Upper Oligocene lacustrine AUTHORS

Andrew D. Hanson ⬃ Department of

source rocks and petroleum Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford
University, Stanford, California, 94305–2115;
systems of the northern current address: Department of Geoscience,
University of Nevada Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland

Qaidam basin, Parkway, Las Vegas, Nevada, 89154;

andrewh@nevada.edu

northwest China Andrew Hanson attained a B.S. degree in nursing

from Montana State University, an M.S. degree in
geological sciences from San Diego State
Andrew D. Hanson, Bradley D. Ritts, David Zinniker, University, and a Ph.D. in geological and
environmental sciences from Stanford University.
J. Michael Moldowan, and Ulderico Biffi
His dissertation focused on organic geochemistry,
petroleum geology, and tectonics and
sedimentation of the Tarim and Qaidam basins in
northwest China. After graduation he worked for
ABSTRACT Texaco Exploration investigating deep-water areas
offshore Nigeria. Hanson recently joined the faculty
Our organic geochemical study of oils from the northern Qaidam of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas and is
basin defines a family of genetically related oils that contain bio- establishing research projects in China and the
markers indicative of source rocks deposited in Tertiary hypersaline, western United States.
anoxic lacustrine settings. Although Cenozoic outcrop samples
from northern Qaidam are too organic lean to be of source quality, Bradley D. Ritts ⬃ Department of Geological
and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University,
dark laminated upper Oligocene mudstones containing gypsum Stanford, California, 94305–2115; current address:
crystals and pyrite from the Shi 28 well yield total organic carbon Department of Geology, Utah State University,
(TOC) and Rock-Eval data indicative of fair to good source rocks. 4505 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah, 84322–4505;
Organic matter is derived from algae and bacteria and there appar- ritts@cc.usu.edu
ently was little contribution from terrestrial material. Biomarker Bradley Ritts received his Ph.D. in geological
data provide a good correlation between the produced oils and the sciences from Stanford University, where he
upper Oligocene Shi 28 core samples. Hydrocarbons derived from worked on tectonics, sedimentology, and
petroleum systems of the Qaidam and Tarim
these source rocks are contained in upper Oligocene, Miocene, and basins. He then moved to Chevron Overseas
Pliocene reservoirs. Although eight of the oil samples are from the Petroleum, as an exploration geologist working on
northwest corner of the basin, one sample in this genetic family of China. Ritts is an assistant professor at Utah State
hypersaline oils comes from northeast Qaidam, an area previously University, where his research focuses on tectonics
believed to only produce oils derived from Jurassic freshwater la- and sedimentation and petroleum systems of
tectonically active, nonmarine basins. His current
custrine source rocks. This sample thus indicates the presence of an
research projects are in China and the western
unidentified and undocumented source rock in the northeast part United States.
of the basin. Hypersaline oils and the associated source rocks have
low biomarker maturity parameters. Thermal modeling indicates David Zinniker ⬃ Department of Geological
that hydrocarbon generation probably occurred in northwestern and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University,
Stanford, California, 94305–2115;
Qaidam within the last 3 million years.
zinniker@pangea.stanford.edu
David Zinniker is a Ph.D. candidate in the
department of Geological and Environmental
INTRODUCTION Sciences at Stanford University. His work focuses
on the use of molecular organic geochemistry,
The Qaidam basin is a nonmarine, petroliferous basin that lies in stable isotope geochemistry, and
the northeastern corner of the Tibetan Plateau in northwest China micropaleontology to understand ancient terrestrial
ecosystems and petroleum that has significant
higher plant input. He received his B.S. degree in
Copyright 䉷2001. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. geology at Stanford University in 1996.
Manuscript received November 17, 1998; revised manuscript received June 9, 2000; final acceptance
August 30, 2000.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 85, no. 4 (April 2001), pp. 601–619 601

 J. Michael Moldowan ⬃ Department of
Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford
University, Stanford, California, 94305–2115;
moldowan@pangea.stanford.edu
J. Michael Moldowan attained a B.S. degree in
chemistry from Wayne State University (1968) and
a Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of
Michigan (1972). After a postdoctoral fellowship
with Carl Djerassi at Stanford University, he joined
Chevron in 1974 where he developed fundamental
and applied technology related to petroleum
biomarkers. Since 1993, Moldowan has been
professor (research) in Stanford University’s
Department of Geological and Environmental
Sciences. He has published more than 80 journal
articles and three books. Two articles, published in
1978 and 1989, received best paper awards from
the Organic Geochemistry Division of the
Geological Society.
Ulderico Biffi ⬃ Agip, 20097 San Donato,
Milan, Italy
Ulderico Biffi graduated from the University of
Milan’s Geological Sciences department. He joined
AGIP in 1977 and studied Tertiary palynomorphs of
the Niger Delta. He has conducted original
palynological studies of the Mesozoic Nubian
Sequence in Libya, the Mesozoic stratigraphy of the
Tarim basin, the Tertiary Numidic basin in Sicily,
and the Italian Paleogene and Neogene. Currently
he is involved in the study of the Caspian Neogene.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Primary financial support for this article was pro-
vided by the Stanford China Industrial Affiliates.
Additional funding was provided by the Shell and
McGee Funds of Stanford University and student
grants from the AAPG Grants-in-Aid Program and
the Geological Society of America. The Stanford
Molecular Organic Geochemistry Industrial Affiliates
supported biomarker studies. David Zinniker and J.
Michael Moldowan acknowledge partial research
support from ACS-PRF Grant #30245-AC2. Ching-
Yen Chu provided excellent translation and field as-
sistance. Edmund Chang arranged logistics and
provided translation. Alan Carroll (formerly with
Exxon Production Research [EPR] Corporation) ar-
ranged for analytical work that was completed at
Humble Geochemical with expenses being covered
by EPR.
602 Petroleum Systems of the Northern Qaidam Basin (China)
(Figure 1). The basin floor sits approximately 3–3.5 km above sea
level, and the basin is surrounded on all sides by high mountains.
To the north are the Altun Mountains, the Qilian Mountains are
along the northeast, and the eastern Kunlun Mountains are to the
southwest (Figure 1). Each of these ranges has peaks in excess of
5–7 km elevation. The basin sits in the center of Asia in the rain
shadow of the Tibetan Plateau and the three surrounding ranges,
has very low precipitation, and is internally drained. Palynological
studies of Cenozoic strata of Qaidam indicate that flora were prin-
cipally species that were tolerant to extremely dry and saline hab-
itats and suggest that, during most of the Tertiary, the basin was
characterized by a dry climate (T. Fouchs, 1994, personal com-
munication). The dry climate and lack of significant higher plants
have had a direct impact on the type of organic matter available for
preservation in source rock intervals in the basin.
Facies relationships, provenance, sediment-dispersal paths
(Hanson, 1997, 1999), isopach relationships (Anonymous, 1990),
and growth structures seen on seismic data (Song and Wang, 1993)
all indicate that the basin has been internally drained since at least
the late Oligocene. As a result, the depocenter of the basin has been
occupied by lakes that have elevated salinity throughout much of
the Cenozoic (X. Huang and Shao, 1993). In simplest terms, basin
fill is characterized by stacked coarse alluvial fan and braided-stream
deposits near the active basin margins that interfinger and grade
laterally basinward into lacustrine deposits. The depocenter of the
basin has progressively shifted southeastward during the Cenozoic
from an initial position in the northwest part of the basin to its
current depocenter at Dabushin Lake near the center of the basin
(Lee, 1984; X. Huang and Shao, 1993). Small modern lakes in the
basin center continue to be highly saline in the present arid climate
and are currently the site of deposition of unusual potash evaporites
(Lowenstein et al., 1989; Casas et al., 1992).
Paleocene and Eocene strata occur in the subsurface and a few
small outcrops in northern Qaidam but are not widespread in the
rest of the basin. Oligocene strata are more widespread and include
lacustrine rocks within the lower Ganchaigou Formation in north-
western Qaidam (Anonymous, 1990) (Figure 2). Lacustrine dep-
osition was also widespread in Qaidam during the Miocene,
whereas lesser amounts of lacustrine strata are present in lower Pli-
ocene sections. Upper Pliocene and Quaternary sections are gen-
erally coarser grained fluvial and alluvial deposits, which are quite
thick and reflect high sedimentation rates. Where thickest,
Oligocene–Miocene strata exceed 3 km, whereas Pliocene and Qua-
ternary sections in places exceed 5.5 and 2.8 km, respectively (Lee,
1984).
Oil was first discovered in the basin in the late 1950s. Initial
successes were in the northeast around the town of Lenghu (Figure
1). Further exploration in the 1950s discovered additional fields in
the northwest part of the basin around the town of Huatugou (Lee,
1984; Ulmishek, 1984) (Figure 1). Production and exploration are
largely limited to shallow Tertiary reservoirs. In the Lenghu area,
 Modern lake measured
92 93 Gansu Province
section
pre-Cenozoic road
Oligocene Xinjiang Province
oil sample site
Miocene
L. Pliocene provincial Qinghai Province
border
U. Pliocene
fault
.
Mtns
100 km Altun
91
Oboliang Lenghu
38 40

Hongshanhan

Ganchaigou
Shi 28 well
Huatugou
Youshashan

38 00

Qaidam Basin
DETAILED
MAP AREA

BEIJING
Ku
n lun CHINA
Mt TIBET
Xinjiang ns
Province .

Figure 1. Location map of the northern Qaidam basin showing its position on the northeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau (lower
right inset). Hypersaline lacustrine–derived oils discussed in the text were collected at sites marked by filled squares. Eight of these
oils came from the northwest part of the basin, but one sample was collected near Lenghu in the northeast.

many wells have experienced declining production and
have been abandoned owing to increasing water cuts
(C. Fan, 1995, personal communication). As a result,
efforts of the past decade have focused on the north-
west area, and active infill drilling and exploration are
currently centered around Huatugou.
Previous geochemical studies of produced oils
from Qaidam basin have indicated the presence of two
distinct genetic groups of oils (Ritts et al., 1996, 1999;
Ritts, 1998). Links between one group of oils and sa-
line lacustrine source rocks within the Tertiary section
have been made (Anonymous, 1990) based on pris-
tane/phytane (Pr/Ph) ratios, n-alkane distributions,
and terpane and sterane attributes, although no source
rock geochemical data were presented. D. Huang et al.
(1991, 1994) reported dominantly low-maturity oils in
Qaidam and the presence of pregnane and C30 ster-
anes, which they related to thermal degradation and
diagenetic effects. Philp et al. (1989) analyzed two
samples from Qaidam and noted uncommonly heavy
carbon isotopes (ⳮ24.31% for saturate and ⳮ23.55%
for aromatic fractions) for one sample, which they
linked to a saline lacustrine environment. Philp et al.
(1991) analyzed 13 oils from Qaidam and reported
similar findings to those of Anonymous (1990), but no
source rock geochemical data were reported in this ar-
ticle either.
In addition to the hypersaline lacustrine oils, on
which this article focuses, the Qaidam basin has a ge-
netically distinct group of freshwater lacustrine oils

Hanson et al. 603

 outcrops in the northern part of the basin. Paleocene–
Epoch Formation Thickness Deposystems Source
Eocene strata have been penetrated by drilling in the
Quaternary ~100 m fluvial, eolian,
lacustrine northern part of the basin but do not extend into the
Pleistocene Qigequan 0->900 m alluvial-lacustrine
(saline)
southern part of the basin.
Shizigou 400-1800 m alluvial-lacustrine Oligocene–Pliocene strata are beautifully exposed
Pliocene (saline)
Youshashan 400-3000 m alluvial-lacustrine in outcrops along the northern margins of the basin.
(saline)
Miocene Our fieldwork in Qaidam has included documentation
Oligocene Ganchaigou 700-4300 m alluvial-lacustrine of outcrop sections at Lenghu, Oboliang, Hongshan-
(saline)
han, and Ganchaigou (Hanson, 1999) (Figure 1).
Eocene Qaidam has been in a compressional tectonic set-
Lulehe 400-1400 m fluvial
Paleocene ting throughout the Cenozoic. Southwestward-verging
thrust faults along the northeastern margin of the basin
Cretaceous Quyagou 100-1200 m fluvial
(the Qilian margin) (Anonymous, 1990) and north-
Upper Jurassic Hongshigou 100-1300 m alluvial-fluvial westward vergent thrusts along the southwestern mar-
fluvial-lacustrine gin of the basin (the Kunlun margin) (Song and Wang,
Chaishiling 200-600 m (freshwater)
Middle Jurassic 1993), combined with strike-slip motion along the Al-
Dameigou 500-1000 m fluvial-lacustrine
(freshwater) tyn Tagh fault on the northern margin (CSBS, 1992),
fluvial-lacustrine
Lower Jurassic Xiaomeigou 100-200 m (freshwater) provided topographic highs along the basin margins
that subsequently shed thick sedimentary packages
Figure 2. Mesozoic–Cenozoic stratigraphy, depositional sys- into the basin.
tems, and potential source rock intervals of the northern Qaidam Provenance analyses (sandstone petrographic anal-
basin (reprinted from Ritts et al., 1999).
ysis, heavy-mineral analyses, and conglomerate counts)
indicate that Cenozoic sediments adjacent to the basin
margins can be directly tied to the adjacent mountain
that have been correlated to Middle Jurassic source belts (Hanson, 1997, 1999). Documentation of Ce-
rocks (Ritts, 1998; Ritts et al., 1999). Although many nozoic sections indicates rapid lateral facies changes
basins in northwest China share similar organic matter where thick alluvial conglomeratic sections may grade
characteristics during the Jurassic (e.g., Qaidam, Ta- into laminated lacustrine mudstones over distances of
rim, Turpan, and southern Mongolia coals and lacus- a few kilometers.
trine shales), Cenozoic petroleum systems are not
known to exist in northwest Chinese basins, other than Profundal Lacustrine Source Rocks
in Qaidam. Recent discoveries in the Lunpola basin on
the high Tibetan Plateau remain poorly documented Profundal lacustrine deposits are characterized by mas-
but are believed to be derived from Tertiary lacustrine sive to laminated mudstones. Mudstones may range
strata (Ai et al., 1998). from a few meters to several hundred meters in thick-
In this article we describe and provide further ness. At the Ganchaigou section (Figure 3A), we ob-
documentation of Tertiary oils, as well as documenta- served massive mudstones (Figure 3B) whose total
tion of an oil–source rock correlation with Tertiary thickness was more than 300 m. Packaged within the
source rocks. Additionally, we describe components of massive mudstones were several tens of meters of lam-
the Tertiary petroleum system within Qaidam that inated mudstones (Figure 3C). These mudstones are
bear significantly on the prospectivity of the basin. generally devoid of obvious fossils. Laminated thin,
fine-grained to medium-grained sandstones occur
throughout the mudstone sections. The mudstone sec-
TERTIARY SOURCE ROCK GEOLOGY tions are bounded above and below by medium-
grained to coarse-grained tabular sandstones and minor
Quaternary alluvium, eolian sand, lacustrine silt, and pebble conglomerates that are texturally and compo-
salt pans cover much of the Qaidam basin today. Ter- sitionally immature.
tiary strata crop out in fault-bound sections adjacent to We interpret the mudstones to be quiet, relatively
the basin margins and in anticlinal sections that com- deep-water lacustrine mudstones based on the lami-
monly are fault cored. No Paleocene strata are exposed nated to massive character, and thin sandstones within
in the basin, and Eocene outcrops are limited to small the mudstones are turbidity-current deposits within

604 Petroleum Systems of the Northern Qaidam Basin (China)

 Figure 3. (A) Outcrop photo
A. from the Ganchaigou section il-
lustrating the general outcrop
nature within part of the mar-
ginal lacustrine section. (B)
Massive and (C) laminated
mudstones within the lower
Ganchaigou Formation.

B.

C.

Hanson et al. 605

the lacustrine setting. The encasing coarser sandstones
and conglomerates were deposited in braided-plain or
alluvial settings that bordered the lake margins.
Within the Oligocene section at Ganchaigou, the
coarse sandstones and conglomerates are charged with
hydrocarbons.
Mudstones seen within the Shi 28 well, which is a
few kilometers farther from the basin margin than the
Ganchaigou section, have better developed laminae
and are much darker colored (Figure 4A). Contained
within the mudstones are euhedral gypsum crystals
A.
B.
B.
C.
Figure 4. (A) Photo of laminated dark mudstone from the Shi
28 core. Scale bar at the top is 5 cm long. (B) Euhedral gypsum
crystals are seen in part of the Shi 28 core and (C) in the
photomicrograph. The horizontal dimension of the photomicro-
graph is 21 mm.
606 Petroleum Systems of the Northern Qaidam Basin (China)
(Figure 4B, C). These mudstones were deposited in a
deeper lacustrine setting in which water depths were
sufficiently deep to allow the development of a strati-
fied water column that had anoxic bottom water. Paly-
nological analysis and geochemical attributes discussed
in following sections enhance this interpretation.
Marginal Lacustrine Strata
Adjacent to (both vertically and horizontally) the pro-
fundal lacustrine mudstones described previously are
marginal lacustrine mudstones and carbonates. The fa-
cies consists of thin sandstones and carbonates con-
tained within mudstones. Mudstones tend to be mas-
sive and are shades of red, green, yellow, and brown.
Thin (few decimeters to 3 m) micritic carbonates were
seen at the Ganchaigou section. The micrites appear
to have been deposited as algal stromatolites and form
thin crusts over sandstones. Uncommonly the micrites
contain ostracods and pisoliths. Fine-grained to
medium-grained sandstones are sharp based and lat-
erally continuous for several hundreds of meters. In
some places thicker sandstones contain large-scale pla-
nar cross-stratification. Some mudstone layers contain
mud cracks.
The pisolitic carbonates indicate a marginal lacus-
trine setting. Massive, variegated mudstones were de-
posited in nearshore-lake settings that were in places
subaerially exposed. Thinner sandstones are inter-
preted as nearshore sand deposits, whereas thicker
cross-stratified sandstones are interpreted as progra-
dational fluvial sands. Nearly the entire Miocene sec-
tion at the Ganchaigou, Hongshanhan, and Oboliang
sections consists of this facies assemblage. Although
these strata do not have good source rock quality in the
outcrop, we were particularly interested in the carbon-
ates because of molecular organic geochemical attrib-
utes, which suggested a lack of shale within the source
rocks, and an implied association with an evaporite-
carbonate source rock.
OLIGOCENE SOURCE ROCKS
Methods
Unweathered source rock samples were collected from
the most promising outcrop section. We attempted to
diminish the effects of weathering by excavating and
collecting the freshest samples possible, although we
admit that we are uncertain how much an effect
weathering of outcrop samples might have had on our
results. Leco total organic carbon (TOC, wt. %) data
generated by Global Geochemical Corporation and
Leco TOC and vitrinite reflectance performed on some
samples by Humble Geochemical Services Division
compliments of Exxon Production Research Company
are shown in Table 1. Leco TOC, Rock-Eval pyrolysis,
and elemental analysis conducted on source rocks by
Core Laboratories are provided in Table 2. Kerogen
assessment and vitrinite reflectance conducted on two
of the Shi 28 core samples by Core Laboratories are
shown in Table 3.
Source Rock Quality
Our initial investigations of source rocks were re-
stricted to outcrop samples. These included samples
from the Ganchaigou, Hongshanhan, and Oboliang
areas. Tertiary strata at the Lenghu locality contained
no apparent source rocks. The TOC values for these
samples were uniformly low despite the presence of
well-developed laminae and preserved fish-bone frag-
ments in some samples within the moderately dark
green-gray mudstones. Oligocene mudstones from
Ganchaigou outcrops had TOC values of 0.03–0.30%

Table 1. Outcrop Sample Data

Sample ID Locality Age TOC* (wt. %) Ro** Lithology Data Source†

95GG128 Ganchaigou Pliocene 0.08 carbonate 1

95GG127 Ganchaigou Pliocene 0.07 carbonate 1
95GG125 Ganchaigou Miocene 0.05 carbonate 1
95GG123 Ganchaigou Miocene 0.18 carbonate 1
95GG121 Ganchaigou Miocene 0.10 mudstone 1
95GG120 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.10 mudstone 1
95GG119 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.20 mudstone 1
95GG118 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.05 mudstone 1
95GG117 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.21 carbonate 1
95GG115 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.28 carbonate 1
95GG113 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.36 carbonate 1
95GG111 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.03 mudstone 1
95GG110 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.31 carbonate 1
95GG109 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.18 mudstone 1
95GG108 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.09 mudstone 1
94GG137 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.30 1.06 mudstone 2
94GG191 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.30 mudstone 2
94GG192 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.28 1.03 mudstone 2
94GG193 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.30 mudstone 2
94GG196 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.22 mudstone 2
94GG202 Ganchaigou Oligocene 0.28 0.90 mudstone 2
95HS57 Hongshanhan Miocene 0.09 mudstone 1
95HS75 Hongshanhan Miocene 0.07 mudstone 1
95HS77 Hongshanhan Miocene 0.03 mudstone 1
95HS79 Hongshanhan Miocene 0.02 mudstone 1
95HS80 Hongshanhan Miocene 0.02 mudstone 1
95HS83 Hongshanhan Miocene 0.03 mudstone 1
95HS84 Hongshanhan Miocene 0.02 mudstone 1
95HS88 Hongshanhan Miocene 0.17 mudstone 1
95OB38 Oboliang Miocene 0.09 mudstone 1
95OB30 Oboliang Miocene 0.07 mudstone 1
*TOC ⳱ total organic carbon (wt. %)
**Ro ⳱ vitrinite reflectance
†
1 ⳱ Humble Geochemical Services Division; 2 ⳱ Global Geochemistry Corporation

Hanson et al. 607

Table 2. Total Organic Carbon, Rock-Eval Pyrolysis, and Elemental Analyses Results for Core Samples*

Sample TOC S1 S2 S3 Tmax Transformation wt. %

ID Type Locale (wt. %) (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) S2/S3 (⬚C) HI OI Ratio H C N O S

96OB135 Core Oboliang 0.19

96OB136 Core Oboliang 0.19
96SI124 Core Shizigou 0.42
96SI125 Core Shizigou 0.81 1.55 2.17 0.69 3.1 424 268 85 0.42
96SI126 Core Shizigou 0.27
96SI127 Core Shizigou 1.16 1.40 4.06 0.42 9.7 437 350 36 0.26 6.31 59.75 0.96 4.42 15.36
96SI128 Core Shizigou 1.22 1.08 4.21 0.49 8.6 437 345 40 0.20 2.60 26.97 0.37
96SI129 Core Shizigou 0.85 1.58 2.04 0.86 2.4 421 240 101 0.44
96SI130 Core Shizigou 0.94 1.69 3.15 0.60 5.3 436 335 64 0.35 2.59 24.10 0.50
96SI131 Core Shizigou 1.15 1.46 3.95 0.60 6.6 434 343 52 0.27
96SI132 Core Shizigou 0.52
96SI133 Core Shizigou 0.90 1.73 3.25 0.61 5.3 437 361 68 0.35
96SI134 Core Shizigou 0.82 1.93 2.60 0.54 4.8 431 317 66 0.43
*TOC ⳱ total organic carbon (wt. %); S1 ⳱ free hydrocarbons (mg/g); S2 ⳱ pyrolyzable hydrocarbons (mg/g); S3 ⳱ CO2 released during pyrolysis (mg/g);
hydrogen index (HI) ⳱ [(S2/%TOC) ⳯ 100]; oxygen index (OI) ⳱ [(S3/%TOC) ⳯ 100]; transformation ratio ⳱ S1/(S1 Ⳮ S2).
All data from Core Laboratories.

and an average value of 0.20% (n ⳱ 12); carbonate
samples had only slightly higher TOC values (0.21–
0.36%, average ⳱ 0.29%, n ⳱ 4) (Table 1). Miocene
mudstone outcrop samples provided even lower TOC
contents: at Ganchaigou, TOC values were 0.10% for
mudstone (n ⳱ 1) and 0.12% for carbonates (n ⳱ 2)
(Table 1). Miocene mudstones from Hongshanhan
were also organic poor (0.02–0.17%, average ⳱ 0.05%,
n ⳱ 8), as were those from Oboliang (0.08%, n ⳱ 2)
(Table 1). Pliocene carbonates in the Ganchaigou sec-
tion also had low TOC levels (0.08%, n ⳱ 2) (Table
1). Although the outcrop samples have been weath-
ered, their close association within shallow lacustrine
and fluvial strata suggests that their low TOC values
are a true reflection of an original organic-poor state.
We also analyzed core samples from two wells, one
set of samples from Oboliang (Miocene mudstones
that have TOC values of 0.19%, n ⳱ 2) and another
set of samples from the Shi 28 well within the Shizigou
anticline near Huatugou (Table 2; Figure 1). Samples
from the Shi 28 well came from depths of 3990–
4016.9 m (the lower Ganchaigou Formation) and are
middle-late Oligocene in age according to the Qinghai
Petroleum Bureau. Samples generally consist of
millimeter-scale laminated dark-gray mudstones (Fig-
ure 4A), although some core segments contain fairly
massive dark-gray mudstones that contain large (up to
2 cm in length) euhedral gypsum crystals (Figure 4B,
C). The TOC values for these mudstones range from
0.27 to 1.22% and have an average of 0.82% (n ⳱ 11)
(Table 2). The TOC values in this range are considered
to have fair to good generative potential (Peters and
Cassa, 1994).
Rock-Eval pyrolysis was carried out on Shi 28 sam-
ples whose TOC values exceed 0.8 wt. % (Table 2).
The S1 and S2 values indicate fair to good quantity of
organic matter (Peters and Cassa, 1994). Calculated
hydrogen indices (mg HC/g TOC) for these samples
range from 240 to 361 and S2/S3 values are between
2.4 and 9.7, having an average of 5.7 (Table 3). These
results suggest that, based on the organic material, they
could generate either gas or oil (Peters, 1986; Peters
and Cassa, 1994). A crossplot of hydrogen index (HI)
vs. oxygen index (OI) for these samples is shown in
Figure 5A and reveals that two of the samples plot
along the type I pathway, four plot adjacent to the type
II pathway, and the remaining two samples plot be-
tween the type II and type III pathways. Because HI
vs. OI plots can produce unreliable results for some
organic-lean samples, we wanted to confirm these find-
ings by plotting the data on a van Krevelen diagram.
To derive the necessary data, we performed elemental
analysis (H, C, N, O, and S) on the three samples that
have the highest TOC values. Only one sample, how-
ever, had sufficient elemental oxygen to yield a reliable
measurement (Table 2). This sample (sample
96SI127), which is one of the two samples that plotted
along the type I pathway on the HI vs. OI plot, is plot-

608 Petroleum Systems of the Northern Qaidam Basin (China)

 ted on a van Krevelen diagram (Figure 5B) and shows

abundant pyrite

Amorphinite (Am) includes nonstructured amorphous debris Ⳮ amorphous sapropels; Fl Am ⳱ fluorescing amorphous; NFl Am ⳱ nonfluorescing amorphous; liptinite ⳱ waxy and resinous materials generally having a
whole rock Ro
that this sample again plots along the type I pathway.

Remarks
This suggests that the HI vs. OI plots are reliable and
that at least some samples are highly oil prone.
The Shi 28 core sample that has the highest TOC

characteristic form (i.e., plant cuticle, pollen, resins, etc.); vitrinite includes woody, coaly, and vitrinitic material; inertinite ⳱ charcoal, highly oxidized or reworked material of any origin; T ⳱ trace.
value was analyzed to determine the kerogen maceral

very poor
Recovery
Vitrinite
Indigenous Vitrinite Data composition. This sample contained 20% fluorescing
and 80% nonfluorescing amorphous kerogen and had
trace amounts of liptinite, vitrinite, and inertite
(Table 3).
Deviation
Standard

0.07 Thermal Maturity of Core Samples

Readings

Vitrinite reflectance for the stratigraphically lowest of

# of

the Shi 28 core samples (depth ⳱ 4016.9 m) yielded

8

a vitrinite reflectance value of 0.68% Ro, although very

poor vitrinite recovery provided insufficient vitrinite
Not requested
Reflectance

for a reliable determination (total number of readings

Vitrinite

0.68**

⳱ 33, number of readings for the indigenous popula-

tion ⳱ 8, mean reflectance ⳱ 0.68, standard deviation
⳱ 0.07). A thermal alteration index (TAI) of 2 to 2Ⳮ
was estimated for core samples based on the color and
2/2Ⳮ

appearance of amorphinite. These values suggest an

TAI

early maturity stage. The Tmax values range from 421

to 437⬚C, which are below or just at the birthline value
Inertinite

of Peters (1986).
T

Thermal Maturity of Outcrop Samples

Table 3. Visual Kerogen and Vitrinite Reflectance Assessment for Core Samples*

Kerogen Maceral Composition

Vitrinite

Vitrinite reflectance values for three samples taken

from a similar stratigraphic interval at the adjacent
Ganchaigou outcrop are higher than the Ro value of
Liptinite

the core sample discussed in the previous section and

**Insufficient indigenous vitrinite for a reliable vitrinite reflectance determination.
T

range from 0.90 to 1.06% (Table 1). Amorphous ma-

terial within Ganchaigou Oligocene outcrop samples
NFl Am

is light brown. Our measured section suggests that the

80

outcrop samples were buried to a deeper depth prior

to exhumation than the core samples, which would
Not requested

explain the higher reflectance values seen in the out-

Fl Am

crop samples.
20

Source Rock Potential

Shizigou
Shizigou
Locale

Calculated source potential index (SPI) values (De-

maison and Huizinga, 1994) based on the Shi 28 core
data yield low values (⬍ 1). We limited our source rock
Type

Core
Core

thickness to 26 m, however, which is the total source

rock thickness within the core from the Shi 28 well.
Because the well reached its total depth within the
96SI128
96SI134
Sample

source rock interval, the actual total thickness of the

ID

source rock interval likely is greater. Ulmishek (1984)

*

Hanson et al. 609

Figure 5. (A) Crossplot of hy- A B
drogen index (HI) vs. oxygen 700 2.0
Type I
index (OI) (Espitalié et al., Type I
1.8
1977) data for Shi 28 core sam- 600 Type II

Hydrogen Index (S2/TOC) x 100

ples indicating dominantly type 1.6
96SI127
I and type II kerogens. (B) Sam- 500

ATOMIC RATIO H/C

ple 96SI127 from the Shi 28 96SI127
1.4 Type II

core plots on a van Krevelen 400 1.2

diagram in the area indicative Qaidam basin
of type 1 kerogen. The van 300 Core Samples 1.0
Krevelen result is in agreement Type III
0.8
with, and provides further sup-
200
port for, the HI vs. OI data. 0.6
Type III

100
0.4

0 0.2
0 100 200 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Oxygen Index (S3/TOC) x 100
ATOMIC RATIO O/C

estimated that the sequence could be several thousand
meters thick, which if true changes the SPI by two or-
ders of magnitude. Note that our samples were posi-
tively picked and thus may yield a value higher than
what should have been recorded. Until additional data
become available we can not reliably calculate SPI.
Palynology
highly degraded herbaceous fragments and minor fu-
sinite, suggesting that the environment was probably
fairly profundal lacustrine. Other samples have paly-
nomorphs indicative of anoxic bottom conditions.
Palynomorphs in the Ganchaigou samples were
not specifically identified but were reported by Core
Laboratories to be characteristic of nearshore facies.

The age of strata in the core samples is reported by PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY

Chinese petroleum geologists to be middle-late Oli-
gocene. Our palynological analysis (performed by Biffi)
found amorphous organic matter and very badly de-
graded herbaceous fragmented bisaccate pollens (con-
ifers). These were badly preserved and had traces of
pyrite alteration. These pollens have been tentatively
identified as Pinuspollenites, Abiespollenites, Pityo-
sporites, Podocarpites, cf. Tsugaepollenites, and Inaper-
turopollenites. Some samples provided a rich assem-
blage of bisaccates (⬎ 500 per slide), unfortunately
having very bad preservation.
The assemblages are quite monotonous and not
age diagnostic; the occurrence of a few pollen grains
tentatively identified as Tsugaepollenites might favor an
Oligocene–early Miocene age. The absence of old (Pa-
leogene) palynomorphs might confirm the samples are
not older than Oligocene.
The presence of bisaccate pollens suggests a pro-
fundal lacustrine environment due to the absence of
heavy spores typical of marshes and the consequent
dominance of bisaccate pollens and anemophyles that
have very good buoyancy. One sample is dominated by
Two groups of oils, which are geochemically distinct,
exist in the Qaidam basin. One group of oils (n ⳱ 8)
has biomarker characteristics indicative of a freshwater
lacustrine source and is interpreted to have been gen-
erated from Middle Jurassic source rocks (Ritts et al.,
1999). The other group of oils (n ⳱ 9) has character-
istics typical of derivation from a hypersaline lacustrine
source rock and is interpreted to have been derived
from a Tertiary source. We concentrate in this article
on the second group of oils. Most oil samples described
in this article were collected from wellheads or pools
adjacent to wells; however, two samples were obtained
from a truck carrying stolen oil from the Youshashan
field, which was stopped by Qaidam Petroleum Bureau
officials who were accompanying us.
Freshwater Lacustrine–Terrestrial Oils
Our initial studies indicated that there are two distinct
sets of oils within Qaidam basin (Ritts et al., 1996).
Full documentation of the first group of oils (derived

610 Petroleum Systems of the Northern Qaidam Basin (China)

from freshwater lacustrine source rocks) can be found
in Ritts (1998) and Ritts et al. (1999). In short, this
group (which we refer to as genetic group 1) has high
Pr/Ph ratios and n-alkanes that display odd-over-even
distributions indicative of a shale source rock rich in
terrestrial organic matter (Tissot and Welte, 1984;
Moldowan et al., 1985) (Table 4). This group of oils
has relatively high concentrations of diasteranes, an in-
dicator of a shale-rich source rock (Sieskind et al.,
1979) (Table 4). These oils display bimodal n-alkane
distributions and high amounts of heavier n-alkanes (⬎
C25). Relative concentrations of C29 steranes are gen-
erally higher than C27 or C28 steranes in this suite of
oils (Table 4). These oils lack b-carotane, c-carotane,
and gammacerane, which are present in the second
group of oils. Also, unlike the second group of oils, the
relative concentrations of C34 and C35 homohopanes
are very low compared to other triterpanes on the m/z
191 chromatogram. Calculated 24-norcholestane ratios
[24/(24 Ⳮ 27)-norcholestane] from MRM-GC-MS
(metastable reaction monitoring–gas chromatograph–
mass spectrometer) for this group of oils are between
0.37 and 0.40. Holba et al. (1998) have documented
that norcholestane ratios in excess of 0.6 indicate an
Oligocene or younger source rock. Suitable freshwater
environments, which might have generated these oils,
are lacking in the Tertiary section. Based on oil–source
rock biomarker correlation studies (Ritts, 1998; Ritts
et al., 1999), it is clear that this group of oils is derived
from Jurassic lacustrine source rocks. All samples
within this group are from wells in northeast Qaidam,
around Lenghu. Additionally, all samples within this
group are more mature than any of the oils from the
second group.
Hypersaline Lacustrine Oils
A total of nine oils belongs to the second genetic fam-
ily. Although most of the samples (n ⳱ 8) came from
northwest Qaidam, one sample came from northeast
Qaidam (Figure 1; Table 4). These oils have charac-
teristics consistent with a common origin from source
rocks deposited under anoxic, evaporative conditions
as described in following paragraphs. These oils have
uncommonly low Pr/Ph ratios similar to those de-
scribed by previous workers in Qaidam (D. Huang et
al., 1989; Anonymous, 1990; Philp et al., 1991) (Fig-
ure 6A). Our calculated Pr/Ph ratios for this group are
0.06–0.53 (Table 4). The range of n-alkane distribu-
tions shows distinct even-over-odd preference in the
n-C16 to n-C26 range (Table 4). Both b-carotane and
c-carotane are seen on GC chromatograms (Figure 6A;
Table 4), and these compounds are always significant
where they are present. Additionally, peaks are present
on the m/z 125 mass chromatograms in the region
where the carotanes elute, which supports our inter-
pretation that the peaks seen on the GC traces are due
to the presence of b-carotane and c-carotane.
We did not perform carbon isotope analysis on our
samples. Philp et al. (1991), however, reported carbon
isotope values of about ⳮ26%, and D. Huang et al.
(1989) reported isotopic values between ⳮ21.5 and
ⳮ25% for oils that have essentially the same attributes
as our samples. These heavy values are consistent with
typical saline lake environments as a result of depletion
of CO2 by photosynthetic organisms (Peters et al.,
1996).
Oils from the hypersaline lacustrine family have
very low amounts of diasteranes (Figure 7), which
commonly suggests a source rock that has low content
of catalytic clays, consistent with carbonate or evapo-
rite source rocks (Mello et al., 1988; Peters and Mol-
dowan, 1993). Although low diasterane relative con-
centrations commonly reflect a shale-poor source rock,
the amount of diasteranes in oils is also influenced by
the level of thermal maturity (i.e., diasteranes increase
with increasing maturity). As discussed in following
paragraphs, these oils are all very low maturity, and
thus diasterane relative concentrations may be low,
partially owing to the low level of thermal maturity.
Philp et al. (1991) speculated that the amount of dia-
steranes in oils decreases in highly reducing noncar-
bonate environments with increasing salinity. This hy-
pothesis, if true, would explain why diasteranes are
essentially absent in shale-sample extracts from Qai-
dam, where the high salinity of the depositional envi-
ronment is unquestioned.
The C34 and C35 homohopanes are well preserved,
indicating a strongly reducing, anoxic depositional en-
vironment for the source rocks (Figure 8A). Calculated
homohopane index values are significantly greater
among the hypersaline lacustrine–derived oils than
they are in the freshwater lacustrine–derived oils (Ta-
ble 4).
The relative abundance of gammacerane is high in
all of the hypersaline oil samples, having gammacerane/
(gammacerane Ⳮ C30 hopane) ratios as high as 0.57
(Figure 8A; Table 4). The elevated gammacerane lev-
els, together with the presence of b-carotane, are
strongly linked to hypersaline lacustrine source rocks
(Moldowan et al., 1985; Fu et al., 1986; Jiang and
Fowler, 1986). b-carotane is commonly associated
Hanson et al. 611
Table 4. Data for Nine Hypersaline Lacustrine Oils (Genetic Group 2) and Related Data for Four of the Freshwater Lacustrine Oils
(Group 1)*

Oil Genetic Gammacerane Homohopane

Sample Group Latitude Longitude OEP Pr/Ph Carotanes? Index Index

95GG49 2 N38 13⬘ 15.9⬙ E90 55⬘ 1.5⬙ 0.92 0.53 Yes 0.33 0.19
95GG50 2 N38 10⬘ 12.5⬙ E90 53⬘ 10.9⬙ 0.91 0.44 Yes 0.19 0.17
95HS101 2 N37 53⬘ 16.0⬙ E91 49⬘ 39.3⬙ 0.89 0.23 Yes 0.16 0.08
95HS102 2 N37 55⬘ 17.6⬙ E91 19⬘ 1.2⬙ 0.94 0.28 Yes 0.26 0.10
95HU191 2 N38 21⬘ 26⬙ E90 40⬘ 35⬙ 0.90 0.35 Yes 0.44 0.19
94HU266 2 ⬃N38 09⬘ 07⬙ ⬃E91 01⬘ 04⬙ 0.90 0.17 Yes 0.48 0.21
94HU265 2 ⬃N38 09⬘ 07⬙ ⬃E91 01⬘ 04⬙ 0.86 0.43 Yes 0.39 0.24
94HU127 2 N38 21⬘ 53⬙ E90 47⬘ 30⬙ 0.76 0.37 Yes 0.57 0.34
95LH206 2 N38 42⬘ 40⬙ E93 21⬘ 20⬙ 0.89 0.06 Yes 0.25 0.19
95LE3 1 ⬃N38 48⬘ 08⬙ ⬃E93 18⬘ 18⬙ 1.00 2.86 No 0.05 0.03
95LE2 1 N38 48⬘ 07⬙ E93 18⬘ 16⬙ 1.04 3.67 No 0.02 0.02
95LE1 1 ⬃N38 48⬘ 06⬙ ⬃E93 18⬘ 15⬙ 1.07 3.00 No 0.01 0.00
95LH210 1 N38 42⬘ 42⬙ E93 20⬘ 18⬙ 1.04 4.09 No 0.01 0.04
*OEP (odd:even preference) ⳱ (C21 Ⳮ 6C23 Ⳮ C25)/(4C22 Ⳮ 4C24); Gammacerane index ⳱ gammacerane/(gammacerane Ⳮ C30 hopane); Homohopane index
⳱ (C35 homohopane S Ⳮ R)/(C35 Ⳮ C34 Ⳮ C33 Ⳮ C32 Ⳮ C31 homohopane S Ⳮ R); Diasterane index ⳱ (C27 diasterane S Ⳮ R)/[(C27 diasterane S Ⳮ R) Ⳮ
(C29 ␣␣␣ sterane S Ⳮ R)]; % C27 steranes ⳱ [(C27 ␣␣␣ Ⳮ ␣bb R Ⳮ S)/(C27 Ⳮ C28 Ⳮ C29 ␣␣␣ Ⳮ ␣bb R Ⳮ S)] ⳯ 100; % C28 steranes ⳱ [(C28 ␣␣␣ Ⳮ
␣bb R Ⳮ S)/(C27 Ⳮ C28 Ⳮ C29 ␣␣␣ Ⳮ ␣bb R Ⳮ S) ⳯ 100; % C29 steranes ⳱ [(C29 ␣␣␣ Ⳮ ␣bb R Ⳮ S)/(C27 Ⳮ C28 Ⳮ C29 ␣␣␣ Ⳮ ␣bb R Ⳮ S)]
⳯ 100.

with anoxic, arid, algal-rich lacustrine systems that
have low sulfur levels (Fu et al., 1986). Our analysis of
two oils in this family yielded sulfur (wt. %) values of
0.37–0.38. These relatively low values in the oil sam-
ples are expected because of the presence of b-
carotane; however, elemental sulfur analysis from one
of the core samples yielded a value of 15.36 wt. %
(Table 2). This finding is similar to that reported by
Peters et al. (1996) from the Jianghan basin in eastern
China, where b-carotane is seen in the oils, suggesting
low sulfur contents, but the kerogens are sulfur rich.
Our core samples contain relatively high amounts of
pyrite.
Numerous lines of evidence point to a hypersaline
lacustrine depositional environment for the source
rocks for these oils. High relative gammacerane con-
centrations are associated with a stratified water col-
umn commonly associated with elevated salinity con-
ditions (Sinninghe Damste et al., 1995). b-carotane is
almost always associated with stratified lacustrine en-
vironments. A high relative abundance of pregnane, as
reported by D. Huang et al. (1994), is also indicative
of hypersaline conditions.
Elevated amounts of C27 steranes (34–55%) in the
oils (Table 4) suggest a significant contribution to the
organic matter from algae. The most striking aspect of
the steranes, however, is the dominance of the 20R
(biological) epimer relative to the 20S (geological) epi-
mer (Figure 7; Table 4). The C29 20S/(20S Ⳮ 20R)
ratio ranges between 0.28 and 0.58, having an average
of 0.37. Other indicators of maturity (Ts /Tm ratios ⬍
1, somewhat low homohopane and sterane isomeri-
zation values) (Table 4) all suggest that these are im-
mature oils. The vitrinite data, however, are not indic-
ative of thermal immaturity. Either the vitrinite data
are wrong or the biomarkers calibrations are off. Gran-
tham (1986) suggested that the time-temperature con-
straints of sterane isomerization reactions are such that
the time available for isomerization in Tertiary sedi-
ments is generally insufficient, and this may explain
why the biomarker parameters are indicative of im-
mature oils.
All samples contain triaromatic dinosteroids,
which are derived from dinoflagellates (Moldowan et
al., 1996, 1998). Although dinoflagellates comprise
the second largest group of primary producers in the
modern oceans, they also occur in inland water bodies
such as the Great Salt Lake (Tasch, 1980), and we be-
lieve they provided significant organic matter to the
hypersaline lacustrine source rocks.

612 Petroleum Systems of the Northern Qaidam Basin (China)

Table 4. Continued.

C32 C33 C34

Diasterane % C27 % C28 % C29 C29 20S/20S homohopane homohopane homohopane
Index Steranes Steranes Steranes Ⳮ 20R Ts/Tm S/S Ⳮ R S/S Ⳮ R S/S Ⳮ R

0.09 51 23 26 0.47 0.81 0.52 0.50 0.42

0.05 35 34 31 0.53 0.50 0.16 0.50 0.63
0.17 37 37 26 0.32 0.17 0.26 0.44 0.50
0.05 39 31 30 0.31 0.21 0.38 0.43 0.50
0.04 40 28 32 0.34 0.25 0.50 0.53 0.55
0.05 33 29 38 0.34 0.18 0.54 0.50 0.58
0.01 35 30 35 0.33 0.27 0.51 0.53 0.53
0.08 35 25 40 0.27 0.73 0.47 0.44 0.44
0.08 34 32 34 0.36 0.18 0.42 0.44 0.59
0.28 26 36 38 0.43 0.61 0.48 0.50 0.43
0.57 35 24 40 0.57 1.00 0.54 0.55 0.60
0.50 32 35 33 0.46 0.78 0.61 0.62 0.64
0.48 35 21 44 0.35 0.18 0.40 0.38 0.67

As mentioned previously, the 24-norcholestane ra- pimarane/(5a(H)androstane Ⳮ 4b(H)-19-noriso-

tio of Holba et al. (1998) is an age-diagnostic bio-
marker ratio for oil samples. Ratios greater than 0.6
indicate an Oligocene or younger age. Calculated ratios
for the hypersaline oils are between 0.72 and 0.88
(Ritts et al., 1999). Although the 24-norcholestane ra-
tios for the oils indicate an Oligocene age for the source
rock, we see little evidence of oleanane, a biomarker
related to angiosperms that only became abundant in
the late Cretaceous, which is commonly noted in oils
derived from Cretaceous or Tertiary source rock (Mol-
dowan et al., 1994). The absence of oleanane does not
change our age interpretation; instead it suggests that
contribution from organic matter related to angio-
sperms was very low. This interpretation, in concert
with the diterpane data (presented in the next para-
graph), supports our interpretation regarding the arid-
ity of the climate throughout the Tertiary in Qaidam.
The dominant organic matter within these lacustrine
source rocks is from algae and bacteria, not terrestrial
contributors.
Results of our diterpane analyses are shown in Fig-
ure 9. The abundance of 4b(H)-19-norisopimarane is
most likely related to higher plant input to the organic
matter. In Figure 9, the ratios of 4b(H)-19-noriso-
pimarane) and 4b(H)-19-norisopimarane/[(C27 dia-
Ⳮ regular steranes/10) Ⳮ 4b(H)-19-norisopimarane]
are both low for Tertiary oils from Qaidam. These
results support our suggestion that terrestrial matter
was only a minor contributor to the organic matter in
the source rocks. In contrast, Jurassic oils from fresh-
water lacustrine source rocks have high ratios and cor-
relate well to Jurassic source rock extracts (Figure 9)
(Ritts, 1998).
TERTIARY OIL–SOURCE ROCK
CORRELATION MODEL
In an attempt to develop an oil–source rock correla-
tion, we extracted soluble bitumens from four of the
Shi 28 core samples and analyzed their biomarkers. Ex-
tracts used in biomarker studies were derived from
source rock extractions completed at Stanford Univer-
sity using a Soxhlet apparatus and a mixture of meth-
anol (66%) and toluene (34%).
Oils and source rock extracts were separated using
high-performance liquid chromatography as described
in Peters and Moldowan (1993). Saturate fractions

Hanson et al. 613

 Ph
20
22
24

Α 17 26

28

Pr
Intensity

β- and γ-carotane
Time direction
22

24
26
20 28
Ph
Β

18
Intensity

17
β- and γ-carotane

Pr

Figure 8. Part of the m/z 191 chromatogram for (A) oil sam-
Time direction ple 94HU266 and (B) source rock extract 96SI130. Note rela-
Figure 6. Flame ionization detector (FID)–GC for (A) oil sam- tively high concentrations of gammacerane and the well-pre-
ple 95GG49 and (B) source rock extract 96SI130 displaying very served higher homohopanes in both the oil and the source rock
low pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) ratios, even numbered dominance extract.
in the n-alkanes, and the presence of b-carotane and c-caro-
tane. Presence of b-carotane and c-carotane was also supported
with GC-MS data.
were spiked using a known quantity of 5b-cholane and
treated with a high Si/Al ZSM-5 zeolite (“silicalite”)
prep to remove normal alkanes. All saturate and aro-
C27ααα20R C29ααα20R
matic fractions were analyzed on a Hewlett-Packard
C28ααα20R 5890 Series II GC and Trio I VG Masslab GC-MS.
94HU266
Additionally, selected saturate fractions were analyzed
C29ααα20S
C28αββ20R
C27αββ20R

C29αββ20S
C29αββ20R
C28αββ20S

using an Autospec Q in an MRM-GC-MS setup. All of

C27αββ20S
C27ααα20S

these methods were completed in the Molecular Or-

C28ααα20S
Intensity

ganic Geochemistry lab at Stanford University.

C27diasteranes?
The geochemical similarity between the evaporite-
containing Oligocene mudstones of the lower Gan-
chaigou Formation and the saline lacustrine oils con-
firms the source-oil correlation. Specifically, the Pr/Ph
Time direction ratios for the core extracts are between 0.28 and 0.45
Figure 7. Part of the m/z 217 chromatogram for one of the (Figure 6B), there is a pronounced even-over-odd
Tertiary oils showing dominance of the 20R (biologic) epimers dominance in the n-alkanes (Figure 6B), small amounts
and nearly indistinguishable diasteranes, both indicative of very of b-carotane and c-carotane are present (Figure 6B),
low thermal maturity. gammacerane peaks are high relative to C30 hopane

614 Petroleum Systems of the Northern Qaidam Basin (China)


(5␣(H)androstane + 4β(H)-19-norisopimarane)
1.0
0.9
4β(H)-19-norisopimarane/
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1
[(C27 dia + reg steranes/10) + 4β(H)-19-norisopimarane]
Figure 9. Crossplot of the ratios of 4b(H)-19-norisopimarane/
(5␣(H)androstane Ⳮ 4b(H)-19-norisopimarane) and 4b(H)-
19-norisopimarane/[ (C27 dia- Ⳮ regular steranes/10) 4b(H)-
19-norisopimarane] for four Tertiary oils and four Tertiary
source rock extracts indicating low levels of diterpanes. The low
levels of diterpanes in the Tertiary source rocks and the hyper-
saline Tertiary oils indicate they had little terrestrial organic mat-
ter input. In contrast, similar ratios for Jurassic oils and source
rocks from Qaidam are high. The close association of the Ter-
tiary oils and the Tertiary source rock extracts provides addi-
tional support of the oil–source rock correlation.
(Figure 8B), and the gammacerane/(gammacerane Ⳮ
hopane) ratios are high, having values ranging between
0.44 and 0.46 (Table 4). Similar to the oils, we see well
preserved C34 and C35 homohopanes (Figure 8B) and
nearly absent diasteranes in the source rock extracts.
The C31 hopane 20S/(20S Ⳮ 20R) values are 0.51–
0.55 and the C29 sterane 20S/(20S Ⳮ 20R) ratios are
0.55–0.56, indicating similar maturity between the oils
and source rock samples. The dominant steranes in the
source rocks, as in the oils, are the C27 steranes (41–
49%).
The 24-norcholestane ratio for our source rock
samples ranges from 0.49 to 0.74. Although the use of
24-norcholestanes as an age indicative biomarker has
not been fully developed for source rocks in the way
that it has been for oils (Holba et al., 1998), we believe
the similar results between the oils and the source
rocks is further supporting evidence of the proposed
correlation.
Diterpane ratios for the source rock extracts are
similar to those reported in the previous section for the
hypersaline oils and provide additional evidence link-
ing the oils to the source rocks (Figure 9).
THERMAL MODELING
The thermal history of the Qaidam basin is poorly doc-
umented. Present-day heat flow is 25 mW/m2 within
ce
flu
en the basin. We modeled the thermal maturation of
in
nt
er
pla source rocks within the Shi 28 well using default values
igh
ingh for basement and radiogenic heat flow in the Genex
as
re
inc modeling software (IFP, 1991), because data needed
for calibration are lacking. Although this introduces
major uncertainty on our modeling, we feel that the
Jurassic source rocks
Jurassic oils resulting match with maturity parameters indicated by
Tertiary source rocks
Tertiary oils available data is correct to a first order. For the north-
ern part of the basin, lithologies, age, and stratigraphic
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
thickness are fairly well constrained. Thickness and li-
4β(H)-19-norisopimarane/
thology input data were derived from our measured
section of the Ganchaigou outcrop, which is a few ki-
lometers to the north of the Shi 28 well. Age con-
straints are based on Chinese paleontological data that
were provided to us by the Qinghai Petroleum Bureau
(C. Fan, 1995, personal communication). Heat flow
was kept constant throughout the Cenozoic in our
modeling. Source rock was modeled assuming type I
organic matter.
Results of the modeling suggest that the critical
moment for hydrocarbon generation was as recent as
2–3 Ma (Figure 10). Most of the source rock interval
is just within the earliest part of the oil window. These
results agree well with the low maturity indicated by
the biomarker data; however, the biomarker isomeri-
zation values seen in these oils indicate a very imma-
ture oil, and use of an Ro value of 0.6% may be incor-
rect for estimating the initiation of oil generation.
Zhang et al. (1989) also modeled hydrocarbon gener-
ation from the upper Ganchaigou Formation and re-
ported that the source rocks became mature between
11 and 24 Ma, which is significantly earlier than our
results indicate.
Prior to this study, available data suggested that
effective source rocks within the Tertiary of Qaidam
are restricted to pods in the northwest part of the basin
(e.g., Anonymous, 1990). Our data generally support
this stated subsurface distribution of source rocks. One
of the samples we analyzed (95LH206), however,
clearly belongs to the saline lacustrine genetic family,
but it was collected from the Lenghu area in the north-
east (Figure 1). The presence of this sample suggests
that additional heretofore unknown and undiscovered
source rocks deposited in a Cenozoic saline lacustrine
environment exist somewhere in the northeastern part
of the basin. This finding may expand the potential for
this hydrocarbon system in the basin.
Hanson et al. 615
Figure 10. Thermal modeling Oligocene Miocene Pliocene Formation
of the Ganchaigou section sug- U L U
names
gests the source rock interval 0.0

entered the oil maturity win-

dow approximately 2–3 Ma. 0.5
Shizigou
The change in burial rate begin-
ning in the Pliocene coincides 1.0
with widespread conglomeratic
facies during the Pliocene. 1.5
These features indicate active
deformation during the 2.0
upper
Youshashan
Pliocene.
Depth (km)

2.5

3.0
lower
Youshashan
Ro=0.6
3.5 upper
Ganchaigou

4.0 source rock

lower
Ganchaigou
4.5

Ro=1.0
5.0
28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0

Time (Ma)

RELATED ASPECTS OF OTHER
PETROLEUM SYSTEM ELEMENTS
Spectacular remote sensing images of Qaidam indicate
widespread development of northwest-southeast dou-
bly plunging anticlines throughout the basin (Bailey
and Anderson, 1982). These anticlines are fairly well
imaged on seismic lines that cross the basin (Figure 11).
Our data indicate a significant increase in sedi-
mentation and subsidence rates during the Pliocene
and Pleistocene (Figure 10), and we observed wide-
spread conglomeratic facies throughout northern Qai-
dam that are of upper Pliocene and Pleistocene age.
We believe these attributes indicate active deformation
during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. Additional evi-
dence of this deformation is growth features (updip
stratal convergence on anticlines) seen on seismic data
that indicate that folding was actively occurring during
the Pliocene and Pleistocene (Bally et al., 1986). The
low thermal maturity of the source rocks and modeling
results indicate that structural traps would have been
in place prior to expulsion of hydrocarbons from the
source rocks (Figure 10).
Currently, producing reservoirs consist of sand-
stones deposited by meandering and braided fluvial
systems, alluvial fan deposits, and fractured siltstones,
shales, and carbonates (Ulmishek, 1984). These res-
ervoirs range in age from Oligocene to Pliocene. Pet-
rographic studies of Tertiary sandstones in Qaidam
(Hanson, 1999) indicate that sands are rich in meta-
morphic lithic grains in contrast to other northwest
China basins where reservoir quality is diminished be-
cause of significant volcanic lithic grains (Graham et
al., 1993).
Lacustrine mudstones, overpressured zones (Paul,
1993; Chen, 1988), and extensive middle Pliocene
evaporite deposits (Bally et al., 1986) provide seals for
the petroleum system. The Oligocene–Pliocene ages of
the seals indicate that seals were in place prior to hy-
drocarbon generation and expulsion.
CONCLUSIONS
Eight oils from northwestern Qaidam and one oil from
northeastern Qaidam are from the same genetic family.
These oils contain b-carotane and c-carotane and high
relative concentrations of gammacerane, indicating
derivation from a source rock deposited in a hyper-
saline lacustrine depositional environment. Exception-

616 Petroleum Systems of the Northern Qaidam Basin (China)

 ally low Pr/Ph ratios, well-preserved homohopanes,

Figure 11. Line drawing of seismic data from a northeast-southwest seismic line that shows well-developed anticlines. Approximate location of the seismic line is indicated in
0 sec.

5 sec.
TWTT
and palynological analyses indicate that lake bottoms

NE
where source rocks accumulated were anoxic. Bio-
marker maturity parameters indicate low levels of ther-
mal maturation, suggesting that the oils were generated
at very low thermal maturity. Age diagnostic bio-
markers indicate that the oils are derived from an
Oligocene or younger source rock. The oil from north-
eastern Qaidam, which has biomarker characteristics
indicative of derivation from a Tertiary hypersaline la-
custrine source rock, points toward the presence of an
undiscovered source rock in this part of the basin.
Oligocene mudstones within the lower Ganchai-
gou Formation have been suggested as the source rock
?

for these hypersaline lacustrine oils. Although outcrop

samples are too organic lean to be potential source
?

rocks, laminated dark mudstones of the lower Gan-

chaigou Formation obtained from the Shi 28 well,
which is farther from the basin margin, yield TOC and
Rock-Eval analytical results indicating that they con-
tain fair to good amounts of type I and type II organic
matter. These mudstones contain euhedral evaporite
crystals, indicating elevated salinity in the lake setting
where they grew. Biomarker analyses of extracts from
these core samples show that they are a good match
50 km

with the hypersaline oils in this study. Specifically, un-

commonly low Pr/Ph ratios, high relative concentra-
tions of gammacerane, well-preserved homohopanes,
even-over-odd dominance in the n-alkanes, presence of
b-carotane and c-carotane, dominance of the C27 ster-
anes, and very low amounts of diasteranes are common
to both the oils and the extracts.
Thermal modeling, although poorly constrained,
indicates that Oligocene mudstones from the lower
base middle Pliocene
base upper Pliocene

base lower Pliocene

base Quaternary

Ganchaigou Formation would have begun expelling

base Oligocene
base Miocene

base Tertiary

liquid hydrocarbons in the past few million years. This

finding agrees with the indicated low maturity levels of
the oils. Because structural traps developed earlier in
the Miocene–Pliocene and because adequate seals oc-
cur stratigraphically above the source rock interval,
conditions are favorable for the accumulation of pro-
ducible hydrocarbons.
the inset in Figure 1.

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