IGCSE Chemistry Notes

Edward Lilley

2007–9

Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Methods of Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Purification of Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Kinetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Evidence for Kinetic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Combined Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Atomic Structure 10
2.1 Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Sub-atomic Particles and Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Uses of Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Electronic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Valencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3 Periodic Table & Properties of Elements 15

3.1 What is the Periodic Table? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 History of the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Group I – The Alkali Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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 3.4 Group VII – The Halogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 Group 0 – The Noble Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.6 The Transition Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.7 Bits and Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4 The Mole Concept 20

4.1 Size of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2 Avagadro’s Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 Calculating Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5 Formulae and Equations 21

5.1 Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Group I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.3 Group VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

6 Ionic Bonding 23

7 Covalent Bonding 23

8 Limestone 23
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8.2 Uses of Carbonate Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

9 Metals 23
9.1 Properties of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9.2 Metallic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9.3 Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.4 Competition Reactions in Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.5 Aluminium – The Problem Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

10 Organic Fuels 26
10.1 Sources of fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

11 Acids, Bases & Salt Preparations 27

11.1 Oxygen & Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
11.2 Properties of the Oxides of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
11.3 Acids, Bases & Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
The Role of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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 11.4 Salt Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
11.5 Ionic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Acids Reacting With Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Acids Reacting With Carbonates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Acids Reacting With Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

12 Ammonia, Fertilisers, Equilibrium & Sulphur 32

12.1 Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
12.2 Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
12.3 Chemical Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Le Chatelier’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
12.4 Manufacture of Ammonia — The Haber Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
12.5 Manufacture of Nitric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
12.6 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid — The Contact Process . . . . . . . . . . . 37
12.7 How The Chemical Industry Is Organised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Processing & Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Locating a Chemical Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
The Supply of Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
12.8 The Manufacture & Use of Fertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Problems with Fertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

13 Volumetric Analysis 41
13.1 The Volumes & Concentrations of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
13.2 Titrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Mathod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
13.3 Volumetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The Pipette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The Burette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Performing a Titration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

14 Organic I 42
14.1 Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fractional Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
14.2 Naming Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
14.3 Homologous Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
14.4 Alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

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 14.5 Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
14.6 Reactions of Alkanes & Alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Addition Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
14.7 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Synthetic Organic Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Polymerisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

15 Rates of Reaction 46
15.1 The Collision Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
15.2 Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
15.3 ‘Lump’ Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
15.4 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
15.5 Catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

16 Enthalpy 49
16.1 Enthalpy Changes (∆H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
16.2 Calculations Using Bond Energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

17 Organic II 49
17.1 Naming Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.2 Manufacture of Ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.3 Esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17.4 Carboxylic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

18 Electro-Chemistry 49
18.1 Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Reactivity Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Molten Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
18.2 Producing Electricity From Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Diagram of Simple Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

List of Tables
1 Comparison of the chemistry of water and air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 The electron configuration of the first 10 elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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 3 Electronic structure for the first 6 shells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Group valencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5 Valencies of common radicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 Results of combustion of Magnesium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7 Results of combustion of an unknown chemical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8 The Reactivity Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9 Some common uses of Acids and Alkalis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
10 Important Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
11 Important Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
12 Reactions of HCl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
13 Raw materials for the manufacture of fertilisers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
14 Names & numbers of carbon atoms in alkanes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
15 Formulae of allyls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
16 Table of the Reactivity Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
17 Non-Metal Reactivity Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
18 Table of Ions & Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
19 Tests for anions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

List of Figures
1 The 3 states of matter and associated processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 A diagram of a typical atom, with 20 n 0 , 20 p+ and 20 e – . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 A diagram of a Lithium atom (Li). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 A diagram of a Sodium atom (Na). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5 A diagram of a Potassium atom (K). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6 A representation of DC (direct current). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7 A representation of AC alternating current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8 The crystal lattice of an alloy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9 Alkenes undergo addition reactions (regardless of light conditions) . . . . 45
10 Addition reaction of Cyclohexane and Bromine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1 Introduction
1.1 Methods of Purification
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Filtration to remove solid particles (bigger than clay sized (< 256 mm)).

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Crystallisation removes the solvent, to leave the solute.

Fractional Distillation produces a number of substances from the original mixture

(e.g. petroleum).

Sedimentation allows an insoluble solid to separate out and sink to the bottom of a
container

Centrifuging a spinning motion increases the force of gravity that quickly separates a
solid from a suspension.

Decanting pouring off liquid (e.g. pouring off excess water from a pot of peas).

Magnetic Separation a method for separating one solid (usually iron) from a mixture
of solids, Very useful for separating Aluminium cans from steel cans.

Purification of Substances

Materials that are produced to a high degree of purity give predictable results (e.g. drugs,
concrete).
Purity can be measured in a number of ways:

• melting point/boiling point

• chromatography

1.2 Measurement
Purity is impossible without measurement. In science we use the MKS system of units.

Time • measured in seconds

• clock, stopwatch, sundial, computer
Digital one step at a time
Analogue continuously changing
• atomic clocks

Mass • measured in grams/kilograms

• scales (electronic), triple beam balance

Distance • measured in metres

Volume • cm3 , ml
• measuring cylinder, burettes, pipettes
mass
Density • g/cm3 ( volume )

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 Air Water
Chemistry N2 , O2 , Ar, CO2 , H2 O H2 O, dissolved salts, O2 , CO2
Density low high
Table 1: Comparison of the chemistry of water and air.

1.3 Water
Testing for Water Cobalt Chloride (CoCl2 ) turns pink in the presence of water (it is
blue when dry).

Uses of Water

1. Home

• drinking
• washing
• putting out fires
• garden watering
• cooking
• heating

2. Industry

• coolant
• lubricant
• dilutant
• additive
• solvent
• H.E.P.

1.4 Air
Uses of Components of Air

Nitrogen 79% of air, used as a foaming agent e.g. packaging.

Oxygen 20% of air, used in cutting torches (oxy-acetelene).

Carbon Dioxide 1% used in pneumatics, for putting out fires, special effects, coolant
(dry ice).

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Argon ≪1%, in torch batteries and car headlights.

Note: The way to obtain any of these gases is by fractional distillation at low tempera-
tures.

1.5 Carbon Dioxide

• A gas at room temperature and pressure (RTP: 25 ◦ C, 1 atm).
• Colourless and odourless.
• The standard test for CO2 is to pass it through limewater, and observer whether
the limewater turns cloudy or not (if it does, then CO2 is present).
• Industrial uses are:
– As a bubble generator in foams (foaming agent)
– Carbonated drinks
– CO2 enrichment in greenhouses to promote growth
– Fire extinguisher
– Refrigerant (dry ice)
• Sources of CO2
– Respiration (cellular)
– Burning fuels (fossil fuels, bio-fuels, natural fires)
– Volcanoes
– Weathering of carbonate rocks.

1.6 States of Matter

Solid at a given temperature has a definite shape and volume. Heating causes this
volume to expand and cooling causes contraction (shrinking).
Liquid at a given temperature, a liquid has a set volume but takes on the shape of its
container.
Gas at a given temperature has neither a definite shape or a definite volume.

1.7 Kinetic Theory

Kinetic Theory (or Particle Theory) states that all matter is made up of particles. These
particles vibrate with solids having the smallest amount of vibration and gases having the
most. As materials are cooled, the particle vibration decreases and ceases at −273.15◦ C
(0◦ K), absolute zero.

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 Figure 1: The 3 states of matter and associated processes.

Evidence for Kinetic Theory

Diffusion diffusion is used as evidence of the particle theory because gas can be shown
to diffuse at a much faster rate than diffusion in liquids e.g. perfume sprayed into
one corner of a room will quickly spread through the room. Also, when Potassium
Pomanganate (KMnO4) crystals diffusing in warm and cool water, respectively, are
compared, it is shown that the KMnO4 diffuses considerably faster in the warm
water. This supports kinetic theory in that the warmer particles have more energy,
so they can diffuse faster.

Brownian Motion the apparent random movement of small particles. First observed in
the early nineteenth century when pollen grains were observed to move in a random
pattern on a water droplet. It is explained by the collision of water molecules with
the pollen in a random pattern of collisions.

1.8 Gas Laws

• There is a relationship between the temperature of a gas and its volume. Charles’s
law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature:

V ∝T

This can be rewritten to:

V
= constant
T
• There is an inverse relationship between gas volume and pressure. Boyle’s law
states that as the pressure on a gas increases its volume decreases:

1
V ∝
P

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 This can be rewritten to:

P V = constant

Combined Gas Laws

P1 V1 P2 V 2
=
T1 T2
Combining the two laws produces this equation. If you change the Pressure (P) or the
Volume (V), it is easy to calculate the new Temperature (T). T1 is old temperature, T2 is
changed temperature.

2 Atomic Structure
2.1 Structure of the Atom
• The atom is thought to be made up of a central nucleus that contains protons, and
usually neutrons. The nucleus is surrounded by a “cloud” of electrons.

– Protons (p+ ) have a positive charge.

– Neutrons (n0 ) have no charge.
– Electrons (e− ) have a negative charge.

• The atomic number of an element defines which element you are looking at. This
is determined by the number of protons (this is also the number of electrons). The
atomic mass is the sum of the number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus.

• It is possible to summarize this data using symbols. e.g.

– 11 H = Hydrogen with 1p+ and 1e− and no n0 .

– 12 C
6 = Carbon with 6p+ and 6e− and 6n0 .

• The electrons and the protons balance each other so that an atom has no overall
electric charge. The electrons are packed around the nucleus in a series of layers or
shells.

• The electrons fill up the shells progressively with:

– 2e− in the first shell

– 8e− in the second
– 8e− in the third
– 18e− in the fourth.

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2.2 Sub-atomic Particles and Mass
The neutron is the heaviest of the non-fundamental sub-atomic particles. It has a mass
of about 1.675 × 1027 kg, slightly more than the proton. It has no electronic charge,
is located in the nucleus of the atom, and is written as n0 . The next heaviest is the
proton, with a mass of about 1.673 × 1027 kg. It is located in the nucleus of the atom,
and has a positive electric charge of 1.602 × 1019 C (Coulombs). It is written as P + .
The smallest sub-atomic particle (that is part of the atom itself) is the electron, which
is also a fundamental particle. It has a mass of 9.109 × 1031 kg (i.e. several orders of
magnitude less than both the neutron and the proton), and a negative electronic charge
of 1.602 × 1019 C. It is written as e− .
Z = 20
A = 40
e− ≈ 1.602 × 10−19 C
20 × e− ≈ −32.04 × 10−19 C (Coulombs - measurement of charge).

2.3 Isotopes
An isotope is an element that has a different number neutrons in its nucleus. e.g.

• Hydrogen 11 H
• Deuterium 21 H
• Tritium 31 H

The more common nomenclature (naming system) for isotopes gives the element name
followed by a number that is the atomic mas number. e.g.

• C12 = 12 C
6

• C13 = 13 C
6

• C14 = 14 C
6

Isotopes can be radioactive or non-radioactive, The factor that determines whether they
are radioactive is if the neutron to proton ratio is higher than 1.5:1.

2.4 Uses of Isotopes

Medical
• Medical isotopes are used for treatment using radiation (radiotherapy).
• Medical isotopes are used for imaging purposes (x-rays).
• Medical isotopes are used to highlight soft tissues that cannot be imaged by x-rays.

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 Element Atomic Number (Z) Mass Number (A) No. of p+ No. of n0 No. of e− Electron Configuration
H 1 1 1 0 1 1
He 2 4 2 2 2 2
Li 3 7 3 4 3 2.1
Be 4 9 4 5 4 2.2
B 5 11 5 6 5 2.3

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C 6 12 6 6 6 2.4
N 7 14 7 7 7 2.5
O 8 16 8 8 8 2.6
F 9 19 9 10 9 2.7
Ne 10 20 10 10 10 2.8
Table 2: The electron configuration of the first 10 elements.
 Figure 2: A diagram of a typical atom, with 20 n 0 , 20 p+ and 20 e – .

Industrial

• Isotopes can be used for “on-line” control of processes such as mining, metallurgy,
mineral processing and welding checks.

Scientific

• The decay of isotopes can be used to work out the age of rocks, fossils and earth

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 processes such as plat collisions and fold mountain formation.

2.5 Electronic Structure

The number of electrons around an atom is the same as the number of protons, The
electrons ‘pack’ around the nucleus in a series of levels or shells. The strength of the
electric charge on an electron means that they pack around the nucleus in a pattern.

Shell No. of e –
1 2
2 8
3 8
4 18
5 18
6 32
Table 3: Electronic structure for the first 6 shells.

All elements with the same number of electrons in their outer shell (the valence electrons)
will behave in a similar manner chemically.

2.6 Valencies
• Each of the groups in the periodic table have a distinctive valency.
• The valency of an element (or radical) is the number of electrons available or
electrons spaces that need to be filled.

Group No. of e− in outer shell Valency

I 1 1+
II 2 2+
III 3 3+
IV 4 4±
V 5 3−
VI 6 2−
VII 7 1−
0 8 0
Table 4: Group valencies.

Valencies 1+ to 3+, and 3- to 1-, form ionic bonds. 4+/- forms covalent bonds, and 3-
can form covalent forms sometimes, as well as ionic.

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 Radical Name Formula Valency
Sulphate SO4 −2
Nitrate No3 −1
Carbonate CO3 −2
Phosphate PO4 −3
Hydrogen Carbonate HCO3 −1
Hydroxide OH −1
Ammonium NH4 +1
Table 5: Valencies of common radicals.

• For the transition metals, assume they have a valency of +2 with the notable
exceptions being Fe(III) which has a valency of +3, and Hg(I) which has a valency
of +1.

• Radicals behave as if they were single atoms.

3 Periodic Table & Properties of Elements

3.1 What is the Periodic Table?
It is a summary of all the known elements. The elements are arranged in ascending order
according to atomic number (Z). The vertical columns are called groups and contain
elements that have similar chemical properties (dictated by the electron arrangement
of the outer shell). The horizontal rows, or periods, show changing chemical properties
across a series of elements as their outer electron shell fills up.

3.2 History of the Periodic Table

In 1817 Johann Döbereiner noticed that the atomic mass of Strontium fell between that
of Calcium and Barium, and all three had similar chemical properties. He called this a
“triad” of elements and found three triads altogether:

• Calcium, Strontium, Barium

• Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine

• Lithium, Sodium, Potassium

In 1865, John Newlands listed all of the known elements by atomic mass and noted that
every eighth element had similar chemical properties. He called this the “Law of Octaves”.

15
3.3 Group I – The Alkali Metals
(↓progressively more vigorous)

2Li(s) + 2H2 O(l) −→ 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

2N a(s) + 2H2 O(l) −→ 2N aOH(aq) + H2(g)

2K(s) + 2H2 O(l) −→ 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Each of these elements (Li, Na, K) have the same outer shell of electrons (only 1e− ).
This means that they combine with water in the same way; two atoms of the elements
in question will combine with two molecules of water to form two molecules of the alkali
salt of that element and hydrogen gas. Each reaction is progressively more vigorous (the
reaction takes place in water). This group is known as the alkali metals.
All of these metals react in a similar way because they have a similar electron configura-
tion i.e. they have a single electron in their outer shell.
The reason for the increasing activity of the Group I metals down the group is due to
the position of the outer electron, As you go further down the group, this single outer
electron has a smaller attractive force to the protons in the nucleus. e.g.

3.4 Group VII – The Halogens

• They are all reactive non-metals.

• Fluorine is the most reactive while Iodine is the most stable i.e. stability increases
down the group.

• They are all coloured, with intensity of colour increasing down the group.

• Their state at R.T.P. changes down the group with both Fluorine and Chlorine
being gases, Bromine is a liquid and Iodine is a solid.

• All of the Halogens are highly reactive, particularly with Groups I and II metals.
They all combine with water to form strong acids.

– HF, Hydrofluoric acid

– HCl, Hydrochloric acid
– HBr, Hydrobromic acid
– HI, Hydroiodic acid

• Fluorine, a pale yellow gas, is used in the form of fluorides in drinking water and
toothpaste because it reduces tooth decay by hardening the enamel on teeth.

16
 e-

+
3p
4n
0

e-

e-
Figure 3: A diagram of a Lithium atom (Li).

• Chlorine, a pale green gas, is used to make PVC plastic as well as household
bleaches. It is also used to kill bacteria and viruses in drinking water.
• Bromine, a brown liquid, is used to make disinfectants, medicines and fire retar-
dants.
• Iodine, a purple/black solid, is used in medicines and disinfectants and also as a
photographic chemical.
• Astatine is a radioactive black solid.

3.5 Group 0 – The Noble Gases

These are Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon. They are all gases, exist
as single atoms, colourless, and strongly unreactive. The only element in the group that
forms compounds is Xenon, and this can combine with fluorine to form XeF6 .

Helium an inert lifting gas

Argon used in lights
Neon used in LASERs
Xenon

17
 e- e-

e-

e-
e-
e- 11p+
12n e-
0

e-

e- e-

e-
Figure 4: A diagram of a Sodium atom (Na).

3.6 The Transition Elements

• The transition elements are a group of metals that occur in the central panel of the
periodic table and include elements:

– 21→30
– 39→48
– 57→80
– 89→112

• They have a number of features in common:

– High densities
– High melting and boiling points
∗ except Mercury (Hg)

18
 e- e-

e- e-

e-

e- e-
e- e-
+
19p
e- e-
20n 0
e- e-

e-

e- e-

e- e-

e-
Figure 5: A diagram of a Potassium atom (K).

– They form strongly coloured compounds

• They often act as catalysts in reactions e.g.
– Pt
– Fe
– Co
•

19
3.7 Bits and Pieces
• Metal oxides will form basic (alkali) solutions when mixed with water.

• Non-metal oxides will form acidic solutions when mixed with water.

• An oxide that forms a neutral solution when mixed with water is called amphoteric.

• The position of an element in the group is determined by the number of electrons

in its outer shell.

4 The Mole Concept

4.1 Size of Atoms
Atoms have only recently been actually observed. They are often smaller than 10−30 m.

4.2 Avagadro’s Constant

A convenient way of calculating the number of moles is to use Avagadro’s constant (NA ):

NA ≈ 6.023 × 1023 mol−1

Or more simply:
6 × 1023

4.3 Calculating Formulae

Example 1 If we were to combust some Magnesium ribbon in air, with careful calcu-
lations and measurements we can calculate the formula of the compound formed.
If we started with 0.24g of Mg and ended up with 0.40g of Magnesium Oxide, we can
work out the formula of the product.

Element Mg O
Masses 0.24 0.16
0.24 0.16
No. of Moles 24g = 0.01 16g = 0.01
Table 6: Results of combustion of Magnesium.

∴ formula = MgO.

20
 Element C H
Masses 0.12 0.02
0.12 0.02
No. of Moles 12g = 0.01 1g = 0.02
Table 7: Results of combustion of an unknown chemical.

Example 2 An unknown chemical contains 0.12g of Carbon and 0.02g of Hydrogen.

∴ formula = CH2 .
This is an empirical formula.
A mass spectrometer is used and the relative molecular mass is found to be 56g.
If the empirical formula is calculated as a mass then CH2 would have a mass of 14g.
56g
Calculation: 14g = 4.
∴ actual formula = C4 H8 .

5 Formulae and Equations

5.1 Stoichiometry
• Stoichiometry is the measurement of equations to make sure that they balance (law
of conservation of mass). E.g.:

• CaCO3 will break down into CaO and CO2 .

CaCO3 (s) −→ CaCO(s) + CO2 (g)

• 100g −→ 56g + 44g

• 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2 O
2.00gNaCl
• 58.44gNaClmol−1
= 0.034 mol

5.2 Group I
• They form highly stable compounds.

– They have a valency of +1 because they form ions by losing an electron.

– All compounds of Group I elements are soluble in water. (Most Group VII
are.)
– Group I metals are all light grey metals.
– The formulae of Group I compounds depends on the valency of the anion
(negatively charged ion) they are attached to. e.g.

21
 ∗ Anions with −1 valency
· NaCl
· NaI
· NaNO3
∗ Anions with −2 valency
· Na2 CO3
· NA2 So4
· Na2 O
∗ Anions with −3 valency
· Na3 PO4
∗ Anions with −4 valency
· Na4 C (Sodium Carbide)

5.3 Group VII

• Formulae of Group VII element compounds are determined by the valency of the
cation (positively charged ion) they are attached to. e.g.
– Cations with a +1 valency
∗ NaCl
· NH4 I
∗ Cations with a +2 valency
· CaCl2
· PbF2
∗ Cations with a +3 valency
· AlI3
· GaCl3

5.4 Hydrocarbons

2 C2 H6 + 7 O2 −→ 4 CO2 + 6 H2 O
2 C8 H18 + 25 O2 −→ 16 CO2 + 16 H2 O
C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 −→ 6 CO2 + 6 H2 O
C12 H22 O11 + 12 O2 −→ 12 CO2 + 11 H2 O
CH4 O6 + 2 O2 −→ CO2 + 2 H2 O
2 C2 H6 O2 −→ 4 CO2 + 6 H20
C3 H8 O6 + 5 O2 −→ 3 CO2 + 4 H2 O
2 C4 H10 + 36 O2 −→ 8 CO2 + 10 H2 O
C5 H12 + 8 O2 −→ 5 CO2 + 6 H2 O

22
6 Ionic Bonding

7 Covalent Bonding

8 Limestone
8.1 Introduction
• The main mineral in Limestone is CaCO3 or Calcite.

• Lime-rich rocks might be called limestone, chalk or marble.

8.2 Uses of Carbonate Rocks

• Building stone

– as a structural unit i.e. columns or blocks in ’classical’ buildings

– as a decorative stone i.e. ’dressing stone’

9 Metals
9.1 Properties of metals
• Physical properties

– Usually solid at RTP.

– When struck they will produce a ring tone.
– Ductile: they can be drawn out into a wire.
– Malleable: they take on the shape of an object that hits them.
– Good conductor of heat.
– Good conductor of electricity.
– Most metals have a shiny surface when clean (or cut) (metallic lustre).
mass
– Most have a high density (= volume ).
– High melting/boiling point.

• Chemical properties

– Metals + dilute acids: any metal above copper in the reactivity series will
react with an acid to produce a soluble salt of hydrogen gas e.g.

2 HCl(aq) + Mg(s) −→ MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

23
 – Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides e.g.

2 Fe(s) + O2 (g) −→ 2 FeO(s)

Note: With the exception of Group I metal oxides, all other oxides are insol-
uble.
– Metals high in the reactivity series react readily with water (down to Mg) to
produce hydrogen gas + a metal hydroxide.

9.2 Metallic Bonding

• Metals have their own type of bonding that is quite different from ionic or covalent
bonding.

• Metallic bonds are fairly strong bonds, shown by the fact that with one exception,
all metals are solids at RTP.

• The arrangement of the metal is as a lattice with the individual atoms surrounded
by large numbers of delocated electrons.

• These delocalised electrons mean that electric current can be conducted through
the structure.

Figure 6: A representation of DC (direct current).

Figure 7: A representation of AC alternating current.

24
 Reactivity Series Reaction with Dilute Reaction with Reaction with Water Ease of Extraction
Acid Air/Oxygen
Potassium (K) Produce H2 with de- Burn very brightly and Produce H2 with de- Difficult to extract
creasing vigour vigourously creasing vigour in cold
water
Sodium (Na) ↓ l ↓ l
Calcium (Ca) ↓ Burn to form an oxide React with steam with Easier to extract
with decreasing vigour decreasing vigour
Magnesium (Mg) ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Aluminium (Al) ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Carbon (C) ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

25
Zinc (Zn) ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Iron (Fe) ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Lead (Pb) ↓ React slowly to form the Do not react with water ↓
oxide or steam
Copper (Cu) Do not react with dilute ↓ l ↓
acids
Silver (Ag) l Do not react l Found as element in na-
ture
Gold (Au) l l l l
Platinum (Pt) l l l l
Table 8: The Reactivity Series
 Figure 8: The crystal lattice of an alloy.

9.3 Alloys
The reason for using alloys is that we can tailor the properties of the metal to specific
purposes. It is a crystal lattice like an elemental metal, but the lattice is irregular because
the atoms are of different sizes.

9.4 Competition Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

• If a metal from high in the reactivity series is placed in an aqueous solution of a
metal from lower in the series then the first metal will displace the second. e.g.:
–
Mg(s) + CuSO4 (aq) −→ Cu(s) + MgSO4 (aq)
–
MG(s) + Cu(aq) −→ Mg(aq) + Cu(s)
–
Zn(s) + Pb(NO3 )2 (aq) −→ Zn(NO3 )2 (aq) + Pb(s)

• Most metal hydroxides are insoluble (the exceptions being the Group I metals) so
an easy way to test for the presence of metal ions in solution is to add a few drops
of N aOH. A coloured precipitate often forms.

9.5 Aluminium – The Problem Metal

10 Organic Fuels
10.1 Sources of fuels
• The main source of combustible fuels is either petroleum or gas.

26
 • The main sources of petroleum are from OPEC countries, the North Sea, Russia
and Bass Strait.

• The method of recovering usable portions involves a process known as catalytic

cracking where the petroleum is heated in a furnace then pumped into a tower
structure and allowed to cool.

• The various fractions obtained have different numbers of carbon atoms in a chain.

– A chain of C1→5 is a gas.

– C6→20 are liquids.
– C>20 is a solid. (All at R.T.P.)

• The carbon atoms are mostly joined to hydrogen atoms so they are called hydro-
carbons.

• Fuels are generally burned. As such the chemical reaction is a combustion reaction.

• The products of a combustion reaction, where complete reaction occurs, are CO2 +
H2 O.

11 Acids, Bases & Salt Preparations

11.1 Oxygen & Oxides
Oxygen is a colourless odourless gas which is essential to life as we know it on this
planet. Oxygen is the second most abundant gas in the air (21%). It is also found in
many different compounds in the earth’s crust, making it the most abundant elemsnt
there also at 34% (silicon is next at 26%).
When an element or a compound reacts with oxygen it is said to have undergone an
oxidisation (or combustion) reaction. If the reaction involves a flame then it is called
burning.
The products of these reactions of elements or compounds with oxygen are Oxides. Both
elements and compounds burn in pure oxygen more fiercely than in air, because pure
oxygen contains no nitrogen which is a suppressor of reactions.
Examples of oxidations:

4 K + O2 −→ 2 K2 O

S + O2 −→ SO2

4 Fe + 3 O2 −→ 2 Fe2 O3

27
 Acids Alkalis
Vinegar Acetic Garden lime Calcium (Hydr)Oxide
Fizzy drinks Ascorbic Oven cleaner Sodium/Potassium Hydroxide
Rust remover Phosphoric Soap Potassium Hydroxide
Fruit juice Citric Household cleaner Sodium Hydroxide/Ammonia
Kettle descaler Hydrochloric Baking soda Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
(Car) Battery acid Sulphuric Washing soda Sodium Carbonate
Fertilisers & Explosives Nitric Milk of Magnesia Magnesium/Sodium Carbonate
TCP Phosphoric
Fabric softeners Sorbic
Table 9: Some common uses of Acids and Alkalis.

4 NH3 + 7 O2 −→ 4 NO2 + 6 H2 O

2 H2 S + 3 O2 −→ 2 SO2 + 2 H2 O

11.2 Properties of the Oxides of the Elements

Oxides of the elements can be made by burning the elements in oxygen.
Oxides which react with acids are called Basic oxides. Some basic oxides are soluble in
water. When they dissolve they form a solution whose pH is greater than 7 (full range
indicator turns from green to blue). These soluble basic oxides are called Alkaline
oxides.
Oxides which dissolve in water to give a solution whose pH is less than 7 (full range
indicator turns from green to orange or red) are Acidic oxides.
Some oxides are insoluble in water. If they are soluble in acids the yare basic oxides. If
they are soluble in alkalis they are acidic oxides.
A few oxides are insoluble in water but soouble in both acids and alkalis. They show
both acidic and basic properties and are called Amphoteric oxides.
Metallic elements on the left-hand-side of the Periodic Table form Basic oxides; non-
metallic elemnts on the right-hand-side of the Periodic Table form Acidic oxides.

11.3 Acids, Bases & Salts

Acids and alkalis (soluble bases) are a constant part of everyday life. The most well-
known acid-containg substance is probably vinegar, but there are many others that we
come across every day.
The word ‘acid’ means sharp or sour — acids are known for their characteristic sour
taste. Lemon juice, uncorked wine, and milk that has gone off all contain acids.

28
 Name Formula Ionic Formula Strong or Weak?
Hydrochloric acid HCl H+ /Cl – S
Sulphuric acid H2 SO4 2 H+ /SO42 – S
Nitric acid HNO3 H+ /NO3– S
Acetic or Ethanoic acid CH3 CO2 H H+ /CH3 CO2– W
Citric acid C6 H8 O7 3 H+ /C6 H5 O73 – W
Table 10: Important Acids

Acids and alkalis were found to change the colour of some plant pigments. The colour
extracted from red cabbage and from lichens have different colours in acidic and alkaline
solution. The indicator derived from lichen is called Litmus, and goes red in acid and blue
in alkalis. Full-range Indicator (similar to Universal Indicator) is a mixture of
indicators, which can show how strongly acidic or alkaline a substance is.
These substances which change colour when placed in acids and alkalis are called Indi-
cators.
The effects of acids can be removed by alkalis — this kind of reaction is called a Neu-
tralisation reaction.
The properties of acidic and alkaline solutions are best explained in terms of the ions
which they contain.
An Acid is a compound which in aqueous solution produces hydrogen ions H+ .
An Alkali is a compound which in aqueous solution produces hydroxyl ions OH – .
Acids, when pure, are composed of molecules. It is only in the presence of water that
they release hydrogen ions. (In fact, each H+ ion which is set free bonds to a water
molecule forming the ion H3 O+ .)
Strong Acids are almost totally broken down into ions in aqueous solution (fully dis-
sociated) e.g. Hcl, HNO3 , H2 SO4 .
Weak Acids are only partly broken down into ions when in aqueous solution e.g.
CH3 CO2 H (ethanoic acid).

CH3 CO2 H + H2 O
CH3 CO−
2 + H3 O
+

The Role of Water

Acids are covalently-bonded molecules.

E.g. Hydrogen Chloride (HCl).

HCl(g) + H2 O(l) −→ H3 O+
(aq) + Cl−(aq)

The molecules dissociate into ions.

29
 Name Formula Ionic Formula Strong or Weak?
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na+ /OH – S
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Ca 2+ /2 OH – S
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Mg 2+ /2 OH – S
Sodium Hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3 Na+ /HCO3– W
Ammonia (hydroxide) NH4 OH NH+ 4 /OH
–
W
Table 11: Important Bases

HCl in H2 O HCl in organic solvent

Temperature Change Marked rise Little change
Reaction with Mg Fizzes and Mg disappears No reaction
Reaction with marble Fizzes and marble disappears No reaction
Electrical conductivity Yes No
Universal indicator paper Dark red No change of colour
Table 12: Reactions of HCl.

Atoms form ions in water. One of these ions is H+ (aq) . The pH is a measure of the strength
of an acid or alkali, i.e. how much it dissociates into ions when put in water.

11.4 Salt Preparations

To obtain pure samples of soluble salts it is necessary to ensure that all of the acid has
been used up in the reaction and that no excess of the other reagent is left to contaminate
the product.

1. An excess of solid is added to the acid to make sure all the acid is used up.

2. The excess solid is filtered off.

3. Salt srystals are then produced by evaporation and crystallisation:

(a) The dilute solution of the salt is evaporated first directly then slowly over a
steam bath.
(b) The solution is tested for saturaion by removing a droplet of the solution on
a glass rod.
(c) If crystals form quickly when the droplet is cooled, then the solution is left to
crystallise.
(d) If crystals do not form quickly evaporation is continued until the solution is
saturated

30
11.5 Ionic Equations
Many chemical reactions involve ionic substances. Ionic formulae can be shown in the
equation for the reaction. In these equations the numbers of atoms and the charges on
both sides must balance.

Acids Reacting With Bases

Many insoluble metal oxides react with dilute acids to form soluble salts.

General equation: Base + Acid −→ Salt + Water

Word equation: Copper(II) oxide(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) −→ Copper(II) chloride(aq) + water(l)

Ordinary equation: CuO + 2 HCl −→ CuCl2 + H2 O

Ionic equation: CuO + 2 H+ + 2 Cl− −→ Cu 2+ + 2 Cl− + H2 O

Here O and H ions are spectator ions, so the ionic equation could be written as:

O 2− + 2 H+ −→ H2 O

However, the Cu ions change from being solid to aqueous, so it is usual to include them
in the final ionic equation. It is also usual to write the base as a molecular formula.

Ionic equation: CuO + 2 H+ −→ Cu 2+ + H2 O

Acids Reacting With Carbonates

Carbon dioxide is given off when any dilute acid reacts with any carbonate at room
temperature.

General equation : Carbonate + Acid −→ Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water

Word equation : Calcium carbonate(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) −→ Calcium chloride(aq) +
Carbon dioxide(g) + water(l)
Ordinary equation : CaCO3 + 2 HCl −→ CaCl2 + CO2 + H2 O
Ionic equation : CaCO3 + 2H+ + 2Cl− −→ 2Cl − +CO2 + H2O

31
Here Cl ions are spectator ions. Since the Ca ions in Calcium carbonate change from
being in the solid state to being in aqueous solution the formula of calcium carbonate is
shown as a molecular formula. Ionic equation omitting spectator ions:

2+
CaCO3 + 2 H+ −→ CO2 + H2 O + Ca(aq)

Acids Reacting With Metals

Hydrogen is given off when most dilute acids (Nitric acid is an exception) react with
metals. Heat is needed for the less reactive metals and lead and copper are too unreactive
to give this reaction at all.

General equation : Metal + Acid −→ Salt + Hydrogen

Word equation : Zinc(s) + Sulphuric acid(aq) −→ Zinc sulphate(aq) + Hydrogen(g)
Ordinary equation : Zn + H2 SO4 −→ ZnSO4 + H2
Ionic equation : Zn + 2 H+ + SO42− −→ Zn 2+ + SO42− + H2

Here sulphate ions are spectator ions, so they can be omitted from the final ionic equation.
Ionic equation omitting spectator ions:

Zn + 2 H− −→ Zn(aq)
2+
+ H2 (g)

12 Ammonia, Fertilisers, Equilibrium & Sulphur

12.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless gas which makes up about 78% of the composition of
the air. It is a diatomic gas covalently bonded by a triple covalent bond.
It is an extremely unreactive and many of its uses (e.g. Liquid nitrogen for fast freezing
food, Nitrates for fertiliser) depend on its inertness. However, Nitrogen is essential for
healthy life as it is an important component of protein molecules.
Nitrogen is found in a variety of inorganic compounds either as Ammonium compounds
NH+4 or as Ammonia NH3 .

12.2 Ammonia
Ammonia is a weak base which produces an alkaline solution. It is sometimes used in
cleaning agents as a degreasing agent. It convert grease into soluble soaps. This reaction
is called Saponification.

32
Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form an aqueous solution called Ammonium hydroxide:

−
NH3 + H2 O
NH+
4 + OH

Ammonia is in great demand throughout the world. It has a variety of uses, as shown

Fertilisers
80%

Nylon 5%

Nitric acid 5%

Wood pulp
production 10%
by the pie chart below.

The manufacture of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen in the laboratory is almost

impossible.

N2 + 3 H2
2 NH3
In industry, as the conditions can be carefully controlled, it becomes possible (this process
is called the Haber Process after the German chemist Fritz Haber).

12.3 Chemical Equilibria

How far do chemical reactions go?
When dry blue powdered copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated a vapour is given off
and a white residue remains. If the vapour is condensed and collected it can be shown
to be water. The white residue is anhydrous Copper(II) sulphate.

f orwards reaction
CuSO4 + 5 H2 O −−−−−−−−−−−→ CuSO4 + 5 H2 O endothermic (∆H+)
When a few drops of water are added to the cold anhydrous Copper(II) sulphate the
crystals turn blue and heat energy is recovered.

33
 backwards reaction
CuSO4 + 5 H2 O −−−−−−−−−−−−→ CuSO4 + 5 H2 O exothermic (∆H−)
This type of reaction is an example of a reversible reaction. A reversible change is one in
which the products formed are capable of reacting with each other to reform the original
substance or substances.
Reactions that can proceed in both directions are given a
sign between the reactants
and products.
The special kind of balance which keeps still by moving is called an Equilibrium.
Chemical equilibria are very common in industrial processes where gases are involved
because the reactions take place within a closed system. Factors which affect the rate
of a chemical reaction might effect the position of an equilibrium reaction as there are
two opposing rates to consider. Reaction conditions must be carefully chosen so that the
process is economically viable.
Some chemical reactions are reversible, in that not only can reactants form products, but
also products can form reactants, e.g. heated iron reacts with steam to form iron oxide
and hydrogen, while heated iron oxide reacts with hydrogen to form iron and steam.
For a particular reaction, it is possible for reactants and products to be present in a
dynamic equilibrium with one another. This means that the amounts of reactants
and products remain constant, due to the rate at which reactants form products exactly
equalling the rate at which products form reactants.
The position of an equilibrium (i.e. the relative amounts of reactants and products present
at equilibrium — effectively the yield of products) can be affected by changes in the
reaction conditions. Changes can be predicted using Le Chatelier’s Principle. This
states that:

Whenever a system in dynamic equilibrium is disturbed, it tends to respond

in such a way as to oppose the disturbance and so restore equilibrium.

Le Chatelier’s Principle

Concentration if the concentration of a reactant or product is altered when a chemical

system is in equilibrium the equilibrium will try to restore it. So if a product is removed
as the equilibrium proceeds then the equilibrium will try to increase the products’ con-
centration and so increase the yield.

Temperature Most reactions give out heat when the reactants react to form the prod-
ucts, i.e. the formation of products is exothermic. This means that the formation of
reactants from products is endothermic — it absorbs heat. If a reaction of this sort is
in equilibrium, and an increase in termperature is applied, the position of equilibrium
will move in an attempt to lower the temperature. This means that more reactants will
be formed, as this will absorb heat. Therefore the yield of products is reduced by an
increase in temperature.

34
Pressure (For reactions involving gases )
If, for example, there are less gas molecules on the products side of the equation than on
the reactants side, then a movement to form more products will produce a decrease in
pressure. This, if the pressure is increased on a reaction of this sort in equilibium, then
the posiion of equilibrium will move in an attempt to lower the pressure. Therefore more
products will be formed and the yield of products is increased by an increase in pressure.

12.4 Manufacture of Ammonia — The Haber Process

The Haber Process is the syntheses of Ammonia (NH3 ) from Nitrogen and Hydrogen.

Nitrogen + Hydrogen
Ammonia

N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g)
2 NH3 (g)

The production of Ammonia is exothermic and there are less gas molecules on the prod-
ucts side of the equation than on the reactants side. Therefore, a high yield of Ammonia
is favoured by a low temperature and a high pressure.
Conditions used to obtain a satisfactory yield at a satisfactory rate:

Moderate temperature (450◦ C) Higher temperature favours the decomposition of

Ammonia, thereby reducing the yield. Lower temperature reduces the rate of
reaction.

Moderate pressure (200 atmospheres) Higher pressure increases cost of industrial

plant, lower pressure decreases both yield and rate.

Catalyst (iron) Helps to produce a satisfactory rate, but does not change the equilib-
rium yield, as it speeds up the production of ammonia and the decomposition of
Ammonia equally.

35
 Nitrogen from the air and
H2 from natural gas

?
The mixture is compressed to about
200 atm and heated to 450◦ C

?
The mixture of N2 and H2 is passed
The unreacted over a catalyst (iron) with added
Nitrogen and
Hydrogen do not - ‘promoters’, e.g. Al2 O3 , which increase
condense and are its effectiveness. Some N2 and H2
recycled. combine to form NH3 .
6

?
About 10% of the gas which leaves the
catalyst chamber is Ammonia. When the
mixture is cooled, ammonia liquefies.

?
Liquid Ammonia

12.5 Manufacture of Nitric Acid

One of the main uses of Ammonia is to convert it into Nitric acid.
The Nitrogen dioxide is formed in a two step process. First the Ammonia is oxidised by
air in the presence of a Platinum catalyst to produce Nitrogen monoxide.

4 NH3 + 5 O2
4 NO + 6 H2 O

This reaction is exothermic.

As the mixture cools the Nitrogen monoxide reacts with more air to give Nitrogen dioxide.

6 NO + 3 O2 + 2 H2 O
4 HNO3 + 2 NO

36
 2 NO + O2
2 NO2

2 MO2 + H2 O
2 HNO3

On reaction with water Nitric acid is formed.

Apart from fertilisers Nitric acis is also used to make explosives. An Italian chemist
called Professr Sobrero converted Nitric acid into Nitroglycerine, a very unstable oily
liquid. It was Alfred Nobel who lost his borther in a Nitroglycerine explosion who was
responsible for stabilising it by mixing it with clay to form Dynamite.

12.6 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid — The Contact Process

Sulphuric acid is manufactured from sulphur in the following stages:

1. Sulphur is burned in air to make Sulphur dioxide (SO2 )

2.

Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen

Sulphur trioxide
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
2 SO3 (g)

The production of Sulphur trioxide in this stage is exothermic and there are less
gas molecules on the products side of the equation than on the reactants side.
Therefore a high yield of Sulphur trioxide is favoured by a low temperature and a
high pressure. In practice, to obtain a satisfactory yield at a satisfactory rate, the
following conditions are used:

Temperature of 450◦ C This is a compromise termperature, as a lower temper-

ature would decrease the rate of reaction and a higher temperature would
decrease the yield.
Pressure only just above atmospheric Rate and yield are satisfactory wwith-
out the need for high pressure.
Catalyst of Vanadium pentoxide (V2 O5 ) This increases the rate of reaction
(but has no effect on yield)

3. The Sulphur trioxide is absorbed in concentrated Sulphuric acid and the resulting
liquid is added to water.

The Sulphur dioxide needed is obtained from:

• The combustion of Sulphur

• The removal of unpleasant-smelling Sulphur compounds from petroleum oil

37
 • The removal of Hydrogen sulphide from natural gas (not North Sea gas)

• Roasting metal sulphides in order to extract metals from their ores

Oxygen

?
The mixtre of gases is cleaned by electrostatic
precipitation, dried, heated to 400–500◦ C,
and compressed to a pressure of 2 atmospheres.

?
The gases are passed over Vanadium oxide, V2 O5 .
Unreacted When they come into contact with the catalyst,
gases are - Oxygen and Sulphur dioxide combine to form
recycled. Sulphur trioxide, SO3 . There is a 98% yield.
6

?
Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated
Sulphuric acid to form Oleum, H2 S2 O7 .

?
Oleum is diluted with water
to give sulphuric acid.

Sulphur dioxide and air are purified by electrostatic precipitation.

A Sulphuric acid plant must be sited in a place where supplies of Sulphur dioxide can
reach it, that is, near a port where caroes of Sulphur can arrive by ship, or near a gas
refinery or a metal smelter.

38
 Soaps and
Fertilisers:
detergents
phosphates and
ammonium
sulphate

Soaps Paints and

Pickling
pigments, e.g.
iron and
TiO2
steel

Oil and petrol

Batteries Dyes
Fibres, e.g.
Pharmaceuticals
nylon
Insecticides
Plastics and many
chemicals, including
metal sulphates

12.7 How The Chemical Industry Is Organised

All manufactueres – whether of chemical products of anything else – are engaged in a
process which may be summed up as:

raw materials → processing → products

which means taht they are concerned with:

supplies → manufacture → sales

The chemical industry is a business which has grown up to provide a livelihood for
those who work in it, and a profit for shareholders who have invested money in chemical
companies. At the same time it is there to meet the need for an ever-growing range of
materials and products.

39
Processing & Manufacture

The major divisions of chemical industry are:

agricultural chemicals heavy chemicals
dyestuffs metals
explosives paints
fibres plastics & petrochemicals
fien chemicals pharmaceuticals

Locating a Chemical Plant

The decision on where to build a particular chemcial plant is an extremely complicated

one. These are some of the more important things whcih have to be thought about:

Communications road, rail, sea and air access are neede for bringing in raw materials
and distributing products.

Environment this must not me affected too much while building the plant, or disposing
of its waste.

Power supply this must be available, or it must be possible to generate power at the
site.

Utilities examples are water and fuel; these must be available at reasonable cost.

Workers these must be recruited, and perhaps moved to the area and housed.

The Supply of Raw Materials

The main raw metrials for the chemical industry are: oil and natural gas, coal, metal
ores, minerals like salt and limstone, and the gases of the air. All of these must be round,
extracted and transported to where they are needed. There are important issues here:

• Some raw materials are running out. Since new mineral deposits are beign found
all the time, and enw methods for exploiting them are beign developed, it is not
possible to say precisely how long any particular materials will last. Our own
supplies of fossil fuels are a good example. Coal will last longer than the others,
if wecontinue extraction at the present rate. The chemical industry is already
adapting to likely changes in its supply of raw materials.

• Our supply of some materials, notably tin, mercury, uranium and gold, depends on
the fact that miners in some parts of the world work in dangerous conditions for
low rates of pay. So long as the world wants these materials, someone has to get
them out. Social and political changes in different parts of the world may have a
considerable effect on the prices and supply of some metal ores.

40
 Raw material Where it comes from Used to make
nitrogen the air ammonia for all fertilisers
water reservoirs ammonia
natural gas under the sea ammonia
potassium chloride mines compound fertilisers
phosphate rock mined compound fertilisers
sulphur mined compound fertilisers
Table 13: Raw materials for the manufacture of fertilisers.

water

12.8 The Manufacture & Use of Fertilisers

Ammonia and sulphuric acid are both used in the manufacture of fertiliesrs. Aqueous
ammonia can be used directly as a nitrogenous fertiliser. Ammonia can also be used
to manufacture nitric acid and ammonium salts, e.g. ammonium nitrate PNH4 NO3 , is
manufactured by the reaction of ammonia and nitric acid.
Ammonium salts (e.g. ammonium nitrate), minerals and some phosphates are soluble in
water, and if these are washed into lakes and rivers they cause excessive plant growth.
The decay of this plant material deoxygenates the water. Nitrates are very difficult to
remvoe from domestic water sources, and are potentially harmful to health.
The main elements required for healthy plant growth are:

Nitrogen taken into plant roots in the form of nitrate ions; a lack causes stunted growth,
harsh and fibrous leaves

Phosphorus a lack causes stunted growth, and stunted grey leaves

Potassium a lack causes stunted growth, and premature death of leaves

NPK fertiliers must contain the appropriate compositions of tehse elements. In addi-
tion, physical state, solubility and pH are other factors which must be considered when
choosing a fertiliser.

Problems with Fertilisers

13 Volumetric Analysis
Many chemical reactions take place in aqueous solution and so it is important to have a
standard amount in solution.
mol
Concentration is measured in dm3
.

41
A 1 molar solution contains 1 mole of solute dissolved in exactly 1dm3 of solvent, usually
water.
So a 1 molar solution of Sodium chloride contains 58.5g of Sodium chloride dissolved in
1000cm3 of water.

13.1 The Volumes & Concentrations of Solutions

The concentration can be stated in two ways:

mol
1. In dm3
, the amount, in moles, of solute contained in 1 dm3 of solution.
g
2. In dm3
, the amount, in g, of solute contained in 1 dm3 of solution.

There then exists two similar simple relationships between the concentration of a solution,
amount of solute and the volume of the solution:

mol amount
1. Concentration ( dm 3) = volume
g mass
2. Concentration ( dm 3) = volume

These can be combined to form:

g mol g
Concentration ( 3 ) = Concentration ( 3 ) × Molar mass( mol )
dm dm

13.2 Titrations
Mathod

Calculation

13.3 Volumetric Analysis

The Pipette

The Burette

Performing a Titration

14 Organic I
Organic Chemistry is the study of the chemistry of the element Carbon. Carbon has
the unique ability to bond to both itself and many other elements (mainly non-metallic).
The main sources of Carbon are plants, animals, coal, crude oil and natural gas. Today

42
fossil fuels provide 93% of our fuels while nuclear and hydoelectric power only provide
7%.
% Coal 34% → (heat without O2 ) → Coal gas
Fossil fuels are → Crude oil 34% ↓ &
& Natural gas 24% Coke Coal tar

14.1 Fuels
Natural gas is 97% Methane.
Petrol is a mixture of Hydrocarbons.

Fractional Distillation

1 Petroleum gas
2 Petroleum fraction – petrol engines, cars (gasoline)
3 Paraffin – oil stoves, aircraft fuel (kerosene)
↓
4 Diesel – diesel engines
5 Lubrication fraction – lubricants, waxes & polishes
6 Bitumen fraction – roads

(higher boiling point/heavier/larger molecules towards bottom)

Carbon dioxide is produced by:

• complete combustion (e.g. hydrocarbons)

• respiraton

• reaction of acids & alkalis

14.2 Naming Organic Compounds

Name No. of Carbon Atoms

Methane 1
Ethane 2
Propane 3
Butane 4
Pentane 5
Hexane 6
Table 14: Names & numbers of carbon atoms in alkanes.

43
 Side Chains (allyl ) Formula
methyl CH3 –
ethyl C2 H5 –
propyl C 3 H7 –
Table 15: Formulae of allyls.

CH3
1 2 3 4 5
CH3 − − − CH − − − CH − − − CH2 − − − CH3

CH3 2, 3 − diM ethylpentane

14.3 Homologous Series

A homologous series is a group of similar molecules. For example:

• Alkanes
• Alkenes
• Carbolic acid (with CO2 H group)
• Aldehydes
• Alcohols (with OH group)

Structural isomerism is where two molecules have the same molecular formula, but have
different structual formulae.

14.4 Alkenes
General formula is Cn H2n .

• Contain a C − C double covalent bond

• Are unsaturated hydrocarbons
• Need at least 2 Carbon atoms

• Ethene – C2 H4
H H
C C
H H

44
 • Propene – C3 H6
H H H
H C C C
H H

• Butene – C3 H8

– but-1-ene – CH3 CH2 CH − CH2

– but-2-ene (two isomers) – CH3 CH − CHCH3

CH3 CH3 CH3 H

C C C C
H H and CH3 H

C C + Br2

C C
Br Br

Figure 9: Alkenes undergo addition reactions (regardless of light conditions)

The test to determine whether is substance is an Alkane or Alkene (i.e. a test for unsat-
uration) is to add Bromine water.

14.5 Alkanes
Alkanes undergo a substitution reacction with Halogens in the presence of light.

45
 CH CHBr
CH2 CH CH2 CHBr
+ Br2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
(addition reaction)
CH2 CH2
Dibromocyclohexane

Figure 10: Addition reaction of Cyclohexane and Bromine

14.6 Reactions of Alkanes & Alkenes

Addition Reactions

14.7 Polymers
Synthetic Organic Polymers

Polymerisation

15 Rates of Reaction
Different chemical reactions take place at different speeds. Some reactions seem instan-
taneous on mixing the reactants, e.g.
Silver nitrate solution &
Sodium chloride.
As soon as these two reactants are mixed a white precipitate is formed.
Some reactions require energy ebfore they start, e.g. the burning of a piece of Magnesium.
Some reactions take a long time, e.g. the rusting of Iron.

Reactants −→ Products

You can measure the reate of appearance of a product or the rate of disappearance of a
reactant.
So you need to measure a property of the product/reactant that changes with time:

• Mass

• Volume

• Colour

46
Methods of measuring rates of reactions

(for reactions which involve the production of a gas)

• Measure the volume of the gas product at fixed time intervals.

• If CO2 : measure the loss in mass of the reaction mixture.

Factors which affect the rate of reaction

• Concentration

• Temperature

• Surface Area

• Presence of a catalyst (can be organic or inorganic)

Note: In order for a chemical reaction to take place, the particles must collide with
sifficient force. Not all collisions produce a reaction — the collision must have the
right properties (force, type &c.)

15.1 The Collision Theory

To understand why different reactions proceed at different rates, and why the rates are
affected by concentration and other factors, we have to consider reactions at a mmolecular
level.
It is obvious that if two particles (atoms, molecules of ions) are to react they have to
collide with each other, although, at ordinary room temperatures, only a very small
proportion of molecular collisions result in reaction.
The rate of a reaction will be increased by any change which makes the reactant parti-
cles collide more frequently, or which makes a greater proportion of collisions result in
reaction.

15.2 Concentration
The greater the concentration of any reactant (i.e. teh more particles per unit volume),
the greater will be the number of collisions per second – therefore the faster will be the
reaction.
For a gaseous reaction, an increase in pressure produces a decrease in volume and an
increase in concentration. Therefore an increase in pressure makes a gaseous reaction
faster.

47
15.3 ‘Lump’ Size
For reactions involving solids, the smaller the ‘lump’ size the faster the reaction — this is
because the smaller the ‘lump’ size the greater the total surface area where the reactant
particles can come into contact with each other.

15.4 Temperature
All chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature. A temperature rise
means that the particles move faster. If they move faster then:

• They collide more often

• On average, the collisions are more energetic — so that collisions are more likely
to result in reaction (i.e. a greater proportion of all collisions result in reaction).

A temperature rise thus increases reaction rates in two ways, of which the second is the
more effective.

15.5 Catalysts
A catalyst may be defined as a substance which alters (generally increases) the rate of a
chemical reaction without itself being used up.

• Chemical catalysts — These function in two ways:

– All catalysts change the ‘route’ of reaction to one which requites less energy
to ‘activate’ it. The new route is therefore a faster one.
– Some catalysts also act by bringing together the reacting aprticles on to the
surface of the catalyst, therefore increasing the reactant concentrations and
the rate of reaction.

Examples of catalysts:

– Manganese(IV) oxide in the decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide into Oxygen

and water.
– Iron in the manufacture (synthesis) of Ammonia (NH3 ) from Nitrogen and
Hydrogen — the Haber Process
– Vanadium(V) oxide in the manufacture of Sulphuric acid, via Sulphur trioxide,
from Sulphur dioxide and Oxygen — the Contact Process

• Enzymes

– Enzymes are biological catalysts and they speed up the chemical reactions
which go on in living things

48
 – They are always proteins
– They are specific in their action, in that each enzyme controls one particular
reaction, or type of reaction
– They are destroyed by heat, this process being called denaturation
– Therefore they stop functioning above about 45◦ C, working best over a limited
range of temperature (35–40◦ C approx.)
– When a reactant (substrate) molecule collides with a molecule of the correct
enzyme, it can fit into a depression on the surface of the enzyme molecule,
called the active site. The reaction then takes place and the molecules of
product leave the active site, freeing it for another substrate molecule.
– The active site of a particular enzyme has a specific shape into which only one
kind of substrate will fit. This is why enzymes are specific in their action.
Examples of enzymes:
– Catalase, present, e.g. in the liver, catalyses the decomposition of Hydrogen
peroxide into Oxygen and water. This process is vital, as Hydrogen peroxide
is poisonous (and is closely involved in the process of ageing)
– Zymase, present in yeast, catalyses the fermentation of glucose into alcohol
(ethanol)
– Various protein-digesting enzymes (proteases), present in biological washing
powders, remove protein stains, such as gravy, from clothes

16 Enthalpy
16.1 Enthalpy Changes (∆H)
16.2 Calculations Using Bond Energies

17 Organic II
17.1 Naming Organic Compounds
17.2 Manufacture of Ethanol
17.3 Esters
17.4 Carboxylic Acids

18 Electro-Chemistry
18.1 Electrolysis
• At the cathode (negative), metal or hydrogen is produced.

49
 – Hydrogen is produced if the metal is Al or higher. Metal is produced if it is
Zn or lower (all on the reactivity series).

• At the anode (positive), non-metals (apart from Hydrogen) are formed.

– F2 , Cl2 , Br2 I2 are formed in preference to oxygen, unless the solution is dilute,
in which case oxygen is formed from OH – ions, according to the formula:

4 OH− −→ 2 H2 O + O2 + 4 e−

– Nitrates and Sulphates do not decompose and Oxygen will be formed at the
anode instead

• Anything above Zinc in the reactivity series must be extracted from its natural ore
using electrolysis. Zinc and below can be extracted by heating with Carbon.

• Electrolyte – a substance that conducts electricity when dissolved in water or

molten.

Reactivity Series

Metals

Metals are stable in a lattics structure where all their electrons are floating around freely
(incidentally, this allows electrical conductivity).
They are also stable when they have a completely full/empty out electron shell. This
makes them ions.
So metals are found in nature either as ions or in in the lattice (sea of electrons) structure.
(Carbon doesn’t normally form ions — it forms covalent bonds.)

Molten Ionic Compounds

Aqueous Solutions

Inert Electrodes

Metal Electrodes

18.2 Producing Electricity From Chemical Reactions

Diagram of Simple Cell
 Element Mnemonic Reactivity
Potassium Police high
Sodium Seargent ↑
Calcium Charlie
Lithium
Beryllium
Magnesium M–
Aluminium A–
↑ H2 formed
(Carbon)
↓ metal formed
Zinc Z–
Iron I–
(Hydrogen in Electrolysis)
Nickel N–
Tin T–
Lead L–
Hydrogen Has
Copper Caught
Mercury Me
Silver Stealing
Gold Gold ↓
Platinum Plates low
More reactive elements prefer to stay as ions when in solution, and are
more likely to be formed at the cathode. In the reaction: X(s) + Y+ (aq)
Where X is more reactive than Y, the result will be: X+ (aq) + Y(s) (the
charges could be 2+, 3+ &c.)
Table 16: Table of the Reactivity Series

51
 Element/Oxide ion Reactivity
I2 high
Br2 ↑
Cl2
F2 ↓
O2 low
NO3 Never formed
SO4 Never formed
This assumes a concentrated solution; if dilute, it is more likely that
simply Oxygen will be formed.
Table 17: Non-Metal Reactivity Series

52
 Name of Ion −→ Fluoride Chlorine Hydroxide Bromide Oxide Sulphide Sulphate Nitrate Carbonate Phosphate
↓ Symbol of ion F– Cl – OH – Br – O2– S2– SO42 – NO 3 – CO32 – PO43 –
Hydrogen H+ HF HCl H2 O HBr H2 O H2 S H2 SO4 HNO3 H2 CO3 H3 PO4
Sodium Na+ NaF NaCl NaOH NaBr Na2 O Na2 S Na2 SO4 NaNO3 Na2 CO3 Na3 PO4
Potassium K+ KF Kcl KOH KBr K2 O K2 S K2 SO4 KNO3 K2 CO3 K3 PO4
Lithium Li+ LiF LiCl LiOH LiBr Li2 O Li2 S Li2 SO4 LiNO3 Li2 CO3 Li3 PO4
Ammonium NH+ 4 NH4 F NH4 Cl NH4 OH NH4 Br (NH4 )2 O (NH4 )2 S (NH4 )2 SO4 NH4 NO3 (NH4 )2 CO3 (NH4 )3 PO4
Zinc Zn 2+ ZnO ZnS

53
ZnF2 ZnCl2 Zn(OH)2 ZnBr2 ZnSO4 Zn(NO3 )2 ZnCO3 Zn3 (PO4 )2
Lead Pb 2+ PbF2 PbCl2 Pb(OH)2 PbBr2 PbO PbS PbSO4 Pb(No3 )2 PbCO3 Pb3 (PO4 )2
Magnesium Mg 2+ MgF2 MgCl2 Mg(OH)2 MgBr2 MgO MgS MgSO4 Mg(No3 )2 MgCO3 Mg3 (PO4 )2
Calcium Ca 2+ CaF2 CaCl2 Ca(OH)2 CaBr2 CaO CaS CaSO4 Ca(No3 )2 CaCO3 Ca3 (PO4 )2
Copper (II) Cu 2+ CuF2 CuCl2 Cu(OH)2 CuBr2 CuO CuS CuSO4 Cu(No3 )2 CuCO3 Cu3 (PO4 )2
Iron (III) Fe 3+ FeF3 FeCl3 Fe(OH)3 FeBr3 Fe2 O3 Fe2 S3 Fe2 (SO4 )3 Fe(NO3 )3 Fe2 (CO3 )3 FePO4
Aluminium Al 3+ AlF3 AlCl3 Al(OH)3 AlBr3 Al2 O3 Al2 S3 Al2 (SO4 )3 Al(NO3 )3 Al2 (CO3 )3 AlPO4
Table 18: Table of Ions & Ionic Compounds
anion test test result
carbonate (CO32 – ) add dilute acid effervescence, carbon dioxide
produced
aqueous chloride (Cl – ) acidify with dilute nitric acid, then white precipitate
add aqueous silver nitrate
aqueous iodide (I – ) acidify with dilute nitric acid, then yellow precipitate
add aqueous silver nitrate
aqueous nitrate (NO3– ) add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then ammonia produced
aluminium foil; warm carefully
aqueous sulphate (SO42 – ) acidify, then add aqueous barium ni- white precipitate
trate
Table 19: Tests for anions.

54