural production is influenced by climate.

It is emphasized that weather is influenced by the solar radiation reaching the Earth’s
surface which, in turn, is determined by the chemical composition of the atmosphere. When this
composition is altered even slightly as a result of unabated production of anthropogenic
pollutants, it triggers global warming and consequently climate change which virtually affects
natural processes and phenomena occurring on the Earth’s surface.

After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:

a. Describe the primary influences of the Sun on Earth;

b. Define and contrast different technical terms;

c. Explain the movement of the Earth with respect to the Sun and to its vertical axis;

d. Appreciate the importance of latitudinal and longitudinal lines;

e. Describe the Earth’s atmosphere;

f. Name the four seasons on Earth and explain how they change;

g. Appreciate the phenomena as consequences of the change of seasons on the

Earth’s surface;

h. Enumerate and describe the different elements of weather; and

i. Advocate the protection of Mother Nature through environment-friendly programs,

projects and activities.
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I. Earth-Sun Relationship
The functional relationship between Earth and the Sun is vital because life on Earth is
dependent on solar energy. From a physical point of view, the Earth-Sun system can be
represented simply as in Figure 1. The two main forces and effects of Sun on Earth are: (1) the
electromagnetic radiation that supports life on Earth; and (2) the gravitational force that keeps
the Earth in orbit. This gravitational pull also holds in place the Earth’s atmosphere (Carnegie
Mellon University, 2003).

Source: Carnegie Mellon University (2003)

Figure 1. Earth-Sun relationship showing the primary influences of Sun on Earth

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Different components of the solar spectrum such as ultraviolet, visible and infrared light
interact with the Earth’s atmosphere. Over billions of years, this interaction has produced both:
(a) the creation and maintenance of the ozone layer; and (b) the current climatic conditions
that are influenced by the electromagnetic energy penetrating the atmosphere and eventually
reaching the Earth’s surface. Combined with the immediate environment of the Earth such as
soil, groundwater and atmosphere, this energy provides for all surface phenomena (e.g.
climate) and for the immense diversity of life forms on Earth (Carnegie Mellon University, 2003).

All areas on the Earth’s surface do not receive the same amount of solar radiation or
energy at the same time. There are three reasons for this (Kutztown University of Pennsylvania,
2017):

1. The Earth rotates on its vertical axis every 24 hours creating night and day.

2. The Earth revolves around the Sun every year and during the Earth's orbit some regions
receive more of the Sun's energy than others.

3. The Earth is tilted on its vertical axis at an angle of 23.5o. Without this tilt, the Sun would
have shone directly over the equator all year round and there would have been no
seasons. In reality, however, the Sun's energy hits different parts of the Earth at different
angles affecting the amount of energy any one part of the Earth receives. This unequal
heating also sets the air in motion creating global wind belts.

A. Earth’s rotation about its axis

The Earth spins or rotates with respect to its vertical axis (Figure 2) and it takes 24 hours to
complete one solar day. In the course of the year at different geographical locations on the
Earth surface, a solar day differs to as much as 15 minutes. There are three reasons for this time
difference (Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, 2017):

1. The Earth’s motion around the Sun is not perfect circle but is eccentric.

2. The Sun’s apparent motion with respect to its plane of ecliptic is not always parallel to
the Earth’s plane of the equator.

3. The tilting of the Earth’s axis varies across time of the year.

Take note from Figure 2 that the Sun’s maximum angular distance from the celestial
equator is 23° 30’ (read 23 degrees, 30 minutes). This deviation or tilt is called solar declination,
which is vital for change of seasons on Earth.

The Earth completes one rotation every 24 hours and thus rotates at a rate of 15° per
hour (one full rotation is 360° divided by 24 hours). This is represented by meridian lines (also
called longitudinal lines) in Figure 3. Because of this, the Sun moves across the sky
proportionately at a constant speed. This movement of the Sun appears on the Earth surface
from east to west direction because of the counter clockwise rotation of the Earth. At different
latitudes, the Sun travels across the sky at different angles each day (Kutztown University of
Pennsylvania, 2017).
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Source: Kutztown University of Pennsylvania (2017)

Figure 2. Tilting of the Earth with respect to its vertical axis

Source: Allaway (2006)

Figure 3. Latitudinal and longitudinal lines used to describe locations on the Earth’s surface
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Latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on

the Earth's surface. Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at the equator to 90° at the north
and south poles. Locations with respect to the equator are called Northern (above) and
Southern (below) hemispheres. Latitude is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds, or
decimal degrees, north or south of the equator. Lines of constant latitude or parallels run east–
west as circles parallel to the equator. Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the
precise location of features on the surface of the Earth (Allaway, 2006). Most cellphones
nowadays are equipped with a global positioning system (GPS), which renders determination of
the user’s exact location in real time.

The rotation of the Earth about its vertical axis also causes the day and night
phenomena. Figure 4 is a view of the Earth from outer space showing the circle of illumination. In
one day, half of the Earth is always in darkness and half is in daylight. The durations of daylight
and darkness in the Northern and Southern hemispheres on any given day are not equal.

Source: Kutztown University of Pennsylvania (2017)

Figure 4. View of the Earth from outer space

The length of the day and the night depends on the time of the year and the latitude of
the location. For places in the Northern hemisphere, the shortest solar day occurs around
December 21 (winter solstice) and the longest solar day occurs around June 21 (summer
solstice). Theoretically, during the time of the equinox, the length of the day should be equal to
the length of the night (Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, 2017).
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B. Earth’s revolution around the Sun

The Earth also revolves around the Sun in approximately 365 calendar days on a fixed
plane called orbit. Figure 5 shows that the orbit is not circular (red circle) but oval-shaped or
elliptical (green oval). This oval shape causes Earth’s distance from the Sun to change during the
year. Two special events are depicted in the figure – one is the aphelion, which occurs on July 4
when the Earth is as far away from the Sun (1.525 x 10 8 km) as it ever gets; and the other is the
perihelion, which happens in January 3 when the Earth is as close to the Sun (1.475 x 108 km) as it
ever gets. It is emphasized that the aphelion and perihelion do not correspond to the coldest
and hottest months because the relative distance of the Earth and the Sun has nothing to do
with seasons (Carnegie Mellon University, 2017). In fact, as you will learn later, it is the tilting of the
Earth with respect to its vertical axis and its revolution around the Sun that influence the
changing climate on various locations on Earth at different times of the year. These variations of
climate are known as winter, spring, summer, and autumn.

Source: Ruess (2015)

Figure 5. Earth’s orbit around the Sun showing the aphelion and perihelion events

II. The Earth’s Atmosphere

The Earth's mass exerts a gravitational force that holds large amount of gases, known as
the atmosphere. The Earth's atmosphere (Figure 6) is divided into five main layers, namely:
exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere and troposphere. The atmosphere thins out
in each higher layer until the gases dissipate in outer space (London Metropolitan University,
2017). According to Sharp, there is no distinct boundary between the atmosphere and outer
space, but an imaginary line about 100 kilometers from the surface (called the Karman line) is
usually where scientists say atmosphere meets outer space (2017).
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Source: Pinterest (2018)

Figure 6. Layers of the Earth’s atmosphere

A. Troposphere

The troposphere is the layer closest to Earth. It is thinner than the other layers. It ranges
from 6 to 7 kilometers thick over the north and south poles to 20 kilometers in the tropics. Aircrafts
fly in the troposphere. Normally, temperatures in this layer decrease with height to about - 50°C
at the outer limits. The conditions in the troposphere determine practically all of the Earth's
weather patterns. It derives its name from the Greek word tropos, meaning ‘turning’ or mixing’.
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The constant motion in this layer is significant because it results in the dispersion of pollutants. In
one respect, this dispersion is considered beneficial because it has the effect of diluting
pollutants, which can reduce harmful impacts on a local level. On the other hand, this dispersion
also results in the movement of air pollutants and therefore air pollution problems from areas of
high pollution production to areas of lower production. For example, pollutants produced in an
industrialized and heavily populated city often adversely impact smaller communities and
ecosystems in a large surrounding area.

B. Stratosphere

It is the layer just above the troposphere and is about 11 to 50 kilometers above the
Earth. Temperatures here increase with height starting at about - 50°C and rising to 0°C. Ozone
gas which absorbs most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet rays is in this layer. In contrast to the
troposphere, pollutants in the stratosphere do not disperse, and tend to remain in the
atmosphere for long periods of time.

C. Mesosphere

The mesosphere is 50 to 80 kilometers above the Earth. As in the troposphere,

temperatures in the mesosphere decrease with height starting at about 0°C and falling to - 80°C
in the outer regions of the layer.

D. Thermosphere

It is the layer above the mesosphere. This layer begins at about 80 kilometers above the
Earth where the temperature is about - 80°C. This increases to about 2,000°C at the outer edges
of the thermosphere.

E. Exosphere

The exosphere is farthest away from the Earth's surface. It is where the atmosphere thins
out and merges with interplanetary space. It is located directly above the thermosphere.

III. Seasons on Earth

The Earth has seasons because of the tilt of its axis (see Figure 2). For part of the year, the
top half of Earth is tipped toward the Sun. The top half of Earth is called the Northern
hemisphere. During another part of the year, the bottom half of Earth is tipped toward the Sun.
The bottom half is called the Southern hemisphere. It is summer in the half that is tipped toward
the Sun. It is winter in the half tipped away. When it is summer in the Northern hemisphere, it is
winter in the Southern hemisphere. During spring and fall the hemispheres are tipped neither
toward nor away from the Sun.
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Figure 7 shows the position of the Earth relative to the Sun at four times of the year. Note
that the orbit is elliptical (see Figure 5) and that the Earth exhibits a tilt relative to the plane of its
orbit around the Sun (see Figure 2). Figure 7 also shows how the circle of illumination changes
through the year. Together, these phenomena have a direct effect on seasons. The four seasons
in the Northern and Southern hemispheres are, as follows (Kutztown University of Pennsylvania,
2017):

Modified from Hyslop (2015)

Figure 7. Positions of the Earth relative to the Sun at four times of the year

A. Vernal and autumnal equinoxes

At March 21, the Earth’s vertical axis (see Figures 7) is neither pointed toward nor away
from the Sun (90o). This causes the solar point to fall on the equator. The circle of illumination also
passes through both poles making daylight and nighttime hours equal. When daylight and
nighttime hours are equal, the event is called an equinox. In the Northern hemisphere, March 21
is called the vernal equinox; while autumnal equinox in the Southern hemisphere.

B. Summer and winter solstices

Three months later at June 21, the inclination of the Earth points the Northern hemisphere
toward the Sun (see Figure 7). This causes the solar point to be as far north as it ever goes (23°30'
N), the Tropic of Cancer. The circle of illumination does not pass through both poles making
daylight and nighttime hours differ to the extreme. Note that more of the Northern hemisphere is
in daylight than in darkness. This represents the Northern hemisphere's longest day of the year or
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the summer solstice. Conversely, June 21 is also the shortest day in the Southern hemisphere or
their winter solstice. Since seasons are hemisphere specific, the June 21 event is called the June
solstice.

Note that strange things happen on the June solstice. The Repulse Bay will not get
rotated into darkness on this day. Anywhere on Repulse Bay's latitude will experience 24 hours of
daylight. This latitude is 23°30' from the North Pole or at a latitude of 66°30' N. This is called the
Arctic Circle. The Antarctic Circle at 66°30' S, on the other hand, experiences 24 hours of
darkness on the June solstice.

C. Second equinox of the year

By September 22, the Earth is no longer pointed toward or away from the Sun, and the
solar point has returned to the equator (see Figure 7). The circle of illumination again passes
through both poles making daylight and nighttime hours equal. This is the second equinox
known as the autumnal equinox in the Northern hemisphere, and vernal equinox in the Southern
hemisphere.

D. Second solstice of the year

On December 21, the North Pole is pointed away from the Sun (see Figure 7). This causes
the solar point to be as far south as it ever goes, 23°30' S (the Tropic of Capricorn). The circle of
illumination is offset once again this time making the day short and the night long in the Northern
hemisphere. This is the Northern hemisphere's winter solstice. The solar point is as far south as it
ever gets making the period the winter for the Northern hemisphere. At the same time, this
marks the beginning of the summer in the Southern hemisphere. This event is technically called
the December solstice. Figure 8 also shows that the Arctic Circle experiences 24 hours of
darkness while the Antarctic Circle has 24 hours of daylight.

In the foregoing discussions, the following phenomena must be noted:

a. The annual cycle of spring–summer–autumn–winter predictably happens every three

months.

b. Daylight hours vary predictably on a daily basis in any surface on the Earth (see Figure 8).

c. When the Arctic Circle (North Pole) and the Antarctic Circle (South Pole) experience 24
hours of darkness, their noontime solar angle will be 0°, which means the Sun does not
rise above the horizon (see Figure 9).

d. At the South Pole (see Figure 10), the Sun sets below the horizon on March 22 and does
not rise until September 22. Once the Sun rises, it will not set below the horizon until
March 22.

e. At the North Pole, the opposite happens, that is, the Sun rises above the horizon on
March 22 and does not set until September 22. Once the Sun sets, it will not rise above
the horizon until March 22.
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f. There are six months of daylight and six months of darkness at the North and South poles
(see Figure 10).

g. The Arctic and Antarctic Circles experience 24 hours of daylight and 24 hours of darkness
on their hemisphere's summer and winter solstices, respectively.

Modified from Allen, Pereira, Raes & Smith (1998)

Figure 8. Annual variation of daylight hours at the N and S hemispheres

Modified from Taylor (2015)

Figure 9. Arctic and Antarctic Circles at North and South Poles, respectively
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Source: Department of the Environment and Energy, Australian Government (2017)

Figure 10. Duration of daylight hours at 90o S and 68o S latitudes

IV. Weather Elements

There is often confusion between the terms ‘weather’ and ‘climate’, thus the need to
qualify these terms. Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place over a
relatively short period of time; while climate refers to the weather pattern of a place over a
considerable period of time, long enough to yield meaningful averages. Climate remains largely
unchanged, but weather may change from day to day. Meteorology studies weather, whereas
climatology studies climate; both are atmospheric sciences.

The story of weather starts with the Sun. Its energy travels 150 million kilometers to the
outer edge of the Earth's atmosphere. Some of that energy is reflected back into space by the
tops of the clouds and some is scattered by the dust and the water vapor in the atmosphere.
About half of the Sun's energy reaches the Earth, which is converted to heat to warm the Earth
and the air above it as well as evaporate water and melt snow.

There are several elements that make up the weather and climate of a place, namely:
temperature, humidity, pressure, wind, and precipitation. Analysis of these elements can provide
the basis for forecasting weather in a particular geographic location and defining its climate
(Yasmin, 2014).
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A. Temperature

Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of anything. It is affected by solar

radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. Interestingly, temperature can be roughly estimated in
the absence of a thermometer by listening to crickets chirp. The Environment and Climate
Change Canada observed that crickets chirp faster when it is warm than they do when it is
cold. Counting the number of cricket chirps in 8 seconds and then add 4, the sum is the current
temperature in degrees Celsius (oC). This works in 90 percent of the time (2013).

B. Humidity

Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. The temperature of the air determines
the amount of water vapor that can exist in the air. Generally speaking, as the temperature
increases, so does the potential for water vapor to exist.

Relative humidity (RH) is the proportion of water vapor present in the air, in relation to the
maximum amount the air can hold at a particular temperature. RH is expressed as a
percentage. For example, an RH of 100 percent means the air is saturated and cannot absorb
any more water vapor. Similarly, an RH of 25 percent means the air contains only one-fourth of
the moisture that it could supposedly hold.

RH fluctuates between a maximum near sunrise and a minimum around early afternoon.
The variation of the RH is the result of the fact that the saturation vapor pressure is determined by
the air temperature. As the temperature changes during the day, the RH also changes
substantially. RH is inversely related to evaporation, that is, as RH decreases, the evaporative
power of the atmosphere increases. In contrast, as RH decreases, the evaporative power of the
atmosphere decreases.

C. Pressure

Pressure is the amount of force spread over a surface. If a force is spread over a large
area, the pressure it exerts is smaller. If the same force is spread over a smaller area, the resulting
pressure is greater. The weight of air is called air pressure. The average pressure exerted by the
air is about 1 kilogram per square centimetre at sea level, or 101,325 pascal. The atmosphere is
composed of a mixture of gases that exert pressure in all directions, pushing equally on all sides.

Air pressure decreases with altitude. In the lower levels of the atmosphere close to the
Earth's surface, the weight of all the air above squeezes the air molecules together, making it
denser and heavier. By contrast, in the higher levels, there is less weight above to force the air to
compress, and the air molecules can spread out more, making it lighter and less dense. For
example, at an altitude of 5,400 m, the air pressure is about half that at sea level.

Air pressure also changes when the air heats up or cools down. When heat, a form of
energy, is added to a parcel of air, the air molecules move faster and tend to move farther
apart from each other. Consequently, when air warms up, it expands and becomes lighter.
Conversely, cold air is heavier and denser because the air molecules are less active and closer
together. As the atmosphere strives to create a balance, the air moves from areas of high
pressure, which are often associated with cool air, to areas of lower pressure, which are often
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areas of warmer air. This creates wind. The greater the contrast or difference in air pressure
between the two areas, the stronger the winds.

D. Wind

Another factor that affects how quickly moisture will evaporate is the wind. For example,
on a still calm day, puddles do not evaporate as rapidly as they would on a windy day. That is
because, if the air is not moving, the air immediately above the water puddle will absorb water
until it is close to saturation, and then the rate of evaporation slows down. On a windy day,
though, the movement of air over the surface of the puddle means that the water surface is
continually exposed to fresh drier air and water will continue to evaporate at a faster rate.

The global pattern of winds establishes the prevailing winds over large regions. But local
differences in air pressure and air temperature as well as ground topography also affect the
direction and strength of the winds.

E. Precipitation

Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all forms of water particles fall from
the atmosphere and reach the ground. This happens when the air becomes saturated with
water vapor, and can no longer hold all of it in vapor form. Precipitation varies in form, type,
amount, and intensity by time of the year and geographic location. The most common forms of
precipitation are drizzle and rain. Other forms include: glaze, sleet, snow, and hail.

The amount or depth of precipitation is measured using a rain gage. The total amount of
rain falling during a given period is called rainfall intensity. It is expressed as depth units per unit
time, usually in millimeter per hour (mm/hour).
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Passing Score: 75 points

Due Date: ASAP but not later than ____________________________________.
Penalty for Late Submission: 5 points deduction per day of delay

If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.

1. What are the primary influences of the Sun on Earth? Expound each. (5 pts)

2. Define and contrast the following: (15 pts)

a. Aphelion –

Perihelion –

b. Latitude –

Longitude –
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c. Solstice –

Equinox –

3. In your own word, describe briefly the following: (10 pts)

a. Earth’s revolution around the Sun –

b. Earth’s rotation about its own axis –

4. Characterize at least 20 major cities in the world in terms of latitudinal and longitudinal
locations on the Earth’s surface. (10 pts)
(Note: There should be no duplication among students.)

City, Country Latitude Longitude

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
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g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.

5. Describe the Earth’s atmosphere in not more than 100 words. (10 pts)
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6. What are the four seasons on Earth? Explain how they change relative to the time of the
year? (10 pts)
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7. What are the phenomena as seasons change on the Earth’s surface? Expound each.
(10 pts)
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8. What are the elements of weather? Explain briefly how each element affects weather.
(15 pts)
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9. Formulate at least five environment-friendly programs, projects and activities (PPA) that
could be implemented in your community to help address the problem on climate change.
Include a brief description of each PPA. (15 pts)

Name of PPA Brief Description

a.

b.

c.

d.
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e.
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Allaway, R. (2006). Latitude and longitude [Image]. Retrieved from

www.geographyalltheway.com

Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., & Smith, M. (1998). Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for
computing crop water requirements [Figure 8]. FAO irrigation and drainage paper 56.
Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 92-5-104219-5.

Carnegie Mellon University. (2003). Earth-Sun relationship. Retrieved from

http://environ.andrew.cmu/m3/s2/01earth-sun.shtml

Clipart Library. Agricultural and biosystems engineering [Logo]. Retrieved from

http://clipa.cash/agricultural-biosystems-engineering-logo.html

Department of the Environment and Energy, Australian Government. (2017). Sunlight hours: How
much daylight is there in Antarctica during summer and winter? [Figure 10]. Retrieved
from http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/environment/weather/sunlight-
hours

Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). (2013). What makes a weather? and
weather elements. Sky watcher’s guide. Retrieved from https://ec.gc.ca

Hyslop, L. (2015). Nature notes: Celebrating the winter solstice. Retrieved from
https://elkodaily.com/lifestyles/nature-notes-celebrating-the-winter-
solstice/article_ec68d43b-b7c7-53af-8ccf-a95e755d48f9.html

Kutztown University of Pennsylvania. (2017). Earth-Sun relations and seasons. Tutorial 22. Retrieved
from http://faculty.kutztown.edu/courtney/blackboard/Physical/21Seasons/seasons.html

Pinterest. (2018). Earth’s atmosphere [Image]. Retrieved from

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/29/12/e9/2912e96bf2a354f07707a2a289a21096.jpg

Ruess, H. (2015). Aphelion and perihelion [Image]. Retrieved from

http://www.harrisonruess.com/aphelion/

Sharp, T. (2017). Earth's atmosphere: Composition, climate and weather. Retrieved from
https://www.space.com/17683-earth-atmosphere.html

Taylor Science Geeks. (2015). What is so special about the Arctic and Antarctic Circles? [Collage
of images from Mrs. Taylor’s blog]. Retrieved from
https://taylorsciencegeeks.weebly.com/blog/what-is-so-special-about-the-arctic-and-
antarctic-circles and https://taylorsciencegeeks.weebly.com/blog/the-arctic-and-
antarctic-circles-and-the-solstices

Wikipedia. (n.d). Weather and climate. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_and_climate
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Yasmin, S. (2014). Weather elements and factors. Ministry of Education, Singapore. Retrieved
from www.slideshare.net/Shabana1976/weather-elements-and-factors